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Regional framework

The Bradshaw rock art system is regionally developed in northern Kimberley, Northwestern Australia (Fig. 1), representing an area approxi-mately the size of Denmark. This region is char-acterised by rugged sandstone and basalt ter-rain. The few roads that exist are only acces-sible during the short dry season (c. medio June-October). Sandstone escarpments with reliefs of c. 150-250 m, flank major river sys-tems. Field work in this isolated area is a far from simple exercise (see Michaelsen and Ebersole, 2000A, 2000B). The vast majority of Bradshaw panels are concentrated around seven major river systems. So far, our work has concentrated around four river systems, with the main thrust on Drysdale River National Park (Fig. 1). Bradshaw paintings are associated with the King Leopold Sandstone (KLS), a c. 1.8 billion-year old, regionally developed, quartz-rich sandstone formation. KLS is characterised by a mega-scale, sheet-like architecture, domi-nated internally by well-developed, trough cross bedding. Bedding thickness, associated with

Bradshaw panels, varies from medium to very thick (0.20-1.65 m) with an average of 0.72 m. Sandstone units associated with painted sur-faces are generally very well sorted, and fine (upper) to medium (lower) grained (c. 0.25 mm).

The majority of Bradshaws are painted on exposed, near-vertical sandstone outcrops, overhangs, or in small rock shelters. Spatial data show that directions of panel surfaces are scattered in all directions. Nevertheless, we noted that most documented panels are located in the shade throughout the day. Our data suggest that great care was used by the Bradshaw master painters to find perfect loca-tions for their extraordinary art work. A large proportion of Bradshaws have under-gone by a high degree of weathering, and often, only fragments of the original painting can be distinguished. New research suggest that the nature of the paint might have a profound influ-ence on Bradshaw preservation (Biro et al., in press).

Per Michaelsen and Tasja W. Ebersole

The Bradshaw rock art system, NW AustraliaA window into material culture, social and belief systems of hunter-gatherers in Kimberley during the last Ice Age

The Bradshaw rock art system comprises a unique, complex, and highly sophisticated form of Ice Age art, the work of remarkably talented and well-practised artisans. Artistically, Bradshaws are unusually advanced both in technique and breadth of style, clearly deserving a prominent position in global art history. The rock art system is regionally developed in the northern Kimberley, Northwestern Australia, an isolated, rugged, and timeless wilderness. Bradshaw art depicts human-like, predominantly genderless figures, which are characterised by extensive head-dresses and elaborate body ornamentation. The Bradshaw paintings may represent the world’s largest concentration of Upper Paleolithic rock art. An estimated 100,000 rock art sites are concentrated around seven major river systems, representing an explosion of artistic creativity. A late phase Bradshaw painting has been dated to be a minimum of 17,500 years ±1,800 years (last glacial maximum). More importantly, a detailed study of this elegant rock art form has the potential of gaining unprecedented insight into the material culture, belief and social systems of Ice Age hunter-gatherer

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Bradshaw characteristics

The Bradshaw rock art system is named after the pastoralist, Joseph Bradshaw, who first documented the ancient art in 1891. As such, the term Bradshaws is inappropriate, however, it is entrenched in the literature (e.g. Walsh, 1994; Flood, 1995; Welch, 1996; Walsh and Morwood, 1999; Mulvaney and Kamminga, 1999). Nonetheless, it is difficult to find an alter-native name. The Bradshaw rock art system is spread over an area belonging to several Aboriginal nations, each of which use a different name for the paintings.Bradshaw paintings depict human-like figures, characterised by extensive head-dresses and elaborate body ornamentation. This ancient art represents the largest concentration of Upper Paleolithic rock art in the world. An estimated 100,000 panels exist in the northern part of Kimberley. Only a minor fraction of them have been documented (c. 1-2%), mainly by Graham Walsh and David Welsh.

The Bradshaw rock art system is comprises a complex variety of styles. Walsh (1997) esti-mates there may be as many as 20-25 different types of Bradshaws. However, four distinct Bradshaw associations (Figs. 2-5) of regional significance seem evident (modified from Welsh, 1996; Walsh, 1997):

Tasselled Figures (oldest) Sash Figures Elegant Action Figures Polychrome Clothes Peg Figures (youngest)

Characteristics of Bradshaw associations are summarised in Table 1. Common for all four associations are their unusually advanced painting techniques, which mirror remarkably talented and well-practised artisans (Figs. 2-5). In fact, the rich and sophisticated painting tradi-tion has continued to the present day in the Kimberley (Michaelsen and Ebersole, 2000B). Tasselled Figures (Fig. 2) appeared abruptly in Kimberley, with no evidence of development. A similar pattern is evident in Franco-Hispanic Ice Age rock art, and might represent a global emergence of artistic creativity during Upper Paleolithic times. The rock art record in Kimber-ley shows a transitional development from Sash to Elegant Action Figures (Figs. 3-4) However, the abrupt stylistic change from Elegant Action to Polychrome Clothes Peg Figures (Figs. 4-5) may reflect punctuated periods of occupation and artistic expression in the Kimberley. This may in turn be attributed to radical climatic changes during the last glacial-interglacial cycle. Bradshaw paintings are generally quite small, typically 0.1-0.7 m tall and 0.04-0.22 m wide.

Figure 1. Regional dis-tribution of early phase Bradshaws (modified from G.L. Walsh and M.J. Morwood, 1999).

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However, some Tasselled Figures are up to 1.35 m tall and 0.49 m wide. Sandstone bedding (0.20-1.65 m) generally restricts the paintable surfaces, the exception being horizontal. The dip of painted surfaces are typically 60-85°, with a small proportion painted on near-horizontal plains (i.e. roof of rock- and occupa-tional shelters). A large majority of Bradshaw panels, even the best ones, are painted on somewhat curved surfaces, typically with a dip variation of 5-15°.

Bradshaws are painted in red hues, white and yellow (Table 1). The principal dark-red colour appears to be derived from an iron-oxide mate-rial, possibly from fine clay, which has been found in close proximity to Bradshaw panels. Some large-scale Tasselled Figures have clearly been retouched. This implies that the paintings were well understood and perused over gen-erations (Michaelsen et al., in press).

Table 1. Generalised summary of the four Bradshaw association characteristics. Note that some uncertainty exists regarding boomerangs, as they could represent 1) hunting weapons and/or 2) ceremonial tools or symbols (e.g. portraying rainbows).

Figure 2. Panel of typical Tasselled Figures showing headdresses or hats pointing in all directions. This sug-gest dynamic movement, which is probably related to ecstatic dancing or a shamanistic vision quest (the figure to the right is 117 x 45.5 cm).

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Extensive fieldwork revealed numerous exam-ples of rock art vandalism. Some Bradshaw paintings are scratched by stones, others are stained by stone throws, and yet others have been broken by large rocks (Fig. 6). Superposi-tion of rock art images is another form of van-dalism (Fig. 7). This is common throughout the Kimberley. Significantly, image superposition provides an important tool in rock art classifica-tion.

Age aspects

Dating rock art is a far from simple exercise. In fact, it is notoriously difficult (e.g. the Jinmium controversy; see Roberts, 1997). Two different techniques have been used to date the Brad-shaw rock art system. Mud wasp nests are abundant in the Kimberley with many covering the Bradshaw paintings. Single quartz grains embedded in one such nest was dated by Rob-erts et al. (1997) using the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) method; and was found to be a minimum of 17,500 ± 1.800 years old. Watchman et al. (1997) have published more

recent dates of 3,900 and 1,450 years BP using the accelerator mass spectometry (AMS) 14C method. The strongly diachronous dates might mirror problems with these dating techniques. Alternatively, the vast time span represented by the dates may genuinely reflect a long-lived rock art tradition which has persisted in the Kimberley for hundreds of generations. The numerous Bradshaw paintings, coupled with the four distinctly different painting styles, and the evidence of art work restorations, might support this theory.

Despite the OSL and AMS radiocarbon dates, Bradshaws could in reality be much older, per-haps older than the classical cave paintings in southern Europe. The OSL date coincides with the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 21,000 -15,000 years ago. This was a very dry period on the Australian continent, as the frequency of tropical cyclones and rain depressions were reduced. Inland aridity was so intense that lakes as far south as Tasmania dried up, and the desert expanded, replacing forested areas (Mulvaney and Kamminga, 1999). The Kimber-

Figure 3. Sash Figures with very large headdresses, boomerangs, and a projection extending from the head of the left figure.

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Figure 4. Elegant Action Figures in a typical hunting scene. Note the lack of body ornamentations.

Figure 6. An example of a vandal-ised Tasselled Bradshaw. The entire h e ad o f th e f igure h a s b e e n smashed, probably by a rock.

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Figure 7. Superimposition of rock art images is common throughout the Kimberley, and provides an important tool in rock art classification and in determining chronology of styles.

Figure 5. Polychrome Clothes Peg Figure with elaborate headdress and boomerangs, multi-barbed spear and spear-thrower (woomera).

ley was characterised by grassland, steppe, and shrub lands. Significantly, the LGM shoreline in Kimberley was up to 300 km from the present shoreline, hence, a sig-nificant numbers of Bradshaw galleries may be sub-merged (Michaelsen 1999). The four Bradshaw styles appear homogeneous on a regional scale. It is inter-preted here to reflect the work of a small, highly mobile, population of hunter-gatherers which migrated along the seven major river systems of northern Kimberley.

A window into the Weichsel Ice Age

The large majority of human-like Bradshaw figures are genderless (Fig. 8). Detailed documentation of hundreds of individual Bradshaw figures has revealed only two figures that depict gender (i.e. both females). Indeed, Bradshaws are in stark contrast to most other rock art systems, which are dominated by male figures. The genderless nature of Bradshaws can be interpreted as representing a hunter-gatherer society, in which males and females were somewhat equal.

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Depictions of weapons increase dramatically from early to late phase Bradshaws. This may indicate a general depletion of food resources in the Kimberley, and hence hunting becoming increasingly important for human survival. Again, this may reflect significant climatic changes (e.g. decreased precipitation) during the last glacial-interglacial cycle.

Welch (1996) and Mulvaney and Kamminga (1999) argue that considering the elaborate adornments worn by the Tasselled and Sash Figures, it seems probable that the figures are engaged in dance and ceremonies. More recent work by Ebersole and Michaelsen (2000) suggests that some Bradshaw motifs may rep-resent shamans and shamanistic rituals. Indeed, ethnographic studies support this theory, as shamanistic belief systems were well developed throughout Australia, including the Kimberley (e.g. Sales, 1992; Lommel, 1967). Surely, Bradshaws show that spirituality played an important role in the lives of hunter-gatherer

tribes in the Kimberley during the last Ice Age. The worldwide pattern of shamanism (e.g. Smith 1985, 1994) implies an ancient and common heritage. Its possible representation in Bradshaw paintings suggests an early spread of these human behavioural patterns. Bradshaw figures may depict something other than shamanism, but for at least some of the scenes, shamanism seems the most plausible explanation (Michaelsen et al., 2000).

Conclusions

Bradshaws represent a highly advanced form of rock art, which makes them significant on a global scale. Combined with the extraordinary high number of galleries, the Bradshaws clearly deserve a prominent position in global art his-tory. Changes in the rock art record might reflect dramatic environmental changes during the last glacial-interglacial cycle; as such, the magnificent Bradshaw rock art system provides a window into the last Ice Age. Our detailed

Figure 8. University of Copenhagen researcher Ingvar Bundgaard Jensen examines a panel of early Tassel Figures.

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study of this elegant rock art form has the potential of gaining unprecedented insight into the material culture, belief and social systems of hunter-gatherer tribes in the Kimberley. Indeed, it is of great importance to protect the Bradshaw rock art system for future genera-tions, as it represents a priceless cultural heri-tage.

Dr Per MichaelsenSchool of Earth SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, Queensland 4811AustraliaPer.Michaelsen@jcu.edu.au

Stud. scient. Tasja W. EbersoleSchool of Biological SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, Queensland 4811AustraliaTasja.Ebersole@jcu.edu.au

Further information available on: http://www.bradshaw.dk

References:

Biro, P.P., Ebersole, T.W., Felder, M., Jensen, I.B., Michaelsen, P., Smith, N.W. and Von Liptak, T., (in press): Preliminary investigation into aspects of preservation potential of the Bradshaw rock art system, Kimberley, NW Aus-tralia. Antiquity.Ebersole, T.W. and Michaelsen, P., 2000: Arkæologer finder bevis for åndemaning i isti-den: Illustreret Videnskab, May, p. 18.Lommel, A.,1967: Shamanism: The beginnings of art. M. Bullock. trans. New York: McGraw-Hill. Michaelsen, P. and Ebersole, T.W., 2000A: De mystiske Bradshaw hulemalerier i Kimberley. Scandinavian Australian New Zealand Friend-ship Association, NEWSletter, 4, p. 6-7. Michaelsen, P. and Ebersole, T.W., 2000B: Getting to the art of the matter. Townsville Bul-letin, October 28, p. 48-49.Michaelsen, P., Smith, N.W., Ebersole, T. W and Biro, P.P., 2000: Australian Ice Age rock

art may depict Earth’s oldest recordings of sha-manistic rituals. Mankind Quarterly, Vol 41 (2), p. 131-145.Michaelsen, P., 1999: De mystiske Bradshaw hulemalerier. Naturens Verden, 82 (7), p. 2-13.Michaelsen, P. and Arvedlund, M., 1999: Hulemaleriernes hemmelighed, Berlingske Tidende, Univers, April 6, p. 10-11.Mulvaney, J. and Kamminga, J., 1999: Prehis-tory of Australia. Allen & Unwin, 480 pp.Roberts, R., Walsh, G.L., Murray, A., Olley, R., Jones, R. Morwood, M.J., Tuniz, C., Law-son, E., Macphail, M., Bowdery, D., & Nau-man, I., 1997: Luminescence dating of rock art and past environments using mud-wasp nests in northern Australia. Nature 387, p. 173-176. Roberts, R.G., 1997: Luminescence dating in archeology: from origins to optical. Radiation Measurements, 27 (5/6), p. 819-892.Sales, K., 1992: Ascent to the sky: a shamanic initiatory engraving from the Burrup Peninsula, northwest Western Australia. Archeology of Oceania, 27, p. 22-35.Smith, N.W., 1985: Beliefs and psychological concepts of hunter-gatherers. Mankind Quar-terly 25, p. 195-225. Smith, N.W., 1992: An analysis of ice age art: Its psychology and belief system. American University Studies, “Series XX”, Fine Arts 15. New York: Peter Lang. Walsh, G.L., 1997: Ancient rock art of the Kim-berley. Kimberley Society, Occasional Paper, 1, p. 25-38.Walsh, G.L. and Morwood, M.J., 1999: Spear and spearthrower evolution in the Kimberley region NW Australia: evidence from rock art. Archeology of Oceania, 34, p. 45-58.Watchman, A.L., Walsh, G.L., Morwood, M.J. and Tuniz, C., 1997: AMS radiocarbon age estimates for early rock paintings in the Kimber-ley, NW Australia: preliminary results. Rock Art Research 14 (1), p. 18-26.Welch, D.M., 1996: Material culture in Kimberly rock art, Australia. Rock Art Research 13 (2), p. 104-123.