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Biology ECA Review
Miss Southwood’s Biology Class
● All living things are made of organic compounds
● All contain Carbon
● Bonds with:● Hydrogen● Oxygen● Phosphorus● Sulfur● Nitrogen
These 6 are the molecules of life
Organic Compounds
Macromolecules
● Carbohydrates
● Lipids
● Nucleic Acids
● Protein
● Carbohydrates (CHO)
o Monomers: monosaccharaides
glucose, galactose, fructose
o Polymers: polysaccharides (ex: disaccharides)
starch, glycogen, cellulose
● Function:
o Energy
o Structure
Macromolecules
● Lipids (CHON)
o Monomers: Fatty Acids
o Polymers: Triglycerides
● Function:
o Energy
o Structure
Macromolecules
● Nucleic Acids (CHONP)
o Monomers: nucleotide
o Polymers: DNA, RNA
● Function:
o Instructions (blueprints)
Macromolecules
● Proteins (CHONS)
o Monomers: amino acids
o Polymers: peptides
● Function:
o building and repairing cells
o communication
o regulating
o transporting
Macromolecules
● Catalyst in living things
● Specific to particular substrates
● Reusable
● Affected by temperature and pH
Enzymes
● Prokaryotes
o simple, no membrane bound organelles
o Bacteria only
o One circular chromosome
o Includes: chromosome, ribosome, plasma membrane
● Eukaryotes
o Membrane bound organelles
o Plants and animals
o True nucleus containing chromosomes
Cells
● Nucleus
o “Control Center”
o Contains chromosomes
Cells
● Mitochondria
o Power house of the cell
o Produces energy in the form of ATP
o Site of aerobic respiration
Cells
● Ribosomes
o Proteins are synthesized
o Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Cells
● Chloroplast
o Site of photosynthesis
o Plant cells ONLY
o Contains the pigment chlorophyll (green)
Cells
● Vacuole
o Storage of excess material
o Plant cells normally contain one large vacuole
Cells
● Plasma Membrane
o Surrounds the cell
o Regulates what enters/leaves the cell
o Helps maintain homeostasis
o Made of phospholipids and embedded proteins
Cells
● Cell Wall
o Found ONLY in plants
o Surrounds cell
o Provides support and structure
o Made of cellulose
Cells
•Cell Organization
Cells
● Cell Specialization
o Cells develop to perform different functions
o Regulated by genes
Cells
● Cell to Cell Communication
o Chemical signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another
o Receptor proteins on the membrane receive the signal
Cells
● Diffusion
o Passive transport (no energy needed) across the membrane
o Move from high concentration to low concentration
Cells
● Osmosis
o Diffusion of water
o Passive transport
Cells
● Active Transport
o Particles moving past the concentration gradient
o Requires ENERGY (ATP)
o Low concentration to high concentration
Cells
● ATP (adenosine triphosphate)o Energy storing moleculeo Can be used for quick
energy by the cello Energy is stored in the
phosphate bonds
Cells
● Water and carbon dioxide are used to produce glucose and oxygen● 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2● Occurs in chloroplast
Photosynthesis
● Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use
● glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide (+ energy)
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP
● Occurs in mitochondria
Aerobic Respiration
● Does not require oxygen● Used to release energy
o Not as efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP)● Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol● Two types:
Alcohol Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation
Anaerobic Respiration
● Carries genetic information● Made of a chain of nucleotides● Nucleotides contain:
o Sugar● DNA: Deoxyribose● RNA: Ribose
o Phosphateo Nitrogen base
DNA / RNA
● DNAo Double strand (double helix)o Four base pairs: ATGCo Found in nucleus
● RNAo Single strando Four base pairs: AUGC
DNA / RNA
● Base Pairing Ruleo DNA
● A ←→ T● G ←→ C
o RNA● A ←→ U● G ←→ C
DNA / RNA
● Replicationo Making an identical
strand of DNAo DNA helicase “unzips”
and unwindso DNA polymerase adds
complementary bases
DNA / RNA
● Central Dogmao DNA → RNA → Protein → Trait
DNA / RNA
● Transcriptiono DNA mRNAo Occurs in nucleuso Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a DNA segment
DNA / RNA
● Translationo Connects amino acids
to create proteinso Occurs in the
cytoplasm within the ribosomes
DNA / RNA
● Codonso Sequence of three mRNA baseso Code for an amino acido 64 amino acids
● 4x4x4=64
DNA / RNA
● Mutationso Change in the DNA codeo May cause a different protein to be producedo Types:
Frame shift (bases added or deleted) Substitution (Bases is changed)
● Silent: does not change the amino acid
DNA / RNA
• Cell division
• Produces two identical daughter cells (diploid)
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
Mitosis
• Error in cell growth that causes uncontrollable cell growth
• Can be caused by genetics and environment
Cancer
• Cell division
• Produces 4 different haploid daughter cells
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
Meiosis
• Crossing over
• Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
Meiosis
• Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
• Can lead to disorders such as: Down Syndrome, Turners and Klinefelters Syndrome
Nondisjunction
Asexual Reproduction
• One parent
• Identical offspring
• Variation only through mutations
• Examples: budding, fragmentation, fission
Asexual VS Sexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents
• Offspring different from parents
• More variation
• Fertilization (fusion of gametes
• Traits are specific characteristics that are inherited from their parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• Different forms of a gene are called alleles
Inheritance
• Dominant alleles will be expressed when present
• Recessive allele will only be expressed if paired with another recessive allele
Dominant and Recessive
• Actual alleles an individual has for a trait
• Homozygous: Same alleles
• Homozygous Dominant: two dominant alleles (BB)
• Homozygous Recessive: two recessive alleles (bb)
• Heterozygous: Two different alleles (Bb)
Genotype
• The actual characteristic displayed by the individual
• Example: eye color, hair color, dimples, etc.
Phenotype
• A heterozygous shows a “blending” of a dominant and recessive
• Dominant is not fully expressed
Incomplete Dominance
• When a gene has more than one dominant allele
• Both dominant alleles are expressed
Codominance
• Traits that are influenced by more than one gene
• Example: Height, skin color
Polygenic Traits
• When there are more than two alleles for a trait
• Example:
Multiple Alleles
• Sex Chromosomes
• Male: XY
• Female: XX
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Examples: Hemophilia and colorblindness
Sex-linked Traits
• Punnett Square
• Used to determine the probable outcome of the offspring
• Test Cross
• Used to determine the phenotype of an unknown dominant individual
• Uses a homozygous individual as a “test”
Test Cross
• Similar to a family tree
• Shows the pattern of inheritance of a specific trait through a family
Pedigrees
• Picture of someone’s chromosomes
• Can detect chromosomal disorders
Karyotypes
• Sequencing of human DNA
• Used to help develop gene therapies
Human Genome Project
• Theory of Evolution
• Fit organisms survive and reproduce to pass on traits
• Requirements:
• Competition
• Variation
Natural Selection
• Traits that increase survival
• Examples: Beaks that make eating insects easier, bright flowers that attract pollinators
Adaptation
• Fossil Record
• Biochemical Similarities
• Shared anatomical structures
Evidence of Evolution
• Evolution of a new species
• Must be isolations between species
Speciation
• Two organisms evolve in response to each other
• Example:
• Flowering plants and their pollinators
Coevolution
• Convergent Evolution
• When two species evolve to have similar traits
• Bats and butterflies
• Divergent Evolution
• When two similar organisms evolve separately from each other
• Finches (beaks)
Convergent and Divergent
• Two word naming system
• Scientific name
• Genus species written in italicize
• Genus = first letter Capitalized
• Species = all lowercase
Binomial Nomenclature
• Example: Dog
• Canis familiaris
• Used to identify organisms
• Paired set of questions with two choices
Dichotomous Key
• Domain• Kingdom• Phylum• Class• Order• Family• Genus• Specie
Levels of Classification
Phylogenetic Tree