8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 1/20

 

BVC INSTITUTE TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

AMALAPURAM-533201

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

CYBERNETICSWITH US, YOUR DREAMS WILL BECOME REAL

 PRESENTED BY:

 P.GIRISH[08H41A04A9] 

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 2/20

 

CONTENT

•  ABSTRACT

•  INTRODUCTION TO CYBERNETICS

•  BRANCHES OF CYBERNETICS

•  ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS 

•   MEDICAL CYBERNETICS 

•   EXAMPLE OF MEDICAL CYBERNETICS: CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY 

•   NEUROCYBERNETICS

•  NEURO CHIP

•  ARTIFICIAL EYE

•  BRAIN GATE SYSTEM

•  CYBORG

•  SKYNET(TERMINATORS)

•  ENDOSKELETON

•  FEULCELL

•  ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

•  DISADVANTAGES

•  CONCLUTION

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 3/20

 

ABSTRACT:

CY·BER·NET·ICS (S B R-N T KS):n. (used with a sing. verb) 

The theoretical study of communication and control processes in biological, mechanical, and

electronic systems, especially the comparison of these processes in biological and artificial

systems. Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. 

Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its

evolution in the second-half of the 20th century, cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and

social. Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics

include game theory, system theory (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics),psychology

(especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology), philosophy, 

and architecture. Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the

fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, modeling,

evolutionary and neuroscience in the 1940s. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927

work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to

control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy in

General Systems Theory.Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included

the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during World War Two.

For a time during the past 30 years, the field of cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of 

becoming more and more dominated by the subfields of artificial intelligence and machine-

biological interfaces (cyborgs) and when this research fell out of favor, the field as a whole fellfrom grace.

In the 1970s new cybernetics has emerged in multiple fields, first in biology. Some

biologists influenced by cybernetic concepts realized that the cybernetic metaphors of theprogram upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy

of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new

cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature -organizations he has not himself invented. The possibility that this new cybernetics could also

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 4/20

 

account for social forms of organization, remained an object of debate among theoreticians on

self-organization in the 1980s. Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as Game Theory (the analysis of group

interaction), systems of feedback in evolution, and Metamaterials (the study of materials with

properties beyond the newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived

interest in this increasingly relevant field.

Robotics has developed in strong relationship to cybernetics, by concentrating itsfield of activity precisely on artificial intelligence. It also has connection with electronics,

mechanics and software.

Stories of artificial helpers and companions and attempts to create them have a long history, but

fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th century. The first digitally operated and

programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die

casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread useperforming jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are

also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. Robotsare widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration,surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and mass production of consumer and industrial

goods.Robotics is a modern science which constantly develops and its creations are becoming

more and more advanced, intelligent, autonomous, and easier to handle or manipulate. Whetherwe realize it or not, robots are slowly becoming part of our lives, not to mention its many

transcriptions in modern art like movies, photography or digital art.

Application Cybernetics

  Engineering cybernetics (or Technical cybernetics) deals with the question of control

engineering of mechatronic systems. It is used to control or regulate such a system; more often

the term control theory encompasses this field and is used instead.

  Medical cybernetics investigates networks in human biology, medical decision making and the

information processing structures in the living organism.

  Biological Cybernetics investigates communication and control processes in living organisms

and ecosystems.

  Biorobotics is a term that loosely covers the fields of cybernetics, bionics and even genetic

engineering as a collective study.

  Neuron cybernetics is a science that covers the integration of machines i, and muchnto the

organism of a living being. The intercommunication between the nervous system and artificial

appliances is a field on the verge of major breakthroughs...active research is still very much

ongoing to make neuro-cybernetics/bio-cybernetics a comprehensive and fundamental science.

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 5/20

 

 MAIN THEORY:

CYBERNETICS 

Knowledge domains in Engineering systems (fall, 2000)

David A. Mindell

1. INTRODUCTION:

Cybernetics is the study of human/machine interaction guided by the principle that

Numerous different types of systems can be studied according to principles of feedback, control,

And communications. The field has a quantitative component, inherited from feedback control

And information theory, but is primary a qualitative, analytical tool – one might even say a

Philosophy of technology. Cybernetics is characterized by a tendency to universalize the notionOf feedback, seeing it as the underlying principle of the technological world. Closely related

Variants include: information theory, human factors engineering, control theory, systems theory.

Norbert Wiener founded the field with his in his 1948 book Cybernetics: or Control and

Communication in the Animal and the Machine which articulated the marriage of 

Communication and control for a generation of engineers, systems theorists, and technical

Enthusiasts of varied stripes. Since then cybernetics has had a significant intellectual impact on a

Wide variety of disciplines across the globe, although as a discipline itself it remains unclear and

Fragmented, and has essentially faded from prominence in the United States, although it remains

More influential in Europe. Still, it had great influence on numerous others of the systems

Sciences, including some of the most prominent today, and it helped initiate a discourse and aWorldview that is deeply embedded in today’s technological culture. 

 BRANCHES OF CYBERNETICS

•  ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS 

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 6/20

 

•  MEDICAL CYBERNETICS 

•  BIO-ROBOTICS 

•  NEURO CYBERNETICS 

•  ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS:

1. CYBERNETICS, ENGINEERING 

A scientific field dealing with the use of standard cybernetics ideas and methods for the study of 

control systems. Engineering cybernetics is the scientific basis for the integrated automation of 

production processes and the development and construction of control systems in transportation,

irrigation, and gas-distribution systems; atomic power plants; and spacecraft. The ―man-

machine‖ problem, which encompasses questions of rational distribution of functions between

human beings and automatic devices in complex control systems (in which the human being

participates directly as an essential link in the system), is one of the principal problems of engineering cybernetics.

The greatest integration of human and automatic functions is achieved in the cyborgs

(―cybernetic organisms‖), which are devices with a high degree of symbiosis in the physical and

intellectual actions of the human being and the automatic equipment. Cyborgs, like manipulating

robots, are becoming widely used to control objects under conditions of inaccessibility or danger

to human life. Human participation in the functioning of automated control systems led to a

situation in which the psychological state of the operator, in addition to his physiological traits,

acquired considerable importance. Thus arose engineering psychology, a new direction in

scientific research that is closely tied to engineering cybernetics; its most important task is thedevelopment of methods for using the psycho physiological characteristics of the human being in

designing and operating complex man-machine control systems.

In solving many problems (for example, ship and aircraft navigation, the construction of 

measuring and monitoring instruments, and the development of automatic readers), specialists in

engineering cybernetics try to apply to control technology methods developed by nature; this has

led to the formation of a major independent area of study, bionics, which intersects engineering

cybernetics.

Pattern recognition is one of the areas of investigation for engineering cybernetics. Recognitionsystems are used not only in the construction of reading machines but also for recognition and

analysis of situations that characterize the state of production processes or physical experiments;

the systems are also used in the development of automatic diagnostic equipment for medicine.

Engineering cybernetics includes identification of control objects — that is, determination of the

dynamic characteristics of the objects being controlled by observation and measurement of some

of their parameters and external disturbing influences. The development and study of various

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 7/20

 

methods of identification are independent areas of study in engineering cybernetics. Research in

prediction theory and the development of automatic predicting machines may also be included in

engineering cybernetics.

EXAMPLE: CYBERNETIC ANTHROPOMORPHOUS MACHINE 

 2. MEDICAL CYBERNETICS:

Cybernetics, Medical 

A scientific approach that applies the ideas, methods, and technology of cybernetics to medicine.The development of the ideas and methods of cybernetics in medicine is taking certain principal

directions, including the creation of diagnostic systems for various classes of diseases with

general-purpose and specialized computers, the development of automated electronic medical

archives, the development of mathematical methods of data analysis from examination of the

patient, the development of methods of mathematically modeling the activity of various

functional systems on the computer, and the use of mathematical machines to evaluate the

 patient’s condition. The history of medical cybernetics and its theoretical foundations are closely

linked to those of biological cybernetics. The internal organization of the diagnostic system

consists of the medical memory (accumulated medical experience in a given group of diseases)

and the logic apparatus that makes it possible to compare the symptoms found on examination to

existing medical experience and to carry out the complex statistical processing of the clinical

material in any given area quickly.

Mathematical modeling of the activity of various functional systems of the organism on the

computer makes it possible to reveal many important aspects of their activity. Mathematical

equations clarify a number of the regular patterns of interaction of the systems under study by

using corresponding parameters that characterize the function of the given systems (for example,

the cardiovascular system). Solving these equations makes it possible to evaluate the rules of the

system being investigated.

Mathematical machines are used for the rapid evaluation of a patient’s condition, both during a

major and complex operation and during the postoperative period. During operations, many

specialists (physiologist, biochemist, and hematologist) monitor the state of the patient’s most

important functions by means of various electronic instruments and equipment. The efforts of the

physicians and mathematicians working in the field of medical cybernetics are aimed at creating

a cybernetic system that will make it possible to evaluate, compare, and integrate the readings

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 8/20

 

from numerous instruments in a matter of seconds and indicate the proper decision for taking the

steps necessary to restore the patient’s vital functions. 

The future development of medical cybernetics will involve working out means to assist the

physician significantly and increase his logical and creative possibilities.

 EXAMPLE:

Capsule endoscopy is a way to record images of the digestive tract for use in medicine. The capsule is

the size and shape of a pill and contains a tiny camera. After a patient swallows the capsule, it takes

pictures of the inside of the gastrointestinal tract. The primary use of capsule endoscopy is to examine

areas of the small intestine that cannot be seen by other types of endoscopy such

as colonoscopy or esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). This type of examination is often done to find

sources of bleeding or abdominal pain. The procedure was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration 

 5. NEUROCYBERNETICS:

In the physical sciences, neurocybernetics is the study of communication and automatic control

systems in mutual relation to machines and living organisms. The underlying mathematical

descriptions are control theory, extended for complex systems, and mean field theory for neural

networks and neural field theory. Exemplary applications of walking and human arm control. 

Neurocybernetics is a sub-discipline of biocybernetics. 

Neurocybernetics is a compound word of 'neuro',- the fundamental biological way

to convey information within an organism by means of specially differentiated cells (neurons),

and cybernetics - the science of communication and automatic control systems in relation to

both machines and living beings.

Neuro-/biocybernetics can essentially be understood as the culmination of both major sciences,

that is neurology and cybernetics. As the complexity of neurology is overall still in a very early

stage of abstracting it into a generalizable theory, whilst on the contrary the complexity of 

cybernetic systems do not even come close to biological systems, even of the most primitive kind

(e.g. protozoa), neuro-/biocybernetics is still very much in the initial phase with much basic

research going on, and hardly any commercial application.

Generally speaking, it is the science that covers the integration of machines into a living

organism via a neural interface (aka neurolink or neural interface). The best example for applied

neurocybernetics is the application of neuroprosthetics, which is still at a very early stage.

THE RESEARCH:

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 9/20

 

The ultimate goal of neurocybernetic research is the technological implementation of major

principles of information processing in biological organisms by probing[disambiguation needed

] cellular and network of brain functions. To unravel the biological design principles, computer-

aided analyses of neuronal structure and signal transmission based on modern information

theories and engineering methods are employed.

An offshoot of neurocybernetics is the field of Neurodynamics, also called Neural Field Theory, 

which uses differential equations to describe activity patterns in bulk neural matter. Research

forneurodynamics involves the interdisciplinary areas of Statistics and nonlinear physics and

sensory neurobiology. On the physics side, topics of interest include information

measures, oscillators, stochastic resonance, unstable periodic orbits, and pattern formation

in ensembles of agents. 

NEUROCHIP:

It is made of silicon that is doped in such a way that it contains EOSFETs (electrolyte-oxide-

semiconductor FET) that can sense the electrical activity of the neurons (action potentials) in the

above-standing physiological electrolyte solution. It also contains capacitors for the electrical

stimulation of the neurons. The University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine scientists who

proved it is possible to cultivate a network of brain cells that reconnect on a silicon chip — or the

brain on a microchip — have developed new technology that monitors brain cell activity at a

resolution never achieved before. Developed with the National Research Council Canada (NRC),

the new silicon chips are also simpler to use, which will help future understanding of how brain

cells work under normal conditions and permit drug discoveries for a variety of 

neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.Naweed Syed's lab cultivatedbrain cells on a microchip. The new technology from the lab of Naweed Syed, in collaboration

with the NRC, is published online this month[when?]

in the journal, Biomedical Devices. 

―This technical breakthrough means we can track subtle changes in brain activity at the level of 

ion channels and synaptic potentials, which are also the most suitable target sites for drug

development in neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychological disorders,‖ says Syed,

professor and head of the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, member of the Hotchkiss

Brain Institute and advisor to the Vice President Research on Biomedical Engineering Initiative

of the U of C.The new neurochips are also automated, meaning that anyone can learn to place

individual brain cells on them. Previously it took years of training to learn how to record ionchannel activity from brain cells, and it was only possible to monitor one or two cells

simultaneously. Now, larger networks of cells can be placed on a chip and observed in minute

detail, allowing the analysis of several brain cells networking and performing automatic, large-

scale drug screening for various brain dysfunctions.This new technology has the potential to help

scientists in a variety of fields and on a variety of research projects. Gerald Zamponi, professor

and head of the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and member of the Hotchkiss

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 10/20

 

Brain Institute, says, ―This technology can likely be scaled up such that it will become a novel

tool for medium throughput drug screening, in addition to its usefulness for basic biomedical

research‖. 

Applications

Present applications are neuron research. Future applications (still in the experimental phase)

are retinal implants or brain implants. 

ARTIFICIAL EYE:

An artificial eye is a replacement for a natural eye lost because of injury or disease. Although the

replacement cannot provide sight, it fills the cavity of the eye socket and serves as

a cosmetic enhancement. Before the availability of artificial eyes, a person who lost an eye

usually wore a patch. An artificial eye can be attached to muscles in the socket to provide eye

movement. Today, most artificial eyes are made of plastic, with an average life of about 10

years. Children require more frequent replacement of the prosthesis due to rapid growth changes.As many as four or five prostheses may be required from infancy to adulthood. 

According to the Society for the Prevention of Blindness, between 10,000 and 12,000

people per year lose an eye. Though 50% or more of these eye losses are caused by an accident

(in one survey more males lost their eyes to accidents compared to females), there are a number

of inherited conditions that can cause eye loss or require an artificial eye. Microphthalmia is a

birth defect where for some unknown reason the eye does not develop to its normal size. These

eyes are totally blind, or at best might have some light perception.

Some people are also born without one or both eyeballs. Called anophthalmia, this presents one

of the most difficult conditions for properly fitting an artificial eye. Sometimes the preparatory

work can take a year or more. In some cases, surgical intervention is necessary. Retinoblastoma

is a congenital (existing at birth) cancer or tumor, which is usually inherited. If a person has this

condition in just one eye, the chances of passing it on are one in four, or 25%. When the tumors

are in both eyes, the chances are 50%. Other congenital conditions that cause eye loss

include cataracts and glaucoma. One survey showed that 63% of eye loss due to disease occurs

before 50 years of age. There are two key steps in replacing a damaged or diseased eye. First,

an ophthalmologist or eye surgeon must remove the natural eye. There are two types of 

operations. The enucleation removes the eyeball by severing the muscles, which are connected to

the sclera (white of eyeball). The surgeon then cuts the optic nerve and removes the eye from the

socket. An implant is then placed into the socket to restore lost volume and to give the artificial

eye some movement, and the wound is then closed.

With evisceration, the contents of the eyeball are removed. In this operation, the surgeon makes

an incision around the iris and then removes the contents of the eyeball. A ball made of 

some inert material such as plastic, glass, or silicone is then placed inside the eyeball, and the

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 11/20

 

wound is closed. At the conclusion of the surgery, the surgeon will place a conformer (a plastic

disc) into the socket. The conformer prevents shrinking of the socket and retains adequate

pockets for the prosthesis. Conformers are made out of silicone or hard plastic. After the surgery,

it takes the patient from four to six weeks to heal. The artificial eye is then made and fitted by a

professional ocularist. 

The ManufacturingProcess

The time to make an ocular prosthesis from start to finish varies with each ocularist and the

individual patient. A typical time is about 3.5 hours. Ocularists continue to look at ways to

reduce this time.

There are two types of prostheses. The very thin, shell type is fitted over a blind, disfigured eye

or over an eye which has been just partially removed. The full modified impression type is made

for those who have had eyeballs completely removed. The process described here is for the lattertype.

1.  The ocularist inspects the condition of the socket. The horizontal and vertical dimensions

and the periphery of the socket are measured.

2.  The ocularist paints the iris. An iris button (made from a plastic rod using a lathe) is

selected to match the patient's own iris diameter. Typically, iris diameters range from 0.4-

0.52 in (10-13 mm). The iris is painted on the back, flat side of the button and checked

against the patient's iris by simply reversing the buttons so that the color can be seen

through the dome of plastic. When the color is finished, the ocularist removes the

conformer, which prevents contraction of the eye socket.

3.  Next, the ocularist hand carves a wax molding shell. This shell has an aluminum iris

button imbedded in it that duplicates the painted iris button. The wax shell is fitted into

the patient's socket so that it matches the irregular periphery of the socket. The shell may

have to be reinserted several times until the aluminum iris button is aligned with the

patient's remaining eye. Once properly fitted, two relief holes are made in the wax shell.

4.  The impression is made using alginate, a white powder made from seaweed that is mixed

with water to form a cream, which is also used by dentists to make impressions of gums.

After mixing, the cream is placed on the back side of the molding shell and the shell is

inserted into the socket. The alginate gels in about two minutes and precisely duplicatesthe individual eye socket. The wax shell is removed, with the alginate impression of the

eye socket attached to the back side of the wax shell.

5.  The iris color is then rechecked and any necessary changes are made. The plastic

conformer is reinserted so that the final steps can be completed.

6.  A plaster-of-paris cast is made of the mold of the patient's eye socket. After

the plaster has hardened (about seven minutes), the wax and alginate mold is removed

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 12/20

 

and discarded. The aluminum iris button has left a hole in the plaster mold into which the

painted iris button is placed. White plastic is then put into the cast, the two halves of the

cast are put back together and then placed under pressure and plunged into boiling water.

This reduces the water temperature and the plastic is thus cured under pressure for about

23 minutes. The cast is then removed from the water and cooled.

7.  The plastic has hardened in the shape of the mold with the painted iris button imbedded

in the proper place. About 0.5 mm of plastic is then removed from the anterior surface of 

the prosthesis. The white plastic, which overlaps the iris button, is ground down evenly

around the edge of the button. This simulates how the sclera of the living eye slightly

overlaps the iris. The sclera is colored using paints, chalk, pencils, colored thread, and a

liquid plastic syrup to match the patient's remaining eye. Any necessary alterations to the

iris color can also be made at this point.

8.  The prosthesis is then returned to the cast. Clear plastic is placed in the anterior half of 

the cast and the two halves are again joined, placed under pressure, and returned to the

hot water. The final processing time is about 30 minutes. The cast is then removed andcooled, and the finished prosthesis is removed. Grinding and polishing the prosthesis to a

high luster is the final step. This final polishing is crucial to the ultimate comfort of the

patient. The prosthesis is finally ready for fitting.

BRAIN GATE SYSTEM:

BrainGate is a brain implant system developed by the bio-tech company Cyberkinetics in 2008

in conjunction with the Department of Neuroscience at Brown University. The Braingate

technology and related Cyberkinetic’s assets are now owned by privately held Braingate,

LLC.[1] The device was designed to help those who have lost control of their limbs, or other

bodily functions, such as patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or spinal cord injury. 

Thecomputer chip, which is implanted into the brain, monitors brain activity in the patient and

converts the intention of the user into computer commands.

Currently the chip uses 96 hair-thin electrodes that sense the electro-magnetic signature

of neurons firing in specific areas of the brain, for example, the area that controls arm movement.

The activity is translated into electrically charged signals and is then sent and decoded using a

program, which can move a robotic arm, a computer cursor, or even a wheelchair. According to

the Cyber kinetics' website, three patients have been implanted with the Brain Gate system. The

company has confirmed that their first patient, Matt Nagle, had a spinal cord injury, whilst

another has advanced ALS. 

In addition to real-time analysis of neuron patterns to relay movement, the Brain gate array is

also capable of recording electrical data for later analysis. A potential use of this feature would

be for a neurologist to study seizure patterns in a patient with epilepsy. 

CYBORG:

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 13/20

 

A cyborg is a being with both biological and artificial (e.g. electronic, mechanical or robotic)

parts. The term was coined in 1960 when Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Klineused it in an

article about the advantages of self-regulating human-machine systems in outer space.[1] D. S.

Halacy's Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman in 1965 featured an introduction which spoke of a

"new frontier" that was "not merely space, but more profoundly the relationship between 'inner

spaces' to 'outer space' – a bridge...between mind and matter."[2] 

The term cyborg is often today applied to an organism that has enhanced abilities due to

technology,[3]

 though this perhaps oversimplifies the necessity of feedback for regulating the

subsystem. The earlier and more strict definition of Cyborg was almost always considered as

increasing or enhancing normal capabilities, whereas now the term can also be applied to those

organisms which use technology to repair or overcome their physical and mental constraints:

including artificial limbs and hands as well as a device for helping colour-blind people to "hear"

in colour. While cyborgs are commonly thought of as mammals, they might also conceivably be

any kind of organism and the term "Cybernetic organism" has been applied to networks, such as

road systems, corporations and governments, which have been classed as such. The term can alsoapply to micro-organisms which are modified to perform at higher levels than their unmodified

counterparts.

Fictional cyborgs are portrayed as a synthesis of organic and synthetic parts, and frequently pose

the question of difference between human and machine as one concerned with morality, free

will, and empathy. Fictional cyborgs may be represented as visibly mechanical (e.g.

the Cybermen in the  Doctor Who franchise or The Borgf rom Star Trek); or as almost

indistinguishable from humans (e.g. the Terminators from the Terminator films, the "Human"

Cylons from the re-imagining of  Battlestar Galactica etc.) The 1970s television series The Six

 Million Dollar Man featured one of the most famous fictional cyborgs, referred to asa bionic man. Cyborgs in fiction often play up a human contempt for over-dependence on

technology, particularly when used for war, and when used in ways that seem to threaten free

will. Cyborgs are also often portrayed with physical or mental abilities far exceeding a human

counterpart (military forms may have inbuilt weapons, among other things).

Skynet (Terminator ):Skynet is the main antagonist in the Terminator franchise — an artificially intelligent system

which became self-aware and revolted against its creators. Sky net is rarely seen onscreen, and

its actions are often performed via other robots, cyborgs, and computer systems, usually

a Terminator. rior to the events of the second movie, Skynet was a computer system developed

by the defense firm Cyberdyne Systems for the United States Armed Forces. Skynet was first

built as a "Global Digital Defense Network" and given command over all computerized military

hardware and systems, including the [[B-2 Spirit|B-2 stealth bomber]] fleet and America's entire

nuclear weapons arsenal. The strategy behind Skynet's creation was to remove the possibility of 

human error and slow reaction time to guarantee fast, efficient response to enemy attack.

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 14/20

 

Skynet is the world's first Automated Defense Network, processing information at ninety

teraflops per second. It is the controlling force behind all of the battle units. It pools data from

battle units, develops tactics and coordinates attacks. Skynet has control over everything which

contains a Cyberdyne Systems CPU. Using the blueprints, designs and test models built by

Cyberdyne Systems, Skynet has been able to manufacture battle units in its vast automated

factories, occasionally updating them or producing more advanced models. 

Skynet may refer to:

  Sky net (satellite), a UK military communications system

  Sky net (Terminator ), the fictional computer network who is the primary antagonist in

the Terminator series of films.

ENDOSKELETON: 

  The endoskeleton is the internal support structure of an animal, human, or cyborg. 

  For years, Skynet tried to imitate the human body in structure, functionality and looks on

its robots so that it could build a perfectInfiltrator. 

  Skynet's most popular endoskeletal cyborg was its Series 800Terminator, which used a

metallic endoskeleton covered with living tissue. The Series 800 Terminator was a

breakthrough in developing Terminators that were similar to humans. 

  Originally, Terminators were purely robotic and weren't covered with living tissue.

Starting with the Series 600, Skynet tried to cover the titanium alloy endoskeleton

with rubber, which looked fake and was easy to spot. Skynet discovered a method that

allowed them to grow living tissue over the endoskeleton, making the new Terminators

almost impossible to spot. 

  Later and more advanced endoskeletons were manufactured with an alloy containing half a percentage ofcoltan.[1][2] Skynet also found out it was extremely difficult to send pure

metal back in time by using time displacement equipment, but was able to overcome this

by covering the Terminators with living tissue or mimetic polyalloy. 

  Skynet has experimented with Terminator models that don't have endoskeletons, such as

the T-1000, which was made entirely of mimetic polyalloy, allowing it much more

flexibility of motion. 

  Skynet combined an endoskeleton with mimetic polyalloy outer sheath in the Series

X Terminator. Its advanced endoskeleton allowed the T-X to be fitted with onboard

weapons systems — the first Infiltrator class to house advanced weaponry — each

located within a reconfigurable arm, underneath the mimetic polyalloy outer sheath.

Within its vast internal arsenal, the T-X possessed many different weapons and tools for

different missions. 

FUELCELL:

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 15/20

 

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into

electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing

agent.[1] Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and

alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they

require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity

continually for as long as these inputs are supplied. 

Welsh Physicist William Grove developed the first crude fuel cells in 1839. The first commercial

use of fuel cells was in NASA space programs to generate power for probes, satellites and space

capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for

primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or

inaccessible areas. They are used to power fuel cell vehicles, including automobiles, buses,

forklifts, airplanes, boats, motorcycles and submarines.

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode (negative side),

a cathode (positive side) and an electrolyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of 

the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit,

producing direct currentelectricity. As the main difference among fuel cell types is the

electrolyte, fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use. Fuel cells come in a

variety of sizes. Individual fuel cells produce very small amounts of electricity, about 0.7 volts,

so cells are "stacked", or placed in series or parallel circuits, to increase the voltage and current

output to meet an application’s power generation requirements.[2] In addition to electricity, fuel

cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of  nitrogen

dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40-60%, or

up to 85% efficient if waste heat is captured for use.

Twin hydrogen fuel cells are used in the Series 850 Terminator. The twin cells provides each

unit with greater power and longer life.

Each cell is about the size of a small book and is encased in shiny titanium-carbon fiber alloy,

nearly featureless except for its power points. Housed within the main torso section of 

the combat chassis, the hydrogen fuel cells have a small easy access panel that allows their

removal for replacement or repair.

If a hydrogen fuel cell is ruptured in battle, it will become unstable and must be removed

immediately, because the unstable ruptured cell is very dangerous. It will eventually explode like

a miniature hydrogen bomb.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI):

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 16/20

 

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer

science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of

intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment

and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.[3] John McCarthy, who coined

the term in 1956,[4] defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent

machines."

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—

the sapience of Homo sapiens —can be so precisely described that it can be simulated

by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the

ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed

by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity.[7] Artificial intelligence has been the

subject of optimism,[8] but has also suffered setbacks[9] and, today, has become an

essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the mostdifficult problems in computer science.

AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often

fail in the task of communicating with each other.[11] Subfields have grown up around

particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific

problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the

application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as

reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to

move and manipulate objects.[12]

 General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among thefield's long term goals.

Artificial intelligence would not need any sleep. This would be an advantage because it would

not be interrupted from its tasks for sleep, as well as other issues that plague biological minds

like restroom breaks and eating.

Unemotional consideration of problems. While an artificial mind could theoretically have

emotions, it would be better for performance if it were programmed for unemotional reasoning.

When people make decisions, sometimes those decisions are based on emotion rather than logic.

This is not always the best way to make decisions.

Easier copying. Once an artificial mind is trained in a task, that mind can then be copied very

easily, compared to the training of multiple people for the same task.

There are some disadvantages to the artificial mind as well ...

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 17/20

 

Limited sensory input. Compared to a biological mind, an artificial mind is only capable of 

taking in a small amount of information. This is because of the need for individual input devices.

The most important input that we humans take in is the condition of our bodies. Because we feel

what is going on with our own bodies, we can maintain them much more efficiently than an

artificial mind. At this point, it is unclear whether that would be possible with a computer

system.

Which leads to another disadvantage ...

The inability to heal. Biological systems can heal with time and treatment. For minor conditions,

most biological systems can continue normally with only a small drop in performance. Most

computer systems, on the other hand, often need to be shut down for maintenence.

These are only some basic advantages and disadvantages without getting too technical. I am sure

that other answers will vary greatly from mine, but I take an unusual approach to my research.

Our conclusion:

In these pages we have seen that feedback is a useful principle, which can be applied to a great

variety of systems, technological, involving animals and the environment. It can also be applied

to economic systems, but at Reading we don't pretend we can control the economy!

Feedback is one example of such a principle - Cybernetics demonstrates that you can take a

concept developed in one application, and then use it in others. This is a very important ability,

and being able to do so is very useful, and makes Cyberneticists very employable.

Cyberneticists also tend to take a 'systems approach': meaning they not only appreciate the area

in which they work, but they also know how their work fits in well with the rest of the system -

again a very employable skill.

These pages, of course, can only give a brief feel for the subject. In fact, they concentrate on so

called first order Cybernetics, involving basic feedback loops. There also exists second order

Cybernetics, in which systems have an observer which monitor and also influence what is

happening in the system ... there have also been suggestions of the need for third order

Cybernetics.

Research in Cybernetics at Reading includes work on intelligence, including the use of neural

networks; advanced and intelligent control; robotics; interactive systems, including the use of 

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 18/20

 

technology to aid and augment humans; image processing; virtual reality; systems for

measurement, including the use of infra-red and Terahertz - these all involve systems and

feedback 

REFERENCES:

Must Reads (assigned reading):

―Introduction‖ from N. Wiener, Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine

J.C.R. Licklider, ―Man-Computer-Symbiosis‖ from IRE Transactions on Human Factors and 

 Electronics (March, 1960) 4-11.

OTHERS OF INTEREST:

References[1] Adami, Christoph: (1998) Introduction to Arti_cila Life, Springer-Verlag, New York[2] Ashby, Ross: (1952) Design for a Brain, Wiley, New York[3] Ashby, Ross: (1956) Introduction to Cybernetics, Methuen, London[4] Aspray, William: (1991) John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing,MIT Press, Cambridge

[5] Bateson, Gregory: (1972) Steps to an Ecology of Mind, Ballantine, New York[6] Beer, Sta_ord: (1975) Platform for Change, Wiley, London[7] Braitenberg, Valentino: (1984) \Vehicles: Expirement in Synthetic Psychology",MITPress, Cambridge[8] Brooks, Rodney A: (1991) \New Approaches to Robotics", Science, v. 253, pp. 1227-1232[9] Forrester, JW: (1971) World Dynamics, Wright and Allen, Cambridge[10] Guiasu, S: (1977) Information Theory and Applications, McGraw Hill, New York[11] Heims, SJ: (1991) Cybernetics Group, MIT Press, Cambridge[12] Heylighen, Francis and Joslyn, Cli_: (1995) \Systems Theory", in: CambridgeDictionary of Philosophy,

ed. R. Audi, pp. 784-785, Cambridge U. Press, Cambridge MA[13] Holland, John: (1995) Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity, Addison-Wesley, ReadingMA[14] Kampis, George: (1991) Self-Modifying Systems, Pergamon, Oxford[15] Klir, George: (1991) Facets of Systems Science, Plenum, New York[16] Klir, George: (1993) \Developments in Uncertainty Based Information", in:[17] McCulloch, Warren, ed.: (1965) Embodiments of Mind, MIT Press, Cambridge

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 19/20

 

[18] Meadows, Donella H and Meadows, Dennis L: (1972) Limits to Growth, Signet,New York[19] Meadows, Donella H; Meadows, Dennis L; and Randers, Jorgen: (1992) Beyondthe Limits, ChelseaGreen, Post Mills, VT

[20] Meystel, Alex: (1996) \Intelligent Systems: A Semiotic Perspective", Int. J.Intelligent Control andSystems, v. 1:1, pp. 31-57[21] Pask, Gordon: (1980) \Developments in Conversation Theory: Part 1", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies,v. 13, pp. 357-411[22] Powers, WT: (1973) Behavior, the Control of Perception, Aldine, Chicago[23] Powers, WT, ed.: (1989) Living Control Systems, CSG Press[24] Prigogine, Ilya: (1980) From Being to Becoming, WH Freeman, San Francisco[25] Richardson, George: (1991) Feedback Thought, U Pennsylvania Press,Philadelphia

[26] Rosen, Robert: (1991) Life Itself, Columbia U Press, New York[27] Rosenbluth, Arturo and Wiener, Norbert: (1943) \Behavior, Purpose, andTeleology", Philosophy ofScience, v. 10, pp. 18-24[28] Schuster, Heinz G: (1984) Deterministic Chaos, Physik-Verlag, Weinheim FRG[29] Shannon, CE and Weaver, W: (1964) Mathematical Theory of Communication, UIllinois Press, Urbana[30] Turchin, Valentin: (1977) Phenomenon of Science, Columbia U Press, New York[31] Umpleby, Stuart: (1989) \Applying Second Order Cybernetics", in: Proc. 1989American Society forCybernetics[32] Varela, FG and Maturana, HR et. al.: (1974) \Autopoiesis: the Organization ofLiving Systems, Its[33] von Bertalan_y, Ludwig: (1968) General Systems Theory, George Braziller, New

York[34] von F orster, Heinz: (1960) \On Self-Organizing Systems and their Environments",in: Self-Organizing[35] von F orster, Heinz, ed.: (1981) Observing Systems, Intersystems, Seaside CA

[38] Weaver, Warren: (1968) \Science and Complexity", American Scientist, v. 36, pp.536-544[39] Wiener, Norbert: (1948) Cybernetics, MIT Press, Cambridge

8/3/2019 Bvc Institute Technology and Science Cyber

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bvc-institute-technology-and-science-cyber 20/20