British Forum for Ethnomusicology

British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Contemporary Recital Solos for the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle erhuAuthor(s): Jonathan StockSource: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 1 (1992), pp. 55-88Published by: British Forum for EthnomusicologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060727Accessed: 01/10/2009 12:42

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BRIISH JOURNAL OF EHNOMUSICOLOGY

Contemporary recital solos for the

Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu

Jonathan Stock

Music for the Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu falls into several major categories: traditional ensemble music, ballad and opera accompaniments and newly written pieces by conservatory-trained composers for modernized forms of traditional Chinese instruments. This essay focuses on the third category, examining the growth of a large repertory of solos for the erhu over the past seventy years. It takes account of political and social change within China, the impact of Western music and the continuing influence of traditional styles of Chinese music.

1 Introduction This paper considers the solo recital repertory of the Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu, a musical corpus which now has a history of approximately seventy years.1 This repertory is eclectic, comprising folk music arrangements and adaptations, composed solos by a large number of Chinese composers and erhu players and even a few pieces by foreign composers.2 In recent years a number of Western pieces and film themes have also been arranged for erhu. The music of this relatively recent recital repertory contrasts with the more traditional repertories of the instrument in the accompaniment of regional opera, in recreational amateur ensemble music and in street comer begging, although it has adopted much musical material from each of these sources. Although confined to an examination of solos for the erhu, much of what shall be described below

1 The provision by the British Council-China State Education Commission of a one-year scholarship for research on this subject between September 1989 and July 1990 at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music is gratefully acknowledged. 2 Foreign pieces include the early solos with orchestral accompaniment Nocturne and Concubine's Song by Aaron Avshalomov (1894-1965) (DLH-11 n.d.), the Double Concerto for Di and Erhu by Sir John Manduell (Linfair 61015 1987), Jarrad Powell's Gending Erhu for erhu with gamelan accompaniment (Powell 1987) and Hattori Koh-ichi's Concerto (Hong Kong 1988:13). Although some of these pieces have been recorded, foreign-written works remain peripheral to the solo repertory of the erhu.

55

1992 VOL. 1

56 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 1 (1992)

is paralleled in similar music for other Chinese traditional instruments, such as the four-stringed, pear-shaped lute pipa or the bamboo flute dizi.

The erhu is a vertically-played spike-fiddle with a history in China of perhaps a thousand years. The hexagonal snakeskin-faced sound-box rests on the left thigh during seated performance,3 the left-hand fingers stop the strings as re- quired and the right hand operates the bow. The bow hair is fed between the strings, and the right fingertips are used to push it against one string or the other. (Performance of both strings at once is rare.) There is no fingerboard and so pizzicato, having little resonance, is rarely used. The strings are generally tuned a fifth apart, most often to d' and a', which allows an effective range of two and a half octaves, up to a"'.

In the main, the contemporary solo recital repertory of the erhu has been written by conservatory-trained performer-composers. During the following discussion of the works of these musicians, I will examine three factors influ- encing their musical choices: political movements within China; their training in and knowledge of Western music; and their understanding of traditional forms of music-making in China. The resulting solo repertory will be shown to be just as sensitive to the various contexts in which it is encapsulated as is any unwritten musical genre. These contexts will first be briefly discussed; then the music itself will be considered. The latter account has for convenience of handling been divided into a number of chronological periods. However, stylistic change has been gradual throughout the last seventy years and did not occur abruptly at the bounds of each period.4

The majority of solos examined in this article are for unaccompanied erhu, but solos with dulcimer yangqin accompaniment are also common. The practice of using a piano to support the erhu dates back to the 1930s but remains contentious, some musicians objecting to the combination of Chinese and Wes- tern instruments.5 A small number of pieces are played with orchestral accompaniment. Erhu players have felt free to add their own accompaniments to music originally intended for unaccompanied erhu and have also arranged and modi- fied earlier compositions; many popular pieces therefore now exist in a number of versions.

3 Standing performances are rare, since the left hand must then hold up the instrument as well as stop the strings. Although the body of the instrument may be attached to the player's coat with a cord, left-hand mobility is decreased. Pieces intended to be performed standing, such as the traditional processional piece Xing Jie, employ a narrow range that obviates the need to change left hand position. 4 Further information on composition and music-making in modem China may be gleaned from Jiang Jing's (1991) rather vacuous account of the influence of traditional Chinese music on "professional instrumental composition" and from Mao Yurun's (1991) unbalanced but interesting account of music under Mao. 5 Wu Zhimin (pers. comm. 15/vi/90) cites Wu Bochao as the first composer to write erhu solos with piano accompaniment (see also Miao et al. 1985:409).

Stock: Contemporary recital solosfor the erhu

2 Contexts shaping the creation of erhu solos in modern China These contexts are musical, cultural and physical. The former includes the traditional styles in which the erhu has been and is employed; other forms of Chinese music known to erhu players; and the education of these musicians in music theory and practice, whether Western or Chinese. The cultural context of erhu performance includes aspects such as: the organisation and employment of musicians; social movements in which musicians figure; and the expectations of audiences, performers, composers and the politicians and bureaucrats who control recitals and recording in China. The latter two media, plus publishing and music education, are the primary means through which the repertory is propagated. The physical context of erhu-playing is a critical one, since the construction of the instrument as well as the shape and capabilities of the human body have a marked influence on music for erhu, as indeed for any instrument (see, for example, Baily 1977).

Throughout its thousand-year history in China, the erhu has fulfilled a number of musical roles.6 The most prominent of these have been, as mentioned above, as a tool in the hands of the typical beggar, as a member of various heterophonic instrumental ensemble genres such as Jiangnan sizhu, and as an accompaniment instrument in many forms of Chinese regional drama. Examples of the repertory of a street musician have been analysed elsewhere (Stock 1993b). In general, while these players may sometimes have constructed relatively complex improvisations, it is likely that much of their repertory would have consisted of instrumental renditions of local folksongs, opera, ballad singing or instrumental music.

Heterophonic instrumental ensemble music in many parts of China has also employed the erhu. In such ensembles, the erhu player was expected to be able to produce an idiomatic version suitable to his instrument of whichever folk composition the group decided to play. Musicians needed, therefore, to be able to transpose notes that lay beyond the reach of their hand or the range of their strings into their reach and to be able to improvise appropriate ornamentation in performance. This music was normally recreational, played by a small group for their own pleasure, although it may also have been performed at weddings and funerals. Witzleben (1987) gives an overview of contemporary practice in one such regional ensemble.

The use of the fiddle in Chinese opera dates back at least two hundred years. At one time, opera styles in which the melodic accompaniment instrumental group was led by a bamboo flute or plucked instrument were more numerous, but now the fiddle is the most common leading instrument. Many different forms of fiddle are employed, such as the small, high-pitched jinghu in Beijing opera and the wooden-faced resonator banhu in many northern bangziqiang opera styles. Operatic fiddle players, if leading the accompaniment ensemble,

6 The development of the instrument itself and its use in Chinese antiquity is discussed in Stock (1991, 1993a). See also Picken 1965, Zhong 1989.

57


had not only to follow the melodic lines of the singers but also to create introductions and interludes during performance.

Those who have composed recital solos for the erhu have been aware of all this music and have often been accomplished performers in one or more of these styles. They have thus brought their experience of traditional styles of erhu music into their solo pieces. These musicians have generally been well-educated, often trained in music conservatories and employed there or in professional music ensembles. Although traditional music is studied in Chinese conservatories, the influence of Western classical music and associated educational methods is dominant. The majority of conservatory-trained erhu players and composers from the 1930s onwards have thus been familiar with compositional techniques of Western music (such as functional harmony and counterpoint), use notation and possess a large technical vocabulary of musical terms, many of which are translations of Western concepts.

Conservatories provide the training ground for professional performers of erhu solos, many of whom graduate to work in state-run ensembles or possibly in a conservatory themselves. Conservatories also train and employ a number of professional composers and provide the facilities in which the performance of erhu solos can take place, both informally in pupils' lessons and formally in recitals. Solos may also be heard outside the conservatories; for example, the Shanghai National Orchestra employs the soloist Min Huifen to perform a number of solo items in many of their public concerts. Broadcasting companies may also arrange concerts at which these solos are performed, and recording companies issue a considerable number of recordings of this kind of music.

The activities of all these bodies are overseen by Government (Communist Party) officials, whose responsibilities include ensuring that the correct political line is maintained in all art works. The influence of Government officials on the creation and transmission of erhu music is, and has been, pronounced. The guiding policy since Mao's Yan'an Talks of 1942 (implemented gradually as the Communists increased their influence and power across the mainland) have been those of Socialist Realism and of "art serving politics". Socialist Realism, which is derived from a long tradition of both Western and Chinese philosophy,7 in China has been an imprecise, often reinterpreted ideology in which art is called upon to give a positive reflection of life, especially the lives of the "workers, peasants and soldiers". Through the portrayal of an idolized, positive hero's triumph over adversity (a Romantic ideal) the audience experiences entertain- ment, education and social encouragement. Proletarian culture is seen as being the ultimate step in an evolutionary chain preceded by bourgeois and feudal art. This has led to a style of Chinese music which is Nationalist in character using elements of Romantic harmony and form, Russian orchestration and, occasionally, Impressionism as well as indigenous features such as folksong themes. This

7 See, for example, the writings of Plato and Confucius on the place of art, especially music, in society. A general article concerned with this subject is Perris (1983) while Kraus (1983) provides a valuably contrasting perspective.


style is controlled by the prevailing interpretation of cultural policy and, sup- posedly, refreshed by continual interchange with the people. The policy of Socialist Realism has been applied without break in modem China, although there have been periods of fluctuating stringency, the tightest being the Cultural Revolution when only a handful of major works were permitted to be broadcast or performed.

As far as the erhu is concerned, its status as a folk instrument has generally been advantageous, although at times politicians have become suspicious of those who spend much of their working lives recreating pre-Communist art forms, such as traditional music. As a result, many recently composed works have Socialist titles and/or programmes: concepts such as bumper harvests, the "liberation" of Taiwan and the sorrows of pre-Communist society are well repre- sented in the erhu repertory. Socialist themes have also often been appended to works completed before 1949. Some of these themes are created by the attach- ment of an appropriate title or printed programme notes, while others are suggested in the music itself by quotation from revolutionary songs or folk tunes with which the audience is assumed to be familiar and can thus make the desired associations. Whatever the form of programme, compositions must be passed by a Party Committee before their performance is permitted (Mao 1991:122).

The melodic style of these solos is shaped by erhu players' performance techniques and conception of music. To give one example, on the erhu there are different left-hand fingering patterns for music written in different modes. The use of cipher notation (in which "1" represents "do", "2" is "re" etc. in whatever mode is specified) as the principal form of musical notation in erhu music over the last fifty years has caused an association between this notation and modal fingering patterns. Looking at a score written in relative cipher notation, players have a good idea of which fingers to use for each note as well as of the sound of the melody itself. They thus prefer using cipher notation to staff notation, since the latter emphasizes absolute pitch and is less suggestive of traditional fingering patterns. Traditional erhu ornamentation is also based very much on these fingering patterns and on possible changes of hand position, which may occur frequently since the left hand can only cover a range of about one octave on the strings from any one position. The instrument has also changed throughout this century. In the 1950s most players switched from using silk strings to steel ones, a change that gave the erhu a brighter tone, more stable intonation and a more reliable upper register. Different materials, sizes and shapes of soundbox have been experimented with and the constructive process centralised in a number of large factories.8

Many contexts thus feed into the creation and performance of contemporary erhu solos. Composers may combine their experience of training in Western styles with their knowledge of other erhu pieces or traditional Chinese music. Erhu players bring with them a technique founded upon modal fingering patterns evolved in the traditional repertory of the instrument as well as a

8 For a more detailed description of the construction of an erhu, see Stock 1993a.

59


theoretical grasp of many Western musical techniques. Politicians have for their part stressed the function of music and musicians in Socialist China.

3 Solo music up to 1940 The earliest solos played on the erhu appear to have been individual renditions of folk music, theatrical melodies, regional ensemble pieces and the creations of the street musicians that so annoyed Laloy (1909:78). Apart from its function as a begging or leisure instrument amongst the populace at large, sufficiently simple for van Gulik (1969:2) to note: "Anyone with an ear for music may, in a month or so, become a tolerably efficient performer on the erh-hu," the two- stringed fiddle was also employed by certain market vendors, short musical phrases being performed in imitation of the spoken tonal contour of the prices of the wares (Chen Haiyu pers. comm. 7/iii/90). In ensemble genres each instrumentalist may occasionally perform a brief passage alone, and extended solos may occur during the accompaniment of dramatic genres. With the exception of the largely unquantifiable new compositions created either by indi- viduals at leisure or at work on street corners, however, none of these traditional forms are solo compositions per se. More accurately, the most substantial of these may be termed solo renditions of music intended for group performance. Jiang Tianyi's (1922) collection of huqin music (huqin being a generic term for Chinese fiddles) is perhaps typical of this early repertory, consisting of ensemble music, folk songs and operatic excerpts.

It was the new social and musical contexts of early republican China that encouraged the creation and transmission of solo pieces. These solos, like Western art music compositions, have become primarily identified as the individual works of one of a series of specialist composers, whose perceived musical intentions are recreated by a formally-trained soloist from (the memorisation of) a notated score. This performance is typically presented to a quiet and attentive audience seated in a concert hall. The first musician to write music of this kind for the erhu was Liu Tianhua. He started to compose in 1915 (Liu 1985:6), at about the same time as he took up the erhu. His ten solos were finalised between 1918 and 1932, although some sketches predate this period.9 They were taught to Liu's students (such as Chen Zhenduo and Jiang Fengzhi), performed by Liu at university and public concerts and published. Some of them were recorded in 1931 (Yu 1985:30). It was the increase in the use of notation and publication, as well as Liu's activities as a university lecturer and national music reformer, that disseminated his pieces widely. Since they appeared in notation and were taught in a formal classroom context to educated music students, few attempts at modification have been made, although accompani-

9 Yu (1985:33-44) has analysed the best known of these compositions, Bing Zhong Yin, and different recordings have been discussed by Liu (1988:196-201).


ments for piano or yangqin have been freely added.10 Similarly, the music's identification with Liu Tianhua has been maintained, rather than gradually acquiring association with succeeding generations of erhu players, as may have happened in the past with the transmission of idiosyncratic versions through the oral-aural teaching process, and as would appear to have happened with the traditional pieces Liu taught. One of these traditional pieces, Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace, will be examined below.

Liu's musical interests were cosmopolitan. At school he participated in a military band, and he later studied erhu, pipa, qin, sanxian, violin, kunqu and composition. He also collected, transcribed and published operatic, religious and folk ensemble music as well as composing solos and studies for erhu and pipa. However, his compositional style was conservative: although several of his solos extend aspects of erhu technique, these extensions are unlikely to be regarded as radical musical change as defined by Blacking (1977:6-7). The ten erhu solos are all fairly brief (from approximately two minutes forty-five seconds to seven minutes) and have descriptive titles, for instance March of Brightness and Birds Singing in the Deserted Mountains. Although there is some modal variety, all ten pieces utilise either do-sol or sol-re relative string tunings. Absolute pitch is set at d' and a' in all cases. Although the fourth and seventh degrees of each mode are more carefully used than the others, it would be an over-simplification to describe Liu's solos as basically pentatonic. Modulation is only found in a few of the pieces and, with the exception of the subdominant passages in March of Brightness, is achieved by altering tonal emphasis from one pitch to another of the same scale; thus the fourth section of Red Flickering Candle gives cadential weight to G in contrast to the remainder of the piece's reliance upon E. Acci- dentals (sharpened lower auxiliary and leading notes) are found only in a few pieces. Structure is sectional, each new passage either presenting fresh material or varying previously stated themes, sometimes at a new tempo. Other possible unifying techniques include the partial or full recapitulation of an earlier section (especially towards the end of a piece) and the use of "organically" related cadential patterns in different sections as shown in figure 1.

In this example, the cadences from Reciting During Leisure have been arranged and classified into two related groups, Cadence Pattern A and Cadence Pattern B. Each cadence is headed by its bar number. Section numbers are taken from a recent edition of Liu's score (Liu 1985:43-4).1 As is apparent, every cadence in this piece is related directly to several others and indirectly to the remainder. Because these cadences do not in most instances repeat exactly the

10 Liu Tianhua also taught his pupils traditional pieces (Cao Anhe, pers. comm. 6/v/90). These included folk pieces such as Hua Huanle, Fragrant Wind (a version of Zhonghua Liuban), The Buddhist Triad and arrangements of classical seven-stringed zither qin and pipa pieces including Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace (1929) (Zhang 1989:22, Jiang and Jiang 1989:30). 11 The majority of music examples quoted in this account are transnotations of material originally published in cipher notation. One exception is the quotation from Tan Dun's solo (figure 13), derived from a hand-written score using staff notation.

61

Fig. 1 Related cadential patterns in Liu Tianhua's Reciting During Leisure

SECTION I

A u

CADENCE PATTERN A 3

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11-

CADENCE PATTERN B 6 o

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64 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. I (1992)

same musical material, I have preferred to describe them as "organically" related rather than the stricter alternative of "motivically" related.

Liu Tianhua seems to have been well aware of the traditional creative methods used by folk musicians. However, his education and employment led him to compose with pen and paper rather than through experimenation with an erhu in his hands. Although some of Liu's pieces share related material (compare, for example, Festival Night and Moonlit Night), his use of such material is both less pervasive and less subtle than in the traditionally-based repertory of the street musician Abing, for example (see Stock 1993b). Repeti- tion is often exact, and variation is the deliberate alteration of previously stated rhythmic or melodic patterns.

One piece which illustrates another side of the early solo erhu repertory is Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace. This composition is normally associated with the name of Jiang Fengzhi, one of Liu Tianhua's pupils. Described as an "ancient piece", this arrangement was derived from a traditional solo of the same name for pipa (Ye 1983:243).12 Figure 2 sets the beginning of Ye's transcription (p.244) of the pipa melody (source not stated) under the parallel passage from Jiang Fengzhi's erhu version (Jiang and Jiang 1989:79).

As Ye points out (1983:243), the erhu melody is a metrical two-fold expansion of the original (although the expansion is often less than regular). The relationship of the erhu version to the pipa score is similar in concept to that between expanded and original forms of traditional operatic and instrumental ensemble pieces.

Certain elements of Jiang Fengzhi's personal style stand out in his version of this composition. For instance, figure 3 compares one area of irregular expansion from Jiang's version (Jiang and Jiang 1989:79) with parallel passages from Chen Zhenduo's (1951:29) erhu arrangement and Ye Dong's (1983:245) transcription. 13

This kind of irregular expansion is not confined only to arrangements of old pieces, but also occurs in arrangements of folk music popular during this period. Figure 4 compares two versions of a passage from Fragrant Wind; the upper is Jiang Fengzhi's (Jiang and Jiang 1989:83-4), the lower that of Chen Zhenduo (1951:26).

Although both versions are framed in the same metrical units (and both are headed by slow tempo markings), Jiang's arrangement generally alots two beats to material covered by Chen in one, allowing the former to incorporate more ornamentation, such as the accented passing note F# (la) in the fourth bar of figure 4. Differences between separate performers' solo realisations of the same traditional pieces tend to be of this order: structure is normally similar but degree of ornamentation and exact metrical arrangement variable.

12 Both Ye and Jiang (see e.g. Jiang and Jiang 1989:30) mention the influence of the Cantonese piece Three Pools Mirroring the Moon as well. 13 Chen Zhenduo's arrangement of this piece dates from 1930 (Chen 1951:29).

Stock: Contemporary recital solos for the erhu 65

Fig. 2 Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace, versions for erhu and pipa. The pipa part was originally notated a minor third lower. N.B. Chinese notational symbols, where different from Western ones, are transliterated and explained in the Glossary.

Very slo J = 44

mp -- f -

tr T T tr t T1- M

'Kj i -

Setc..

v r IJ a,

Fig. 3 Areas of irregular metrical expansion in different versions of Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace. The first stave shows Jiang's version, the second Chen's, the third Ye's. The latter two have been transposed to the same mode as Jiang's. Articulation and ornamentation marks are omitted. Shaded boxes enclose areas of irregular metrical expansion. In the first case, Jiang writes a three-beat passage where regular expansion would have elicitedfour beats; in the second, Chen sets two beats in place of a single beat.

... L . I _ .7. . T _ 7~~~~--i _Ir. ? I[. i1 5 I'd _ _ I II'/ ,1 . _lk_

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

:. 1 I I ..I-.. .

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Fig. 4 Two players' versions of the traditional piece Fragrant Wind. Articulation and ornamentation marks are omitted. The shaded area encloses one beat which has the same metric value in both versions.

A = = I. . . . . ~ M

ar-* Is -- I I 4m "w JJ JoL J Both Jiang Fengzhi and Chen Zhenduo composed, aanged and published

Both Jiang Fengzhi and Chen Zhenduo composed, arranged and published solo material for erhu during this period and later. Another pupil of Liu Tianhua active in southern China from the 1930s onwards was Lu Xiutang. His Yearning for the Homeland (1933) has been influential, as has his later composition Village Song (1945) (Miao et al. 1985:247). These pieces (Lu 1961:2-4,7-9) are, similarly to those of Liu Tianhua, composed of relatively brief, contrasting sections. Lu also encouraged other players to expand the recital repertory, such as his pupil Wang Yi (Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90).

Solo music of the period up to 1940 was usually short and descriptive in nature. A colourful, possibly poetic title was given to all original pieces, but programmatic elements of a specific nature remained rare. A formal structure comprising a succession of brief and distinct parts was characteristic. Generally, technical requirements were close to or based upon those employed by folk musicians, and no accompaniment was called for. Composers of erhu music were invariably performers themselves.

5 Solo music from 1940 to 1965 Solo pieces acquired new dimensions of both medium and content during the early 1940s. Cipher notation, devised by Cheve in France, was introduced into Chinese music education by way of Japan and is first seen together with a more traditional Chinese system of relative pitch notation called gongchepu in publications such as Fang (1938) and on its own in Chen Zhenduo's erhu method of 1941.14 Its use was a reflection of the efforts of musicians from the second decade of the twentieth century onwards to introduce their newly composed repertory and traditional arrangements to a wider, musically literate public. As the conservatory system was expanded, demand for appropriate teaching materials followed and teaching staff began to produce studies and methods. Music composed during this period was accorded a more overt political symbolism, in line with the increasing dominance of communism in China.

14 Chen's method was entitled How to learn the erhu (Zhang 1989:22).

Stock: Contenporary recital solosfor the erhu

Values of patriotism and proletarianism were stressed in the titles, programmes and themes of all genres, including erhu music. For example, Liu Tianhua's younger brother Liu Beimao entitled a 1954 composition The Sun Shines on the Motherland's Border Territories which "describes the post-liberation lives of complete happiness of the minority peoples inhabiting the Motherland's border territories, and their song to the People's Sun-Chairman Mao and the Communist Party" (Liu 1957:34).

Extra-musical imagery of this kind could be suggested either by a title or programme or through association by the use of folksong themes, revolutionary song melodies and musical cliches, such as the imitation of the sound of horse racing to represent Mongols and others from the grasslands of the north and west. In the case of Liu Beimao's above-mentioned composition, Section I is said to depict the "happy situation of song and dance and the joyous, energetic flavour of the lives of the grassland labouring people as the sun gradually rises. The central Section II adopts some banhu expressive techniques to set off this atmosphere" (Liu 1957:34-5). The banhu is a kind of two-stringed fiddle upon which the snakeskin facing has been substituted with a wooden board. By "expressive techniques", Liu refers principally to the high-register descending glissandi shown with a diagonal line. Sections I and II may be seen in figure 5 (Liu 1957:16-7).

Whether Liu's programme is effectively portrayed by this music is question- able, especially since Section III of this ternary form structure is an exact repeat of Section I (i.e. the grassland sunrise over scenes of merriment). From this period onwards, however, the use of some kind of politically appropriate justifi- cation for even the most innocuous of pieces became usual, and many such programmes are widely accepted as musically valid by contemporary Chinese musicians.

This composition maintains the sectional character of earlier erhu recital pieces. It is typically short in duration and intended for unaccompanied erhu. Liu Beimao's solos, however, use relative string tunings and modes not found in Liu Tianhua's pieces, and, reflecting the educational interests of their composer, aim to provide a series of pieces which fill the void between Liu Tianhua's relatively simple studies and his ten more complicated solos (Liu 1957:i).

As mentioned above, the conscious use of folk music extracts in composed erhu solos is also found during this period. An example of this is offered by Wang Yi's composition Bumper Harvest of 1953. The first section of this piece is modelled on the sounds of chuida [wind and percussion ensemble] music; the second employs a haozi [work song] concerned with the lifting up of river silt; and the third includes the depiction of village luogu15 [percussion ensemble] music. Section II and part of Section III are shown in figure 6 (Anon. 1957:2- 3).

15 Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90.

67

68 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. I (1992)

Fig. S Opening of Liu Beimao's The Sun Shines on the Motherland's Border Territories

Vigourous and joyful Unhurredly

A * _ - _ - - -

Moderate speed A ̂

_.. Eg - E3

mf mf

m-:--t t,.. _ _

^ ^ eg Es tr

- - - --I-_-] - -

mWarily, at the same speed

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^'^^L^i , ilffi^ffi^ffl 1 .! , __lff

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69 Stock: Contemporary recital solosfor the erhu

Fig. 6 Bumper Harvest by Wang Yi, bars 49-84

[II] J=52 3 4 3 -._

3 3

2 2 3 3 23 3.

f cresc. dim.

(Repeat Section I before going on to Section III)

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F_ 4 0 0 oloo 000 0 0

mlj^ Ls p Mf mp

Influential at this time was the mid-1950s arrangement by Zeng Xun of the Mongol folksong Pulling the Camel (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Parallel to Liu Beimao's incorporation of banhu techniques in The Sun Shines on the Motherland's Border Territories, Zeng Xun mentions (Zhang et al. 1987:24) use of Mongolian horse-head fiddle matouqin ornamental fingering techniques. Pulling the Camel is another piece in which the erhu is associated with the Northern and Western minorities. Typical of such music, in its performance the strings are taken as the relative pitches la and mi, in place of the more usual do-sol and sol-re relative tunings (compare, for example, the la-mi Section II of figure 5 with the do-sol music of figure 6). As mentioned above, a change of relative tuning is accompanied by an alteration of mode, fingering and ornamental patterns. Other pieces written in a similar vein include Huang Haihuai's Horse Race of 1964 and, more recently, such works as Piao Dongsheng's On the Grassland, Wang Guotong and Li Xiuqi's Galloping on the


Thousand-Mile Grassland, Zeng Jiaqing's Herding Horses (1977) and Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses (see later).16 The depiction of regional styles, especially but not exclusively those attributed to the northwest, has since this period become a popular ingredient in modem erhu music (and, to a lesser extent, in solo and ensemble pieces for other instruments).

One aspect of this popularity may be the enjoyment of virtuosic technical display. The adoption of steel strings in the 1950s improved tone quality in passages requiring fast or short bowing (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Also, since more students were undergoing formal training in music conservatories, performance standards rose and players began to create music that showed off their new technical capabilities. Thus, music with a festival programme of some kind was not only politically advisable but engendered greater opportunity for popular display.

Zhang Shao discusses (1989:33-4) the importance of the erhu competition held in Shanghai in 1963.17 Analysing the repertory performed by the 29 finalists, he totals 22 new compositions, twelve arrangements of regional folk and operatic music, seven solos from the previous period (chiefly those of Liu Tianhua) and one classical arrangement. This reflects the increasingly diverse origin of material performed on the erhu during this period. Unfortunately, Zhang does not clearly distinguish between the former two categories in his list, describing, for example, Huang Haihuai's version of the northeastern piece River Waters (originally arranged from local folk music into a solo for shuangguan [double reed pipe] in the 1950s) as a "new composition" (1989:34).

A general broadening of the repertory took place throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. Increased use of publication and the sale of recordings brought folk material such as the transcribed solos of the street musicians Abing and Sun Wenming into the hands of many musicians, and allowed those from other parts of the country to learn something of different regional styles of performance.

Music performed by 1965 ranged from solo versions of traditional regional instrumental material such as the Jiangnan sizhu piece Zhonghua Liuban, through folk arrangements arrangements like River Waters and classical ones such as the seven-stringed zither qin piece Three Variations on Yang Guan, through pieces with an input of some folk elements like Bumper Harvest, through those with a folk setting as in Horse Race to the solos of Liu Tianhua and more recent composers.

Many of these pieces were short and sectional in structure, latter sections either offering contrast with or variation of previous themes. Yangqin accompaniments were commonly added in performance by now, most often separately composed from the solo part by another musician. However, some- what longer pieces were also being composed by the 1960s, most prominently Liu Wenjin's Yubei Ballade and Sanmen Gorge Fantasia. Taking the latter as an

16 Huang Haihuai's Horse Race exists in two versions. That more commonly played today is an abridged arrangement made by Shen Liqun in the 1970s (Association 1990:9). 17 The winner was Min Huifen, then aged seventeen; cf. HL-536 (1988).

Stock: Contemporary recital solos for the erhu

Fig. 7 Structure of Liu Wenjin's Sanmen Gorge Fantasia

Sections Score Markings Sub-Sections Phrases Unts Intoduction (Free tme) I

Bar Numbers as if improvised (No bar lines)

a 1- 6 1 A ~

a - b "- 7- 12

Allegro A ' a' 13- 18 " b '

' 19- 24

c 25-27 c' 28- 30 d --------31--34- d' 35- 37

2 B c 38-40 c' 41- 43 b d 44-_47 " d" " 48- 52

Link 52- 60

3 A

a"

a"' Link

a"

b"' al'

61- 66 67- 72 73- 80 81- 89

- e 90- 97 C C '

f 98-106 Link 106-110

g 111-118 g' 119- 125

4 D (d _ "h 126-127 II -."h' 128-129

Moderat "codetm 129-130 Link 131

e' 132-139 c ""'f' 140-148

C~~ ~codeta 149-151 Link free time 152

inmtoduction 153 - 154 E e i 155:162

i' "l163-170 TT 5 j 171-178

A/I egrett F f j* ' 179-186

codetma 187-192 k 192-229

G Link 230-238 a 239-244

a A b 245-250

a' a' 251-256 6 b' 257-262

Allegro c 263 - 265 B b c' 266-268

IV d 269-272 d" 273- 277

Link 278 - 282 1 283 - 287

Coda A. a"" 288 - 296 A a "'-- b'" 297-310

codettam 311 - 320

I

-

71


example, similarly to the shorter pieces already considered, it is formed from a number of brief, contrasting sections (see figure 7, based on the score in Association 1987:30-41).

The formal structure of the Sanmen Gorge Fantasia shows once more the dominant use of relatively brief, contrasting sections in the composition of erhu recital pieces during this period. Each section has a ternary structure, the final section being a varied recapitulation of the first. The composer's markings (shown in the second column) reveal that Liu Wenjin was not consistent when adding his own section numbers:18 compare, for example, his identification of the passage starting in bar 25 as a separate section but not the reappearance of this material at bar 263. Similarly, related material at bars 53 and 278 is in the former case the end of one of Liu's sections and in the latter the start of his coda. These inconsistencies disguise the four-part form of his composition. As already mentioned, each part of the piece has a ternary shape, employing three relatively simple theme groups (see column 3). Only Section III is unusual in that it does not repeat or vary its first theme group as its third. Link passages, usually for yangqin alone, connect each section and sometimes one sub-section to another. These may have the function of preparing a new mode for use by the soloist in the next section and breaking the uniformity of the texture, allowing audience interest to be rekindled at the soloist's subsequent entry. Within each sub-section, each theme group is normally assembled from paired phrases (see columns 4 and 5). Thus, the first sub-section A (column 3) consists of the two phrases identified as a and a' (column 4), each of these being composed of two six-bar units: a and b (column 5).

Liu Wenjin's compositional plan reveals considerable organisation and the influence of his training in Western music theory: binary-form themes ranged in ternary-form sections of a four-part whole. Although the accompaniment is generally subservient to the erhu, it is a necessary part of the composition, not an appendage.

Other important pieces of this period include Qinqiang Theme Fantasia by Zhao Zhenxiao and Lu Rirong, Poem of Spring by Zhong Yiliang and Changes in the Mountain Village by Zeng Jiaqing (Zhang et al. 1987:32).

The solo music written for erhu between 1940 and 1965 normally shows a greater political consciousness than that of the earlier period, if not in its music then in its title and programme. This reflects the increased politicization of society during the early Communist period. The requirements of amateur and conservatory students led to the publication of a wider range of solos and educational pieces, including studies, and this may have stimulated interest in a broader spectrum of modes, performance techniques and regional styles. The burgeoning professionalism and respectability of solo performers was paralleled by redesign of the instrument, with technical innovations, such as the adoption of steel strings mentioned above, allowing the performance of more impressive music. Aspects of the performance techniques of other Chinese instruments and

18 This inconsistency is unimportant since it would not influence performance.

Stock: Contemporary recital solos for the erhu

the violin were sometimes incorporated. The majority of composers were still erhu players.

Solos written during this period retained the short, sectional character of their predecessors. Indeed, pieces written before 1940 were commonly studied, performed and published during this period. By the 1960s, however, more extended pieces with integrated accompaniments, sometimes intended for the larger ensembles and orchestras of Chinese instruments then developing, were also written.

6 Solo music from 1966 to 1990 General themes in the history of solo erhu music composed over the last twenty- five years include a further increase in aspects of virtuosity and technical display as well as the substantial involvement of professional composers, including composer-performers, in the creation of large-scale works for erhu. Both these factors resulted from the impact of the conservatory system, which raised the general standard of instrumental musical performance in China and provided an increasing number of professional, formally-trained composers.

However, the first decade of this period, the Cultural Revolution,19 was basically a static one as far as the composition of erhu solos is concerned. The phase was a difficult one for most professional musicians since they were attacked as "specialists", "elitists" and hence class enemies. Only a few, such as Min Huifen, managed to develop their careers through the performance of a narrow range of accepted pieces including Huang Haihuai's River Waters. The tone of this period is set by Wu Choukang (1975:101):

In recent years Min Hui-fen has paid many visits to factories, communes and army units to receive education from the workers, peasants and soldiers. This has deepened her understanding of the vast difference between the new society and the old. When she plays The Water in the River [River Waters], she underlines this strong contrast by various fingering techniques and striking variations in the volume, successfully expressing a profound content in distinctive erh-hu style.20

Others, for example Zhang Shao (Zhang and Tang 1975) and Wang Guotong (Wang and Zhang 1976), responded by preparing for publication arrangements of the latest revolutionary songs and model opera excerpts.21 In keeping with the political will of the time, an emphasis was placed upon amateur learning and

19 Originally covering a shorter period, this term is now commonly used to refer to the whole of the period from 1966-76 during which the left wing of the Chinese Communist Party was ascendent. 20 The "various fingering techniques" mentioned by Wu presumably refer to the different types of vibrato and non-vibrato fingering called for in the score of River Waters. 21 The model operas were the small number of shows performed all over China during the Cultural Revolution. They were developed under the guidance of Jiang Qing, wife of Mao and a leading member of the Gang of Four.

73


mass activity rather than professional expertise. For example, Zhang Shao and Tang Liangde's erhu method (Zhang and Tang 1975:104-128) contains studies entitled: Going to the Enemy's Rear, The Army and the People are Brothers, The Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention (revolutionary/military tunes); In Industry, Learn from Daqing, The Commune Happily Reaps the Bumper Harvest, The Herdsmen Sing of Chairman Mao (themes of daily life); Tying the Red Plait, Sword Dance of the Female Warriors (excerpts from the music of the model shows); I Love Beijing's Tiananmen, Glorious Beijing (patriotic themes); Wishing Chairman Mao Ten Thousand Years Without End (two versions), Chairman Mao Travels Over the Whole of China and Long Live Chairman Mao! ("devotional" pieces).22 In the main, these were arrangements of pre-existing material rather than new works; it was only in the late 1970s, after the downfall of the Gang of Four that original composition resumed in a significant manner.

An example of this, which also illustrates the tendency of recent erhu solos to continue the previous trends of development of new playing techniques and depiction of horses, is Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses. Chen, a performer-composer, decided to experiment with techniques from both Chinese and Western instruments to see if it was possible to reproduce on the erhu sounds such as "shouts, neighing, hoof beats and bugles" (Zhang et al. 1987:35). The immediate stimulus to this was his interest in the pipa piece Ambush on All Sides.23 Figure 8 reproduces part of the solo (yangqin part omitted), showing how the first neigh is written.

This technique is described as a "linked, pausing bow" (Zhang et al. 1987:35). It combines the simultaneous tremolo bowing of both strings with a trill and glissando. Later in the piece, Chen notates a similar "high speed tremolo on both strings" with a tremolo sign in place of the trill marking used above.24 This is derived from a similar pipa technique used in the Ambush on All Sides. Also used by Chen Yaoxing in this piece was a technique he called "da jigong" [large struck bow] (see also Zhang 1989:70). This, he claims, simulates hoof beats and is performed by striking up and down on one string with the bow hair. Figure 9 reproduces Chen's cipher notation for this passage. (Numerals are read as sol-fa pitches in the key shown. Dots above a number raise the pitch of that note by one octave, dots below lower the pitch by one octave. Rhythmic suffixes and barlines are written much as in staff notation.)

22 Going to the Enemy's Rear was a revolutionary song by Xian Xinghai. The Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention were slogans of the People's Liberation Army set to music to help their memorisation. Daqing was an oil field hailed as an exemplar of successful Communist industry (Hollingworth 1987:115). 23 This is one of the standards of the pipa's military repertory. Chen's piece is also discussed by Zhang Shao (1989:36). 24 In this technique the inner string is sounded with the bow hair, the outer one with the bamboo (Association 1987:175). This latter technique produces a sound strikingly like that of the pipa special effect it is modelled upon.


Fig. 8 'Neighing' in Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses

tr

Fig. 9 'Hoofbeats' in Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses

1 = F (6 - 3 tunirg)

Outer string (Dajfong, imitate hoof beats)

5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 Erhu t44t t44t 4t4t 4t4t 4t4t 4t4t 44t 4tt xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

6 3 13 33 1 1 2 1 2 3 e - - _______

The composition of pieces such as Galloping Warhorses continued the fashion for erhu solos in, or attributed to, different regional styles. Rather as the Western music student may be taught and examined in the performance of music of contrasting periods, Chinese musicians studied and performed music which portrayed contrasting areas. Many of these pieces are pastiche in nature, composers or performers from elsewhere taking prominent musical features or thematic material from a regional style and combining them with the results of their formal training and experience in both Chinese and Western music. Generally, some attempt at popular appeal is made and a politically appiopriate theme, normally emphasizing the folk roots of the composition, is appended.

The accompaniments of these pieces are of two kinds. In some instances, the yangqin part shares the melodic contour of the solo instrument, possibly decor- ating rests and held notes in the erhu with imitative material, as in figure 10. Alternatively, as in figure 11, simple, functional harmony may be employed.

This harmony is very simple indeed, merely alternating tonic and dominant chords, occasionally with decorations such as the minor third in bars 5 to 7 and the appoggiatural b' in bars 13 and 14.

Although some of these solos were written by professional performers, others were created by non-playing composers in consultation with leading performers such as Wang Guotong or Min Huifen. This is particularly the case for larger works of more than one movement, increasingly written during the 1980s.

75


Fig. 10 The Wish of the Lake Hong People, arranged by Min Huifen (1977), bars 3-8 (Zhang 1989:36, Wang 1980:45)

With deep feeling

Aa I Ay

.9 ^ i i

t et...

i- I JUI'3 In, In T-i - 4R I l I

An example of this kind of composition is Peng Xiuwen's Unyielding Su Wu.25 Written for an erhu tuned to g and d', the piece is a conventional concerto with three movements: fast, slow and fast. Similarly to many other Chinese composers of the immediate post-Cultural Revolution period, Peng's programme in this piece is historical, Su Wu being a general captured by northern nomads who eventually was able to return to his homeland.

Each movement treats in general terms one episode of Su Wu's story: firstly, his captivity as a shepherd in inhospitable terrain; secondly, his feelings of longing for his homeland; and finally the celebrations that greet his return.26 The work belongs to the nineteenth-century concerto tradition, comprising three movements linked by common thematic material and an overall tonal plan. Although the writing for the most part employs pentatonic modes, these are superimposed on a tonal scheme which passes from G minor to G major (repeated) and ends the first movement on D major.27 The second movement moves from the area of C minor, to C major and back to C minor. The third

25 The orchestral accompaniment of this work is written for Chinese orchestra, but many works exist in versions with symphony orchestra instead. 26 These movements are subtitled The Loyal One Alone Amongst Wind and Snow, Yearning for China and Holding a Festival for the Return in Glory. 27 Throughout this analysis I refer to key signatures used in the score (Peng 1987) rather than keys per se. In most cases, however, the key signature employed does give an accurate impression of the (largely) pentatonic mode Peng uses for his melodies and the generally simple tonal harmonies with which he accompanies them.


Fig. 11 Opening of Little Postman by Liu Yian and Zhao Hanyang (1983) (Association 1989:64-5)

Allegretto, Happily n v

p cresc.

t i^ I,III Illl I I I f ^..

p D Major: I I I I I I I (min. 3) I (min. 3) l

dim. cresc. f

I ' .'I T I J l I I

I (min. 3) IV IIc Ic II I I

VV v -_ , - _ A L _

etc..

Vb I Vb II II II

ranges from D major, through C major, B flat major, G major and back to D again. Passage from one movement to another is smoothed by the use of bridging material that emphasizes common notes between the end of one movement and the start of the next, as in figure 12.28

As mentioned above, related thematic material is employed in all three movements. This unifying factor serves to hold the composition together, the structure of each movement being rather loosely formed around a succession of

28 This is accomplished similarly to, although more simply than, the passage from one movement to the next in Rachmaninov's Second Piano Concerto.

V21r F I I 17

77

k?

L


Fig. 12 Conclusion offirst movement, opening of second in Peng Xiuwen's Unyielding Su Wu. Resting parts are omitted.

0

Li - I . I:

Erhu (Solo)

Yang0qia

&qrhu & Erhu

l Ti J i -r 1ip i mnf mp

l lS4rirtITrfI i1 mp p RP

R it 1'I P i (Tutti) mp P PP

II Unhurriedly and profoundly (J = 48)

Sheng . 1 III

mp

tutti and solo passages, many of which are based upon some form of the main theme. Compared with the structure of Liu Wenjin's Sanmen Gorge Fantasia (see above), Peng Xiuwen's concerto form is both more continuous and less symmetrical, although elements of traditional Western concerto form are also present.

Taking the first movement as an example, the beginning is a slow introduction (bars 1-73) in G minor. This is a tutti section, much of which is written over a harmonically stable pedal G. The melodic material from bar 35 onwards appears related to the main theme to come, reversing its opening motif of dominant to tonic pitches a bar apart. The second section (bars 74-124) is begun by the solo erhu developing motives from the main theme in G major. A brief but significant tutti (84-90) follows, again using the tonic-dominant motif in elaborated form. The significance of this tutti is that it reappears several times later on during the course of the movement in the manner of a ritornello. Development continues in further solo and tutti passages (91-104 and 105-124 respectively) which pass through a number of closely related tonal areas. In a third section (bars 125-170) the soloist presents the main theme group in the

I


tonic key (G).29 There are two themes, the former being the main theme of the whole piece, the second is (quite conventionally) more lyrical in nature and accompanied by a change of texture and rudimentary contrapuntal imitation in the matouqin part. The fourth section is a second development section (171- 275). Developed in turn are: the main theme (171-180) in the tonic, slow introduction material from bar 35 onwards in G minor (181-204), tutti motivic fragments in G major (205-216), solo development of the first main theme (217-227), passage work (228-236), development of the second main theme (237-255), return of the ritomello motif in G and then sequentially in D (256- 263). Finally there is a linking passage (264-275) which leads to D major. The fifth and final section (276-320) is begun by another tutti passage (276-283) which is followed by solo passage work (284-296) and development of the second theme (297-305). It is concluded by a solo codetta (306-320) which remains in D.

Motivic development is integrated throughout the movement, with developed versions of the main theme occurring before its first statement in basic form (bar 125). The impressions of continuity and organic growth as the piece progresses are thereby enhanced.

Liu Wenjin has also recently written a large scale concerto in four movements, the Great Wall Fantasy of 1981.30 As in Peng Xiuwen's concerto, the composition deals with a patriotic and historical theme. Other composers as well have recently shared an interest in historical themes for their music, and many younger composers have gone a step further by employing aspects of ancient Chinese music itself, often in combination with elements of Western avant-garde music.31 This has allowed them to move away from the romantic style of older composers while still emphasizing the national identity of their work.

A piece which demonstrates use of historical musical material is Yu Zhikui's Qin Music (1983). Apart from using a melody from the seventh-century qin piece Elegant Orchid, the erhu piece also adopts playing techniques from qin music in general (Association 1989:52-4).32 Representative of music more con- sciously employing avant-garde techniques is a duet for erhu and yangqin: Shuang Que by Tan Dun (1984). In this case, the avant-garde techniques utilized include rhythmic and melodic aleatorism coupled with an expressionist approach to dynamic contrast.

The first section of Tan Dun's composition is shown in figure 13. Subsequent sections vary the same material and employ a number of experimental devices, including an extended passage of bowed double-stopping.

29 Used as the main theme of this work is the folk tune Su Wu Herds Sheep. 30 See Association 1989:2-19,74-7 and Xiao 1983 for a melodic score, performance remarks and a general description of this piece respectively. 31 This trend of composition is not confined to erhu solos alone. It is also encountered in recent music for symphony orchestra, voices or piano, for instance. 32 See Chen et al. 1989:20-7 for a discussion and transcription of Elegant Orchid.

79


Fig. 13 Opening of Tan Dun's Shuang Que

Solo A n. n

non vibrao ------------

i

gliss.

Y~~~~~

A

I.. ~ ~ ~ I-- -

etc. - - - -M

L

sf - - - ik

*r - - -------

2' - 40-

6V ~~ I ME-

V rq v

A kl -- V o. -t A

3fsf sp -==3f =~

(


Avant-garde solos for erhu are sometimes performed or broadcast but few of them have yet been published or commercially recorded. Much more commonly encountered in both the concert hall and over the air waves are piecess such as the joint composition Parting of the Newly-Weds by Zhang Xiaofeng and Zhu Xiaogu. The musical structure, programme (a Tang Dynasty poem of the same title by Du Fu) and harmonic language of this piece are far closer to the compositions of Peng Xiuwen and Liu Wenjin than to those of Tan Dun.

Solo music composed for erhu from the Cultural Revolution onwards has a wider range than that of earlier pieces, partly as a result of the increasing involvement of different kinds of composers in its creation: performers have continued to write short, sectional pieces which develop aspects of performance technique and/or regional style in a popular musical idiom; composers of the Chinese nationalist tradition have begun to employ the erhu as a soloist in picturesque concertos; and those of the avant-garde persuasion have used it in a growing number of experimental works. Some musicians have also begun to arrange non-Chinese music of many kinds for the erhu. Examples range from works by Bach and Schubert to Indian film music and Menti's Czardas (Zhang 1989).

Apart from recent solos, performers still learn many of the works of earlier periods, especially those of Liu Tianhua, and traditional pieces, such as Abing's The Moon Reflected on the Second Springs. Collections of pieces are published and recorded fairly frequently, so contemporary erhu players are able to acquire a large repertory of varied solo works. As in the previous period, many of these pieces have an apt political or patriotic programme, although this is sometimes more subtly presented through the perspective of a historical theme.

7 Conclusion

Works intended for recitals of the solo erhu, with or without accompaniment, have an important position in the training of all erhu players in the present conservatory system. Even though opportunities for public performance of these pieces are comparatively rare, students devote the majority of their practice time to mastering a repertory ranging from transcriptions of traditional instrumental music to the compositions of folk musicians to solos dating from the early twentieth century onwards. For many students, solo pieces are the only repertory of the erhu, ensemble and orchestral work being very much less significant.

Although many of the pieces that form this repertory are musically light- weight, concentrating on technical display or the variation of a few stereotypes (for instance, pre-revolutionary sorrows or Mongol horsemanship), they are for the most part well-written for the erhu. Since performers have dominated the creation of solo works until recent years, this is perhaps unsurprising. Although several adequately constructed works for erhu have appeared, the involvement of professional composers has not so far produced any large-scale solos which match the standard of, say, the best of Liu Tianhua's shorter pieces or Abing's

81


transcribed improvisations. A general difficulty for composers would appear to be the creation of a musical style both suitable to the erhu and weighty enough to sustain musical interest over an extended period of time without alienating the mass audiences for whom all works are supposed to be designed. Although the work of the Chinese avant garde may stimulate interest amongst mainstream composers in new musical resources, it will probably require a fundamental change in the political direction of composition before many composers set out to write longer, more varied solos. When questioned about their solo repertory, several older erhu perfomers complained about the lack of high quality large- scale solos. Audiences, they said, found the longer of the existing solos dull. Younger players were, in general, less concerned about the repertory itself- they enjoyed tackling colourful, virtuoso solos-and more concerned about the lack of opportunities to perform.

Erhu players, whether young or old, have developed a wide range of common technical skills in the creation and performance of their solo repertory. While many of these skills are based on techniques known to erhu players in previous centuries, others are the result of the influence of other musical instruments, such as the violin, and the adoption of a Western-style conservatory training. Unlike in the West, there has not yet been an "authenticity" movement in Chinese musical performance. On the contrary, there has been a movement towards the development of what players call a "scientific, modem" playing style which has tended to reduce the stylistic differences between the music of one region or performer and another. This parallels movements to disseminate a common dialect of Chinese across the whole nation, and central planning of all aspects of political, economic and artistic life. In this aspect, as in all others, the contemporary solo repertory for the erhu can be seen to be highly responsive to its changing cultural, musical and physical contexts.

GLOSSARY

For convenience, this glossary has been divided into five parts: a) names of people, with family name written first, according to Chinese custom; b) names of compositions; c) names of instruments; d) notational symbols; e) other terms. Listing is alphabetical based on the pinyin transliteration. In some cases, when translation was not convenient or meaningful in the text, more literal renderings are given below for the non-specialist. Characters shown are simple form, as currently used in the People's Republic of China.

a. People

Abing (1893-1950) I 'i street musician, properly called Hua Yanjun (I k 9) Cao Anhe I i * musicologist Chen Haiyu i, $ waiter

Chen Yaoxing M, 1' 1 erhu performer / composer Chen Zhenduo 1, t.R ' erhu performer / teacher / arranger Du Fu (712-770) +i ? Tang Dynasty poet


Hattori Koh-ichi A ni 1 ' - Japanese composer

Huang Haihuai I ' 'tF composer

Jiang Fengzhi (1908-1986) 4 ) Z erhu performer / teacher / arranger Li Xiuqi $ I * composer Liu Beimao (1909-1981) t1 jt X erhu composer / teacher / arranger Liu Tianhua (1895-1932) tl A I erhu performer / teacher / arranger Liu Wenji tS 4 composer Liu Yian V1 Ai 'P composer Lu Rirong I B Ai composer Lu Xiutang (1911-1966) M 1' ' erhu performer/teacher/arranger Min Huifen It"] . ' erhu performer / teacher/ arranger Peng Xiuwen 52 14' [ composer Piao Dongsheng * , : composer

ShenLiqun At A ,1 il arranger Sun Wenming (1928-68) 7J' I fl street musician

Tan Dun if /4 composer

Wang Guotong i [I M I erhu performer / teacher / composer

Wang Yi I Z erhu teacher / composer Wu Bochao (1903-49) i 1 b A erhu performer/ composer Wu Zhimin & ; R erhu teacher / performer / composer Xian Xinghai (1905-45) A A ' composer Yu Zhikui -T W X composer

Zeng Jiaqing ' bin A composer

Zeng Xun a 4 erhu performer / composer

Zhang Xiaofeng ?K I 4 composer Zhao Hanyang ; 6 [B composer Zhao Zhenxiao A! i i composer

Zhong Yiliang Vt I [ composer Zhu Xiaogu %* composer

b. Compositions Benchi zai Qianli Caoyuan << * - 1 / . S >> "Galloping on the

Thousand-Mile Grassland" by Wang Guotong and Li Xiuqi

Bing Zhong Yin <<? + ei >> "Groaning in Sickness" by Liu Tianhua

Buqu de Su Wu << T IS A t i4 >> "Unyielding Su Wu" by Peng Xiuwen

Changcheng Suixiang << K i t '1i >> "Great Wall Fantasy" by Liu Wenjin Chu Ye Xiaochang << R, + '1 >> "Festival Night" by Liu Tianhua

Chun Shi <? r i >> "Poem of Spring" by Zhong Yiliang

83


Dao Diren Houfang Qu << 'J f& A fi >> "Going to the Enemy's Rear" by Xian Xinghai

Er Quan Ying Yue <<? = A l >> "The Moon Reflected on the Second Springs"

by Abing

Feng Shou << * q >> "Bumper Harvest" by Wang Yi

Feng Xue Gu Zhong ?<< 'J; . $ >> "The Loyal One Alone Amidst Wind

and Snow", first movement of Peng Xiuwen's "Unyielding Su Wu"

Ganji << ? , >> "Herding Horses" by Zeng Jiaqing

GongsheXiKaiFeng ShouLian <<?4 t i :f * ? 1t VA >> "The

Commune Happily Reaps the Bumper Harvest", revolutionary tune

Gongye Xue Daqing << IL * >> "In Industry, Learn from Daqing", revolutionary tune

Guangming Xing << t >? "March of Brightness" by Liu Tianhua

Han Gong Qiu Yue << A K A F >> "Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace",

ancient pipa tune best known for erhu in Jiang Fengzhi's arrangement

Honghu Renmin de Xinyuan << A A, R 7 't . >> "The Wish of the

Lake Hong People" arranged by Min Huifen

Hua Huanle <<t . i >> "Decorated Happy [Song]", Jiangnan sizhu melody Huai Xiang Xing << '[J, 1 >> "Yearning for the Homeland" by Liu Xiutang

Jianghe Shui << 'I i/-T X >> "River Waters" by Huang Haihuai

Jingzhu Mao Zhuxi Wanshou-Wujiang << fS 5.L , t Ag 7Y 4 3. it >>

"Wishing Chairman Mao Ten Thousand Years Without End", revolutionary tune

Kong Shan Niao Yu << 7 l -q i >> "Birds Singing in the Deserted Mountains"

by Liu Tianhua

La Luotuo << S 3 At >> "Pulling the Camel" by Zeng Xun

Mao Zhuxi Zou Bian Zugou Dadi << ? t , A i& 1 m!i * * >

"Chairman Mao Travels Over the Whole of China ", revolutionary tune

Mumin Gechang Mao Zhuxi << ? t a& * ) >> "The Herdsmen Sing of Chairman Mao", revolutionary tune

Nongcun zhi Ge ?C<< t U >> "Village Song" by Liu Xiutang Nii Zhanshi Dao Wu <<* i -?-7 7- >> "Sword Dance of the Female

Warriors", model show tune

Qin Yun << i 9 >> "Qin Music" by Yu Zhikui

Qinqiang Zhuti Suixiangqu << ̂ l >>? "Qinqiang Theme

Fantasia" by Zhao Zhenxiao and Lu Rirong Saima <C 4 ̂ >> "Horse Race" by Huang Haihuai

San Bao Fo << ' 1 >> "The Buddhist Triad", traditional tune


SanDaJilii, BaXiangZhuyi << - * t / t ? '>>'The Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention", revolutionary tune

Sanmen Xia Changxiangqu << _ I' *tti A G >> "Sanmen Gorge Fantasia"

by Liu Wenjin San Tan Yin Yue << -4 P p ?> 'Three Pools Mirroring the Moon", traditional

Cantonese tune

Shan Cun Bianle Yang << '14 ~ 7 ' >> "Changes in the Mountain Village" by Zeng Jiaqing

Shuang Que << R? 1 >> "Paired [Poems]" by Tan Dun

Shi Mian Maifu << + i 1 ?>> "Ambush on All Sides", pipa solo Si Han Huai Xiang << . '1ff . >> "Yearning for China" second movement of

Peng Xiuwen's "Unyielding Su Wu"

Su Wu Mu Yang << ? i ! >> "Su Wu Herds Sheep", folksong Taiyang Zhaoyao dao Zuguo Bianjiang <<* :8 B w

'J 4 ] fl i ? >> "The Sun Shines on the Motherland's Border Territories" by Liu Beimao

Wansui! Mao Zhuxi << ? '! 2 ' ,l >> "Long Live Chairman Mao!",

revolutionary song Weida de Beijing << lt * 4 l J .. >> "Glorious Beijing", revolutionary song Wo Ai Beijing de Tiananmen ?<< .It ,

' r l >> "I Love Beijing's

Tiananmen", revolutionary song Xian Ju Yin << Pfl IJ t >> "Reciting During Leisure" by Liu Tianhua Xiaoxiao Youdiyuan << '' '1' A it R > "Little Postman" by Liu Yian and

Zhao Hanyang Xin Hun Bie ?<< 4fr :6 ,J >> "Parting of the Newly-Weds" by Zhang Xiaofeng

and Zhu Xiaogu

Xing Jie <<?t ? >> "Walking [along the] Street", Jiangnan sizhu melody Xun Feng Qu ?C<< . fP l >> "Fragrant Wind", traditional tune related to

Zhonghua Liuban

Yang Guan San Die << Bt E >> "Three Variations on Yang Pass", qin solo, also arranged for erhu

Youlan << ?E - >> "Elegant Orchid", ancient qin solo Yubei Xushiqu << ? Jt $ I >> "Yubei Ballade" by Liu Wenjin Yue Ye << it >> "Moonlit Night" by Liu Tianhua Za Hong Tousheng <<? , !I 9 >> "Tying the Red Plait", model show tune Zai Caoyuan Shang << I / ? ?>> "On the Grassland" by Piao Dongsheng Zhanma Benteng << AX * Al >> "Galloping Warhorses" by Chen Yaoxing Zhi Jie Ronggui t<<^ ' 1 )/3 >> "Holding a Festival for the Return in Glory",

third movement of Peng Xiuwen's "Unyielding Su Wu"

85


Zhonghua Liuban << + ^i >> "Middle-Decorated Six Beat", Jiangnan sizhu

melody

Zhufu Mao Zhuxi Wanshou-Wujiang << i $i S. 1 a 7 Ye A ?l >> "Wishing Chairman Mao 10,000 Years Without End", revolutionary song

Zhu Ying Yao Hong << 't I 1ig !I >> "Red Flickering Candle" by Liu Tianhua

Zidibing he Laobaixing << T JAE , 1 4 F ? >> "The Army and the People are

Brothers", revolutionary song

c. Instruments

banhu +6 9 two-stringed fiddle with board-faced soundbox

dizi transverse bamboo flute with buzzing membrane

erhu = A two-stringed spike fiddle with snakeskin-faced soundbox

huqin 9 4'9 ancient "barbarian stringed instrument", more recently a general term

for Chinese fiddles

jinghu ,^ 9 small two-stringed fiddle principally used in Beijing opera

matouqin - A V Mongolian two-stringed horse-head fiddle

pipa Ht IE four-stringed pear-shaped lute

qin V seven-stringed zither

sanxian - 5E three-stringed banjo

shuangguan R M double reed-pipe yangqin ih , dulcimer

d. Notational symbols chuo I ( O ) rising glissando er -a / 2 stop string with second finger

lagong - (t 5) "pulled" bow, sometimes written: rn

kong '-( ) open string nei h inner (lower-pitched) string san _ /3 stop string with third finger si U / 4 stop string with fourth finger

tuigong - (t 5) "pushed" bow, sometimes written: v

wai 4 outer (higher-pitched) string yi - / 1 stop string with first (index) finger zhu S' (-A ) descending glissando arrows, eg. \ I' / these graphically portray the contour of the desired glissando


e. Other terms

bangziqiang m f A3 collective term for related styles of Chinese opera

chuida <X T' [music for] wind and percussion ensemble

gongchepu I R% 4 traditional Chinese notation based on symbols of relative pitch

dajigong * $ 9 "large struck bow"

gu qu 5 Wf ancient piece haozi *~ T work song

Jiangnan sizhu 'I if if IT [music for] "silk and bamboo" instrumental ensemble of

the Jiangnan region kuaisu shuang xian dougong 'M it i SE3t k high speed tremolo on both

strings

kunqu fEl literary opera style liandungong t x 5 linked, pausing bow

luogu V7 i [music for] percussion ensemble

yangbanxi a' 'i - model operas Zenyang Xizou Erhu << .' 9 = " >> "How to learn the erhu", method by

Chen Zhenduo (1941)

REFERENCES

Anon. (1957) Erhu Duzou Qu Ji [A collection of erhu solos]. Beijing: Music Publisher. Association (1987) = Chinese Musicians' Association (ed.) 1949-1979 Erhu Qu Xuan [A

selection of erhu pieces from 1949-1979]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher. (1989) = This Association (ed.) Erhu Qu Ji Di Ba Ji [A collection of erhu pieces, vol. 8].

Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publisher (1990) = This Association (ed.) Erhu Qu Ji DiJiu Ji [A collection of erhu pieces, vol. 9].

Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publisher. Baily, John (1977) "Movement patterns in playing the Herati dutar." In John Blacking (ed.) The

anthropology of the body, pp.275-330. London: Academic Press. Blacking, John (1977) "Some problems of theory and method in the study of musical

change."Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 9:1-26. Chen Yingshi et al. (1989) Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue Da Xi: Gudai Yinyue Juan [Chinese

traditional music series: Ancient music volume]. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publisher. Chen Zhenduo (1951) Erhu Yanzou Fa [Erhu performance method]. Shanghai: Wanli Bookshop

Printers. DLH-11 (n.d.) Selected works of Aaron Avshalamov. Shanghai: China Record Company.

[Record] Fang Wenxi (1938) Huqin Yanjiu [Huqin research]. Beijing: Wen Lanyi Printing Bureau. Gulik, Robert van (1969) The lore of the Chinese lute. Tokyo: Tuttle. HL-536 (1988) Selected erhu solos by Min Huifen. Shanghai: China Record Company. [Cassette] Hollingworth, Clare (1987) Mao. London: Triad Paladin. Hong Kong (1988) Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra 12th professional season subsription booking

scheme. Hong Kong: Urban Council. Jiang Jing (1991) "The influence of traditional Chinese music on professional instrumental

composition." Asian Music 22.2:83-96. Jiang Qing and Jiang Fengzhi (1989) Jiang Fengzhi Erhu Yanzou Yishu [Jiang Fengzhi's art of

erhu performance]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher.

87


Jiang Tianyi (1922) Xiaodiao Gongchepu [Gongche notation melodies]. Shanghai: Shanghai World Books.

Kraus, Richard (1983) "China's cultural 'liberalization' and conflict over the social organization of the arts." Modern China 9.2:212-27.

Laloy, Louis (1909) La musique chinoise. Paris: Laurens. Linfair 61015 (1987) Concerto for Di-zi, Er-hu and Orchestra. Taipei: Linfair. [Cassette] Liu Beimao (1957) Erhu Chuangzuo Qu Ji [A collection of erhu compositions]. Beijing: Music

Publisher. Liu, Terence M. (1988) The development of the Chinese two-stringed lute erhu following the New

Culture Movement (c1915-1985). Unpub. Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State Univ. (DA 88- 27170).

Liu Yuhe (1985) Liu Tianhua Chuangzuo Qu Ji [A collection of Liu Tianhua's compositions]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher.

Lu Xiutang (1969) Erhu Duzou Qu Ba Shou [Eight solos for erhu]. Shanghai: Art Publisher. Mao Yunm (1991) "Music under Mao, its background and aftermath." Asian Music 22.2:97-125. Miao Tianrui et al. (1985) Zhongguo Yinyue Cidian [A dictionary of Chinese music]. Beijing:

People's Music Publisher. Peng Xiuwen (1987) Buqu de Su Wu [Unyielding Su Wu]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher.

[Score] Perris, Arnold (1983) "Music as propaganda: art at the command of doctrine in the P.R.C."

Ethnomusicology 27.1:1-28. Picken, Laurence E. R. (1965) "Early Chinese friction-chordophones." Galpin Society Journal

18:82-9. Powell, Jarrad (1987) "Score: Gending Erhu." Balungan 3:15-20. Stock, Jonathan (1991) Context and creativity: The two-stringed fiddle erhu in contemporary

China. Unpub. Ph.D. diss., Queen's Univ. of Belfast. (1993a) "A historical account of the Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu." To appear in

Galpin Society Journal 46. (1993b) 'Three erhu pieces by Abing: an analysis of improvisational processes in Chinese

traditional instrumental music." To appear in Asian Music 24.2. Wang Yi (1980) Erhu Qu Ji Di Yi Ji [A collection of erhu pieces, Volume 1 ]. Shanghai: Shanghai

Art Publisher. Witzleben, J. Lawrence (1987) "Jiangnan Sizhu music clubs in Shanghai: context, concept and

identity." Ethnomusicology 31.2:240-60. Wu Choukang (1975) "The erh-hu and pipa." Chinese Literature 1:100-5. Xiao Xinghua (1983) "Erhu Xiezuoqu 'Changcheng Suixiang' " [The "Great Wall Fantasy" erhu

Concerto]. Zhongguo Yinyue 3:64-8. Ye Dong (1983) Minzu Qiyue de Ticai yu Xingshi [The form and structure of national instrumental

music]. Shanghai: Shanghai Art Publisher. Yu Siu Wah (1985) Three Er-hu pieces from Jiangnan. Unpub. M.A. diss., Queen's Univ. of

Belfast. Zhang Rui et al. (1987) Mingqu Xinshang yu Yanzou [The performance and appreciation of

famous pieces]. Beijing: People's Liberation Army Art Publisher. Zhang Shao (1989) Erhu Guangbo Jiaoxue Jiangzuo [A broadcast course in erhu teaching].

Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publisher. and Tang Liangde (1975) Erhu Yanzou Fa [Erhu performance method]. Beijing: People's

Music Publisher. Zhong Qingming (1989) Huqin Qiyuan Bianzheng [A dialectical discussion on the origin of the

huqin]. Yinyue Xuexi yu Yanjiu 2:33-9.

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