PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA: A CASE STUDY OF
ELEMENTARY TEACHER TRAINERS AND THEIR MENTORS
Casper Edson Mapua Hahambu
Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE)
Master of Science in Education (MSc)
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Education (Research)
Centre for Learning Innovation
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
2011
i
Keywords
Papua New Guinea, constructivist teaching, social constructivism, sociocultural
theory, culturally connected, elementary teacher training, elementary teacher
education, thematic analysis.
ii
Abstract Global and national agenda for quality education led to reform in Papua New Guinea
(PNG) based on the provision of quality basic education. “Education for All” (EFA)
is a worldwide emphasis on the review and restructure of existing curriculum and
teacher training programs to provide quality education and quality life. The provision
of quality education is seen as an investment in developing countries including PNG.
Quality education is facilitated through structural and curriculum reform, and teacher
education programs. One such influence on quality education in teacher education
relates to perspectives of teaching. Existing research shows teachers’ beliefs and
perceptions of teaching influence their practice (Kember & Kwan, 2000; Prosser &
Trigwell, 2004). However, there is no research focusing on perspectives of teaching
for elementary education in PNG.
This single exploratory case study (Yin, 2009) investigated the perspectives of
teaching of eighteen elementary teacher trainers and their five mentors in the context
of an Australian university Bachelor of Early Childhood (in teacher education)
degree programme. The study drew on an interpretivist paradigm to analyse
journals, semi-structured interviews and course planning documents using a thematic
approach to data analysis (Braun & Clark, 2006).
The findings revealed that participants held perspectives of teaching related to
teaching children and teaching adults. The perspective of teaching children described
by the trainers and mentors was learning-centred (the focus is on what the teacher
does); while the perspective of teaching adults was both learning-centred and learner-
centred (the focus is on what the learner does). The learning-centred perspective is at
odds with the learner-centred perspective espoused in the PNG reform. The
perspectives of teaching adults reflected a culturally nuanced view; providing
insights about how teaching and learning are understood in different sociocultural
contexts. Based on these findings, the study proposes a perspective of teaching for
elementary education in PNG known as culturally connected teaching. This
perspective enables the co-existence of both the learning-centred and learner-centred
perspectives of teaching in the PNG cultural context. This perspective has
implications for teacher training and the communities involved in elementary
education.
iii
Table of Contents
Keywords .................................................................................................................................................i
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. ii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables .........................................................................................................................................vi
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ vii
Statement of Original Authorship ....................................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background to the study .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2.1 International perspective of elementary education ........................................................... 1 1.2.2 PNG perspective of elementary education ........................................................................ 3
1.3 Significance, Aim and Research questions .................................................................................. 9
1.4 Overview of the research design ................................................................................................ 11
1.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Teaching Theories ...................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 The development of teaching theories ............................................................................ 13 2.2.2 Behaviourist Theory ....................................................................................................... 13 2.2.3 Constructivist Theory ..................................................................................................... 15 2.2.4 Sociocultural theory in non-Western cultures ................................................................. 17 2.2.5 Sociocultural theory of learning in PNG ........................................................................ 21 2.2.6 PNG education reform and change in teaching perspectives .......................................... 24
2.3 Teachers’ conceptions of teaching in higher education ............................................................. 26
2.4 Beliefs underpinning teachers’ perspectives of teaching ........................................................... 28
2.5 Perspectives of teaching ............................................................................................................. 30
2.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................... 35
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 35
3.2 Aim & Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 35
3.3 The case study ............................................................................................................................ 36 3.3.1 The case study context .................................................................................................... 36 3.3.2 Case study participants ................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 40
3.5 Data analysis .............................................................................................................................. 44
3.6 Criteria used for establishing rigour ........................................................................................... 45
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3.7 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................................. 47
3.8 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 49
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 49
4.2 Perspectives of teaching for children ......................................................................................... 50 4.2.1 Views about Learning for Children (CL) ....................................................................... 50 4.2.2 Views about Teaching for Children ................................................................................ 55
4.3 Perspectives of teaching for adults ............................................................................................ 60 4.3.1 Views about Learning for Adults ................................................................................... 61 4.3.2 Views about Teaching for Adults ................................................................................... 66
4.4 Views of teaching and learning reflected in course planning documents .................................. 74 4.4.1 Views about adult learning ............................................................................................. 74 4.4.2 Views about adult teaching ............................................................................................. 78
4.5 Chapter summary ....................................................................................................................... 82
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 83
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 83
5.2 What are the elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching in the PNG context? ................................................................................................................................................. 83
5.2.1 Perspectives of teaching for children .............................................................................. 83 5.2.2 Perspectives of teaching for adults ................................................................................. 89
5.3 How do the elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives relate to the course documents? ........................................................................................................................................... 92
5.4 Towards an alternate perspective of teaching in PNG ............................................................... 95
5.5 Implications and recommendations ......................................................................................... 100 5.5.1 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................ 103 5.5.2 Suggestions for Further Research ................................................................................. 104
Appendices .......................................................................................................................................... 106 Appendix 1. Ethical approval from Teacher Education Division ........................................... 106 Appendix 2. Ethical approval from Mentors .......................................................................... 107 Appendix 3. Ethical approval from QUT ................................................................................ 108
References ........................................................................................................................................... 109
v
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Individual awareness of self (personal perspective) within cultural setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998) .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2.2. Individuals interacting with others (interpersonal) in the social setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998) .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2.3. Individual interacting with the community (institutional) in the social setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998) ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.4. The interrelationship of the three perspectives within sociocultural context (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998) ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.1. Phases of thematic analysis ................................................................................................ 44
Figure 3.2. Sources of data and type of triangulation used for this study ............................................. 46
Figure 4.1. Number of participants who discussed views of learning for children ............................... 52
Figure 4.2. Number of participants who discussed views of teaching for children .............................. 57
Figure 4.3. Number of participants who discussed views of teaching for adults .................................. 68
Figure 5.1 Proposed Culturally Connected perspective of teaching ..................................................... 97
vi
List of Tables
Table 3.1. Early Childhood Degree Program in Education (Teacher Education) ................................ 37
Table 3.2. Summary of the Data Sources Collected and Analysed for this Study .............................. 40
Table 4.1 Codes, Categories and Exemplars Relating to Views About Children’s Learning .............. 51
Table 4.2 Categories and Codes Relating to Teaching for Children From Journals and Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 56
Table 4.3 Examples Explaining How Categories Were Used to Create Codes .................................... 62
Table 4.4 Data Extracts, Categories and Codes used in the Analysis .................................................. 67
Table 4.5 Examples Explaining How Categories Were Used to Create Codes ..................................... 75
Table 4.6 Data Extracts, Categories and Codes used in the Analysis ................................................... 79
vii
List of Abbreviations
AusAID Australian Assistance for International Development
BEC Bachelor of Early Childhood
CET Certificate in Elementary Teaching
CETE Certificate in Elementary Teacher Education
CETT Certificate in Elementary Teacher Training
EFA Education for All
ETTs Elementary Teacher Trainers
NDoE National Department of Education
OBE Outcomes-Based Education
PNG Papua New Guinea
PNGEI Papua New Guinea Education Institute
PNG NDoE Papua New Guinea National Department of Education
TED Teacher Education Division
viii
Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature: _________________________
Date: ___28/09/2011_____________
ix
Acknowledgements
To the creator of the universe I give glory for placing me under the charge of
very able supervisors. To ASPRO Jo Brownlee (Principal Supervisor), my sincere
gratitude for the untiring support in stepping out of the normal boundaries of
responsibility, to ensure the success of this research project. I thank Dr. Anne
Petriwskyj (Associate Supervisor) for prompting me on very important and crucial
literature missing and pointing to appropriate literature for the study. I extend my
thanks further to Dr. Briony Wainman for taking the time to be patient in providing
academic writing support. I also thank other staff of the Centre for Learning
Innovation, for their logistical support to ensure the success of this research project.
I thank the sponsor – Queensland University of Technology for providing the
scholarship to do this very important elementary teacher education research, and
partnering to deliver quality elementary teacher training programs in PNG through
AusAID. To my colleagues at PNGEI who were mentors, I thank them for their
support in giving me the approval to use their interview transcripts as part of the data
used for my study.
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A pressing issue inherent in the current educational reforms in Papua New Guinea
(PNG) relates to the quality of elementary curriculum and teacher preparation programs.
Existing research shows that teachers’ beliefs, conceptions and perceptions about
teaching can influence the quality of teaching and the quality of learning outcomes (Biggs
& Tang, 2007; Brownlee, 2003; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Kember & Kwan, 2000). In
particular there is a growing body of research related to perspectives of teaching in higher
education institutions. A perspective is a standpoint or a point of view which could refer
to either beliefs about teaching or conceptions of teaching (Pratt, 2002b). However, in
the teacher-education sector there is a paucity of research that has focussed on
understanding these perspectives, particularly within a PNG (Papua New Guinea) context.
This case study sought to investigate the perspectives of elementary teacher trainers and
their mentors as they complete an early childhood teaching degree in PNG. The
researcher investigated the relationship between these perspectives of teaching and the
course intentions of the degree program.
Section 1.2 is a discussion of international and PNG perspectives of elementary
education respectively. This provides the background information on the education
reform and the importance and significance of the study. Key terms also will be defined.
The research problem and objectives are discussed in Section 1.3 and the research
methodology used in the study will be discussed in Section 1.4. The significance of the
study and the expected outcomes of the research are presented in Section 1.5.
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.2.1 International perspective of elementary education
The international perspective of early childhood education or elementary education
focuses on the provision of quality basic education. The quality focus has led to a global
movement to promote “Education for All” (EFA). EFA is a worldwide emphasis on the
review and restructure of existing curriculum and teacher training programs to provide
quality education and quality life (Buchert, 1995; Christopher, 2004; Jha, 2007; Kwadzo,
2009). This resulted in the formation of the United Nations’ Dakar Framework for
2
Action. The aim of this framework was to expand and improve early childhood
education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children (Barry, 2000).
The provision of quality education is seen as an investment in developing countries such
as Ghana, Rwanda, Angola, Namibia and India (Gilmour, Chisholm, Soudien, & Vally,
1999).
Quality education is facilitated through structural and curriculum reform, and
teacher education programs. Under the Dakar framework for action, the United Nations’
first collective commitment to attain quality education and alleviate poverty is the
expansion and improvement of elementary education, especially for the most vulnerable
and disadvantaged children (Barry, 2000). As a follow-up to this collective commitment,
member countries such as Rwanda, Angola, Namibia and India underwent structural and
curriculum reform to progress towards providing basic education for all children and
contribute to alleviating poverty (Gilmour, et al., 1999; Jha, 2007; Mbanze, Benavente, &
Ralambomanana, 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji, 2008; Thaman, 1993; UNICEF, 2000).
While the successes were applauded, the challenges created opportunities for re-
strategising towards further reform progress within the differing cultural contexts. For
example, the success of developing countries such as Namibia and India related to
attaining the quantity of teachers required for the reform (Mukherjee & Banerji, 2008;
O'Sullivan, 2001). The challenges, on the other hand, involve conflicts with Western
approaches to teaching and learning that are often imposed on developing countries and
fail to provide a culturally relevant curriculum (Holliday, 1994; McLaughlin, 2010;
O'Donoghue, 1995; O'Sullivan, 2006). A culturally relevant curriculum refers to a
curriculum that is based on the culture or the way of life of a distinct group of people
(Barry, 2000; Thaman, 1993) and encompasses a body of accumulated knowledge and
understandings, skills, beliefs and values (Thaman, 1993). It is a curriculum that taps into
the holistic development of individuals’ talents, potential, and personalities to enable
meaningful participation in the socio-economic development of their society (Barry,
2000).
The holistic development of individuals requires quality teachers to implement the
curriculum and this has often been a challenge for developing countries. For example,
Namibia and India carried out massive teacher recruitment and teacher preparation
programs in 1991 and 2001 respectively (Mbanze, et al., 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji,
2008). This strategy was designed to accommodate the demands for the expansion of
3
elementary education and to provide proportionate numbers of teachers for the increasing
number of schools (Bermingham, 2007; Jha, 2007). The strategy was focused on
achieving high numbers, rather than quality teachers resulting in significant increases in
terms of accessibility to basic education for all children in these countries (Gilmour, et al.,
1999; Jha, 2007; Mbanze, et al., 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji, 2008). However, while
accessibility to basic education was achieved by both Namibia and India, the issue of
quality received less attention. The focus directed on accessibility was the result of
pressure and urgency to provide basic education. This led to recruitment of non-trained
and partially trained teachers being placed in elementary schools to perform teaching
duties (Gilmour, et al., 1999; Jha, 2007; Mbanze, et al., 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji,
2008). For example, the sub-Saharan African countries of Angola and Namibia, recruited
community volunteer teachers and trained them for a few weeks before placing them in
schools to teach (Mbanze, et al., 2008). This scenario is typical for all developing
countries such as experiences in India, Angola and Namibia. This indicates that the
quality of education is being compromised for quantity to achieve universal basic
education (Gilmour, et al., 1999; Jha, 2007; Mbanze, et al., 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji,
2008).
The literature on the international perspective of elementary education shows
striking similarities to PNG’s experiences (see, Gilmour, et al, 1999; Jha, 2007; Mbanze,
et al, 2008; Mukherjee & Banerji, 2008). These experiences are discussed in the next
section which provides the background to this study.
1.2.2 PNG perspective of elementary education
The reform experiences of developing countries reveal a pattern of change that
begins with the expansion and improvement of the elementary level of education in the
school systems (Barry, 2000). The pattern of change is typical for developing countries
and this is evident in PNG’s experiences of reform to provide quality education and
quality life. Like other developing countries, PNG considered quality elementary
education as an important area for building strong communities through culturally
relevant curriculum (Matane, 1986; National Department of Education, 2004; Thaman,
1993). PNG’s reform began by expanding the school system through a structural reform
in 1994 to establish the elementary level of education.
4
Drawing from the reform experiences of other developing countries, PNG believed
that such expansion would provide quality education and quality life for citizens to make
meaningful contributions to socioeconomic development of society (Matane, 1986;
Mbanze, et al., 2008; Ndawi, 1997; National Department of Education, 2008). The
structural reform in education in PNG, which was driven by EFA, has resulted in a
number of significant changes. One of these changes includes the creation of the
elementary level of education which forms the first three years of formal schooling
(Elementary Preparatory, Elementary 1 and Elementary 2) for children aged 6 to 8 years
(National Department of Education, 1994, 2004). The expansion of the elementary
system, the development of the elementary curriculum and the review of teacher training
programs also became an integral part of the reform progress (National Department of
Education, 1994). The elementary curriculum and teacher training are discussed in the
next two sections respectively.
Elementary Curriculum in PNG
Educating children through quality and relevant curriculum can make a difference
to a child’s opportunities in life, and consequently contribute to the development of
society (Barry, 2000; Jha, 2007; Matane, 1986). The elementary curriculum focuses on
cultural relevance and encompassing the activities of the tribal communities in PNG. It is
built on the initial idea of the village tokples (vernacular) schools or the use of vernacular
education of the late 1970s that grew out of dissatisfaction that the Western-oriented
teacher-centred curriculum in English was alienating children from their local cultures
(Yasuko, 2004). The Western-oriented curriculum was focused on educating citizens for
employment in paid jobs within both the private and government sectors of the
community. The curriculum had a focus on children passing examinations and going on
to tertiary learning institutions. The Western-oriented curriculum enabled only a small
number of children to progress to tertiary institutions while the majority were not able to
continue (Matane, 1986). Those who did not continue to tertiary education could not
return to the villages because they were alienated them from the local cultures.
Consequently, this led to an increase in social problems in the villages, towns and cities in
PNG (National Department of Education, 1994).
The tokples schools were introduced in order to reconnect children to their local
cultures. Children were taught reading and writing in the vernacular using local stories,
then read the same story in English, thus bridging the two languages. The elementary
5
education that took place in these ‘tok ples’ schools was a success story, in that children
were able to read and write in both languages while maintaining their own cultural
heritage. The North Solomon’s province took the lead in setting up tok ples schools in
1980 with the intention to provide social, cultural and educational benefits for children in
early years of schooling (Delpit & Kemelfield, 1985). Other provinces in PNG such as
Milne Bay, East New Britain and New Ireland began the process of developing
curriculum to include cultural appreciation in the early 1990s as per the requirements of
the current reform (National Department of Education, 1994; Yasuko, 2004).
The education reform in 1994 sought to address cultural alienation, amongst many
other problems, with the intention of providing an education that would prepare children
to return to the villages if they did not progress to tertiary education. Under the reform,
elementary schools were established to bridge this alienation gap by providing the first
three years of education to be in the children’s local language, following the earlier
concept of the village tok ples schools.
The current reform curriculum is developed by the individual tribal communities
using the guidelines set by the National Department of Education (National Department
of Education, 1994). The elementary curriculum is based on the needs and the
appropriateness of the local environment and culture (Matane, 1986) and it is mandated
that all the 800 or more tribal languages to be used as a medium of instruction in the
formal school system (National Department of Education, 1994). The vernacular or the
lingua franca of the community, together with its cultures, spiritual and work practices
form the basis for the curriculum activities in an elementary school (Matane, 1986).
Policies have been developed to guide the implementation of the elementary curriculum
and elementary teacher education to reflect cultural relevance and learner-centred
pedagogy espoused in the reform. The focus on cultural relevance is significant in the
context of reform, however it relates only to the content of the curriculum rather than
culturally appropriate pedagogies.
The government policy document on elementary education states that the
implementation of the reform for this level will be a shared responsibility between
communities, provincial education authorities and the national department of education
(National Department of Education, 1994). The following strategies are established for
the implementation of the elementary level of education in PNG. First, the elementary
school board, in collaboration with the parents, identify and select suitable community
6
volunteers to participate in the curriculum development to ensure sensitivity of the local
culture. Second, the curriculum materials are developed and produced by the
communities with the assistance from elementary teacher trainers. Lastly, the teacher
candidates for each elementary school are selected by the community, are trained by the
elementary teacher trainers, and are certified elementary teachers upon completion
(National Department of Education, 2004). Throughout this process, culture was
addressed in terms of the content of the curriculum and not the pedagogy. In other words,
there was no relational focus on sociocultural contexts.
Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) curriculum, as the vehicle for curriculum
reform, was introduced in 1994 in PNG as a strategy to implement the reform curriculum.
OBE and its origins are discussed in Section 2.2.6. The OBE curriculum has a focus on
the student as the learner and requires learning to be holistic in nature to ensure integral
development (social, spiritual and physical development) of each individual as enshrined
under the constitution (National Department of Education, 2004). The mandated
curriculum requires teachers to accommodate social and cultural aspects of learning, and
advocates for a social constructivist approach to teaching and learning (Matane, 1986;
National Department of Education, 2008). In the social constructivist approach, the child
is an active participant in the learning process. The teacher provides learning activities in
the classroom (social) context and plays the role of the facilitator to support children in
the process of constructing knowledge. The social constructivist theory will be discussed
further in Section 2.2.4.
While a social constructivist approach to teaching and learning is advocated in the
OBE documents in PNG and includes a focus on socially and culturally relevant content,
it does not reflect a sociocultural approach to pedagogy. A sociocultural approach would
involve children (personal) as they interact with others in their clan (interpersonal) and
their culture (community) (Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). Sociocultural theory proposes that
there is cooperative community and cultural activity within the culturally-specific settings
of individuals. The cultural settings provide tools for making sense of the world around
them through language, pictorial conventions, belief systems, value systems and social
systems (Lemke, 2001). This means that the cultural context does not just contribute to
curriculum content but also to culturally specific ways of knowing and learning.
The reform curriculum is designed to enable children to construct knowledge with
attention paid to socially and culturally specific content. It revolves around the child’s
7
community annual calendar which includes events such as yam harvest and canoe racing.
The curriculum is designed to blend classroom learning with social and cultural activities
such as dance, story-telling, gardening and making canoes. This content enables the use
of community knowledge, skills and values (National Department of Education, 2008).
However, there is no focus on culturally specific ways of knowing and learning or
pedagogy. Instead, the current curriculum uses social constructivist approaches to
learning and teaching which are at odds with traditional ways of learning (McLaughlin,
2010). This means the current ways of teaching and learning do not relate to culturally
accepted and shared notions of pedagogy.
This shift in the reform curriculum has required that teachers make a parallel shift
from a traditional to social constructivist approach to teaching and learning (Palincsar,
1998). In other words, teachers are required to shift from the giver of knowledge to a
facilitator of knowledge construction (National Department of Education, 2004). In
reality, in PNG, teachers are not well placed to engage children in such learner-centred
approaches to learning and they often resort to more teacher-centred didactic approaches,
which are typical of developing countries (O’Sullivan, 2004). A shift in perspectives of
teaching may be required to accommodate changes in curriculum and pedagogy. This
study examines elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching. A
perspective is a point of view which could refer to either beliefs about teaching or
conceptions of teaching and enables the study to draw on the research and literature
across both these domains. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Teacher training in PNG
Teacher training is one avenue available to support new teachers in this process of
adapting their perspectives of teaching. In PNG, teacher training is the responsibility of
the National Department of Education (NDoE) and the elementary teacher education
program is coordinated by the Papua New Guinea Education Institute (PNGEI), the state
agency responsible for pre-service and in-service teacher training. The role of the
elementary teacher trainer is very significant in the training of elementary teachers for the
community based elementary schools (National Department of Education, 2005),
particularly in terms of influencing perspectives of teaching.
In 1997, the AusAID-sponsored Elementary Teacher Education Support Project
(ETESP) provided technical and funding assistance to meet the demand for the supply of
elementary teachers to accommodate the expanding elementary school system.
8
Consequently between 1995 and 2004, 16,000 teachers (National Department of
Education, 2008) were trained to cater for over 730 000 elementary school aged children
(Ronga, 2000). However, with the population growth rate at 2.37% (World-Bank, 2010),
the number of elementary schools has had to increase in order to cater for the increasing
number of elementary school aged children. The most recent statistics available show that
there are 18,872 fully registered elementary teachers and 15,323 provisionally registered
elementary teachers teaching in 4,372 elementary schools (Ponasu, 2007). Thus,
elementary teacher training has increased from the planned 16,000 to 18,872 elementary
teachers between 1995 and 2004 (Wape, 2006). As is evident in other developing
countries, there has been a focus on the quantity of elementary teachers needed for the
reform agenda, but what has not been evident to date has been a focus on quality. The
quality of elementary teaching in PNG is influenced in part by reforms to curriculum,
teaching approaches and teacher training (Fishman, Marx, Best, & Tal, 2003; Heap et al.,
2002).
Elementary teacher trainers, also commonly known as Early Childhood Teacher
Educators, are responsible for the training of elementary teachers in PNG. The term
teacher trainer emerges from an apprentice model of teacher training that has distinct
trainee-trainer roles and experiences. The trainee is there to learn, first by observing and
then gradually taking on the teaching responsibilities (Dyson, 2003). Teacher training
refers to a planned process in training teachers to modify their knowledge, skills and
attitude to achieve effective performance in an activity or a range of activities (Dyson,
2003; Smith, 1992). The teacher educator on the other hand, through teacher education
programs, uses what Dyson (2003) calls the holistic approach to teacher preparation.
Teacher education refers to the process of producing prospective teachers through
activities aimed at constructing knowledge, skills, beliefs, moral values and attitudes
required in all aspects of life and not just limited to only education or one field of activity
(Cochran-Smith, 2005; Gore, 2001).
In the PNG context the term teacher trainer is used because the approach to teacher
education is reflective of an apprenticeship model. The elementary teacher training
program is delivered by 170 Elementary teacher trainers who themselves have been
trained at the Papua New Guinea Education Institute (PNGEI) to facilitate and coordinate
training in the 20 provinces (National Department of Education, 2005). Once teachers
have completed their training they are awarded a Certificate in Elementary Teaching
9
(CET). Trainers, themselves, are trained and are awarded the Certificate in Elementary
Teacher Training (CETT) on completion of the course.
The mixed-mode training program has three components: home study with self
instructional units, trainer-directed training in residential workshops, and supervised
teaching in the field. The self instructional unit (SIU) component requires the prospective
elementary teacher to read and complete tasks at the work location. The teacher directed
training (TDT) phase is a two-week residential workshop conducted by the elementary
teacher trainers with the prospective elementary teachers. Prospective elementary teachers
are taught about teaching approaches through group activities and discussions. The final
phase is when the prospective elementary teacher has completed the SIU component and
the TDT components. This phase is the supervised teaching period. The supervised
teaching in the field involves training on site and the performance is monitored and
assessed by elementary teacher trainers. The prospective elementary teacher learns, first
by observing the elementary teacher trainers and then gradually taking over full teaching
responsibilities. The training is done in this way so as to prepare elementary teachers to
display the required practice of teaching for acceptance and certification purposes.
However, there are recent shifts in the training approach to incorporate a residential
model of teacher training, incorporating university coursework and mentors. The mentors
are lecturers serving at PNGEI with postgraduate qualifications in education.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE, AIM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Over the last decade, elementary teachers have been trained to implement the
reform curriculum but proponents of quality education (such as parents, community
leaders, politicians and other stake holders) have on many occasions raised concerns
about the quality of teaching and learning in the elementary schools. This has been
discussed in many forums in PNG. For example, in a conference held to discuss the
sustainability of curriculum development and the curriculum reform experiences, many
educators presented conference papers regarding issues relating to the quality of
education in PNG (Pena, 2005). PNG’s two daily newspapers also reflect citizens’ views
about the quality of education and in particular, the reform curriculum (Angu, 2010;
Samar, 2010). The reform curriculum begins at the elementary level and includes
elementary teacher preparation.
10
The reform curriculum has focused on OBE. This curriculum is designed to enable
learning to take place in social settings within culturally specific contexts and promotes
education for social transformation (Matane, 1986; National Department of Education,
2004). Consequently, there is the need to train elementary teachers to teach children in
social settings for social transformation. Social transformation can take place if there is
quality teaching, and quality teaching comes from quality teachers (National Department
of Education, 2008). While it is acknowledged that a range of factors may impact on
quality teaching, this study is focused on teacher training as a key aspect of quality. In
particular, it explores the teaching perspectives for groups of elementary teacher trainers’
and their mentors and how these perspectives were related to the teaching perspectives
evident in the early childhood degree in which they were involved.
Research into perspectives of teaching in higher education provides insights into
understanding the elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching. The
elementary teacher trainers are directly responsible for training elementary teachers.
Understanding trainers’ and their mentors’ perspectives of teaching is significant for this
study, because the quality of elementary teaching is in part reliant on teacher preparation.
Research shows that teacher’ perspectives of teaching influence the quality of student
learning and learning outcomes in higher education contexts (Åkerlind, 2004; Bain &
Samuelowicz, 1992; Gage, 2009; Prosser, Ramsden, Martin, & Trigwell, 2003;
Waterhouse, Trigwell, & Prosser, 1999). The impact of teachers’ perspectives of
teaching on the quality of elementary education is the focus of this study. In particular,
the study seeks to understand elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives
about teaching in PNG as a key influence on quality teacher training. A study of this
nature has not been completed in PNG. Given the nation’s diversity in terms of culture
and languages, the findings of the study would be of significance for helping to
understanding further how to promote quality teacher education in pre-service elementary
teacher preparation programs. The findings will also contribute to a body of knowledge
about the perspectives of teachers in higher teacher education institutions.
Acknowledging that a range of factors influence quality of education, this study
aimed to investigate what elementary teacher trainers and mentors think about teaching
and how this relates to a two-year Bachelor of Early Childhood degree program.
Specifically, it addressed the following research questions:
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1. What are graduating elementary teacher trainers’ and their mentors’
perspectives of teaching in the PNG context?
2. What is the relationship between the trainers’ and the mentors’
perspectives of teaching and the perspectives of teaching evident in the
course planning documents?
1.4 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The purpose of this study was to investigate the perspectives of teaching held by 18
elementary teacher trainers and their 5 mentors, using a qualitative, exploratory case
study. The study took an interpretivist position which acknowledges that meaning is
constructed and reconstructed to give different interpretations and many realities (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2003). The interpretivist paradigm therefore enabled an in-depth
understanding of the perspectives of teaching (Carcary, 2009) in the PNG elementary
teacher training context.
The data included journals collected from the elementary teacher trainers at the
completion of the early childhood degree program. The journals, as a source document
for the study, were examined to investigate the nature of elementary teacher trainers’
perspectives of teaching. The data also included interviews with the mentors who
supported the elementary teacher trainers as they progressed through the degree program.
To understand real-life phenomenon, in-depth contextual conditions need to be
considered as the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not always
clearly evident (Yin, 2009). Hence, this study also completed an in-depth exploration of
the course context, namely course planning documents that were associated with the
implementation of the Bachelor of Early Childhood. The rationale for the choice of the
approach and the method will be further discussed in Chapter 3 of this study.
Thematic analysis of interviews, journals and course planning documents were used
to understand the perspectives of teaching of the trainers and the mentors. Based on the
interpretivist paradigm, thematic analysis is used to gain insights into the lived
experiences of the participants in context to their social and cultural life (Nilsen, 2008;
Sandberg, 2005).
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1.5 SUMMARY
This chapter provided the background information for this study which investigates
PNG elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives about teaching in the context
of an early childhood degree program. The chapter highlights the importance of
elementary teacher trainers, in particular their perspectives of teaching, in the promotion
of quality teacher preparation. This chapter has also outlined the significance of the study,
the aims and the research questions.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will present a review of literature that is relevant to the study of PNG
elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives about teaching. This study
considers knowledge is not merely constructed by an individual but rather co-constructed
though social interactions. First, the review will provide a general overview of the
teaching theories that have had an impact on the educational landscape (Section 2.2).
Second, an overview of the literature about perspectives of teaching in higher education
will be discussed (Section 2.3). The third section will refer to teachers’ beliefs about
teaching (Section 2.4). The final section of this chapter presents a summary and discusses
the gaps in the literature (Section 2.5).
2.2 TEACHING THEORIES
2.2.1 The development of teaching theories
Psychology has made a substantial contribution in terms of formulating teaching
theories. These theories help us to understand the processes of teaching and the role
teachers play in the learning process. They can address questions that need to be
answered in relation to teaching; such as, how do people learn, and how can individuals
use what they know about learning to increase the effectiveness of instructional
procedures. Indeed, psychology as a science can contribute to the understanding of
teaching through observation of events, behaviours or relationships, as it involves
application of scientific procedures and approaches in an attempt to organize, summarise
and understand human behaviour (Cline, Frederickson, & Miller, 2008). Educational
theories fall generally under two main categories; behaviourism and constructivism and
these theories are discussed in the next section.
2.2.2 Behaviourist Theory
The behaviourist theory is concerned with the explanation, prediction, and control
of behaviour. Its main focus is on behavioural changes. An individual learns to adapt
behaviour to contingencies of events and objectives. Learning is strengthened gradually
as a result of the individual’s learned relationship between a cue and the behaviour driven
14
by a pattern of consequences (reinforcement). When a predictable connection is
established between a cue in the environment (stimulus), the individual’s behaviour
(response), and the consequence (reinforcement), learning is said to take place (Ashby &
Maddox, 2005). Over time and with enough practice the individual acquires knowledge.
The instructional model that best reflects behaviourist theory of teaching is described as
teacher-centred or learning-centred (Cassidy, 2004). These terms refer to a transmissive
perspective of teaching. In the teacher-centred approach the teacher takes control of the
teaching process and the learner plays a passive role. The teacher has control of the pace
of the lesson, its sequence and the content of what is to be learned. In this model, the
teacher in a formal teaching setting tells, models, demonstrates, and teaches the skills to
be learned (Carr, 2003). Learning-centred teaching is typically thought to be behaviourist
in nature; however, there is a subtle difference in its usage in some contexts. The
learning-centred approach is associated with direct instruction, with the learner a passive
recipient of content knowledge (Pratt, 2002). However, the learning-centred approach is
distinguished from the teacher-centred approach on the basis that there is a greater
interest in the impact of the learning style within an educational setting, and active
learning of new concepts (Cassidy, 2004).
While this model of direct instruction by the teacher may serve to be effective in
teaching factual content, there is less evidence to indicate that it promotes transfer of
higher order cognitive skills such as reasoning and problems solving (Carr, 2003).
Research suggests that there is insufficient evidence available to support the contention
that direct instruction teaching results in the flexibility necessary for the learner to take a
role in the constructing of knowledge (Carr, 2003; Palincsar, 1998). The behaviourist
theory of teaching has its limitations in that this perspective offers no clear explanation of
the mechanism that accounts for learning in human beings (Cline, et al., 2008).
Sheurman (1998), in discussing teachers’ shift from behaviourist to constructive teaching,
points out that the human minds should not be considered passive receptacles into which
knowledge is transmitted (Scheurman, 1998). The result of such limitations in the
behaviourist theory of teaching gave rise to the development of cognitive science which
served as the basis for the development of the constructivist theoretical framework of
teaching.
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2.2.3 Constructivist Theory
Constructivist teaching theory is concerned with approaches to teaching that enable
individuals to construct their own perspective of the world based on experiences and
schema. An individual’s schema is constantly re-adjusting to incorporate new experiences
to make sense of new knowledge. In the learning process, the individual constructs their
own sense of reality by connecting one sensory input to another, testing and confirming
causal linkages to construct new knowledge (Bernstein & Lucas, 2005; Lefrancois, 2000).
Richardson (2003) defines it as a theory of meaning-making, given that individuals
create new understanding based on the interaction between what they already know and
believe, and ideas and knowledge with which they come into contact. Constructivism
describes how an individual attains, develops and uses cognitive processes to incorporate
a set of related theories that commonly include cognitive and social constructivism
(Scheurman, 1998). The choice of constructivism (cognitive or social) depends very
much on the importance of classroom practices, definition of knowledge, relative
emphasis on individual versus social learning, the role of the teacher, and definition of
successful instruction (Palincsar, 1998; Scheurman, 1998; Young, Burwell, & Pickup,
2003). Each of these forms of constructivism is now discussed in more detail.
Cognitive Constructivism
Cognitive constructivism is focused on individuals using cognitive structures, such
as schema and heuristics, to account for higher order learning, including problem solving
and transfer of knowledge, (Becker, 2004). Piaget’s work on how individuals develop
universal forms or structures of knowledge to understand their existence is an example of
cognitive constructivism. Engaging this theory in teaching challenges and guides the
learner’s thinking through problem solving activities toward the creation of knowledge
construction. Knowledge is perceived to be individually constructed and depends very
much on the knower’s stage of intellectual development (Scheurman, 1998). The teacher
facilitates and guides using heuristic strategies - that is, the use of teaching methods that
encourages learners to discover solutions to problems on their own. The teacher does not
take absolute control of the lesson but allows the learner to take on a leading role. In
cognitive constructivism, there is a focus on the conceptualization of students’ learning
process and the focus is on the exploration of the way information is received, organized,
retained and used by the brain (Hedberg, Lefoe, & Corrent-Agostinho, 1998; Vermunt &
Vermetten, 2004).
16
Teaching which draws on the theory of cognitive constructivism seeks to identify,
through scientific study, the natural path of cognitive development of the learner. It
assumes that students come to classrooms with ideas, beliefs, and opinions that need to be
altered or modified by the teacher through planned activities and questions that create
dilemmas for students (Smagorinsky, 1995). The theory suggests that knowledge is
acquired when cognitive stability is directly challenged by the teacher through set
activities. Posing problems stretch the learner to a point of intellectual disequilibrium,
also known as perturbation. Once this point is reached, the teacher provides the learner
with opportunities to manipulate ideas to solve the problem. Thinking and discussing
their newfound experiences is known as reflective abstraction (Scheurman, 1998).
Cognitive constructivism suggests that all kinds of experiences are subjective. In
other words, knowledge is constructed only with the mind in the head and not with the
mind in the environment. This deviates from the view that active learning occurs as a
result of the individual’s interaction with environment (Vanderstraeten, 2002). In other
words, knowledge is constructed when the mind in the head and the mind in the
environment interact. Von Glasersfeld (2000) argued that reality is constructed only in the
mind of an individual and not in relation to interaction with the social environment (Von
Glasersfeld, 2000). To a large extent, this approach assumes that development is an
ingrained, natural, biological process that is similar for all individuals, regardless of
gender, class, race, or the social or cultural context in which learning and living take
place. In this theory, teaching and learning are de-contextualized. The question of
whether the mind is influenced by the environment in which experiences occur has led to
the development of social constructivism.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism is concerned with the social influence of knowledge, and
stems from Dewey’s earlier idea that active learning takes place when an individual
interacts with the environment (Carr, 2003). Social constructivism holds that knowledge
built by an individual arises as a result of interaction between individuals who are actively
engaged in a social environment (Sutinen, 2008). A key protagonist in social
constructivism is Vygotsky, whose work is used by recent scholars (see, Rogoff, 1997;
Prawat & Floden, 1994) to acknowledge Piaget’s view, to maintain that the social or the
cultural context contributes to how knowledge is constructed (Palincsar, 1998). Based on
the Vygotskian view, social constructivism reflects the idea that knowledge is created
17
from an individual’s interaction in social contexts (Rogoff & Angelillo, 2002; Rogoff &
Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009). The view that construction of
knowledge is a result of social interaction is further emphasised by Edwards (2003) who
states that social interaction is central to the development process of an individual’s
construction of knowledge.
Windschitl (2000) considers the cognitive constructivist theory and social
constructivist theory concur in that knowledge is constructed subjectively by individuals
based on prior experiences and the way they reflect and meta-cognitively organize these
thoughts. In acknowledging the similarities, Boghossian (2006) argues that the theories
differ - in cognitive constructivist theory, learning is only in the mind and has nothing to
do with social, whereas social constructivist theory views knowledge as constructed when
the mind (personal) interacts with the environment (social). The view of knowledge
being constructed in social contexts presents an alternative theoretical framework for
teaching approaches and has drawn the attention of many researchers (Brownlee &
Berthelsen, 2008; Magolda, 2010; Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009;
Walker, Pearce, Exley, Lennox, & Brownlee, 2009) in non-Western cultures.
2.2.4 Sociocultural theory in non-Western cultures
While social constructivism views knowledge as being constructed in social
contexts, sociocultural theory focuses on the construction of meaning in broader
sociocultural settings. This acknowledges that learning is related to the broader
community (Jawarski, 2010). Rogoff (2002) states that both the individual’s thinking
about the reality around him/her and social/cultural influences on such thinking are
involved in the construction of new understandings. This is to say that the mind in the
head (personal) collaborates with the mind in the sociocultural setting (social) to construct
knowledge. In a study on cultural ways of learning with Mayan children in Guatamala,
Rogoff and Gutierrez (2003) claimed that knowledge is constructed by the learner in
culturally specific contexts and is developed in conjunction with existing beliefs and
experiences. Indeed, it is noted that in constructivism all knowledge is said to be
constructed and consists of what individuals create and express through their interaction
with others in their sociocultural setting (Edwards, 2003). Rogoff (2009) dismisses the
Piagetian view and argues that knowledge is constructed as children participate in their
social and cultural contexts using the required skills of that setting, which do not
necessarily relate to Western views of developmental stages (Rogoff & Correa-Chávez,
18
2009). Knowledge is tentative, subjective and personal, because individuals make their
own meaning from beliefs and experiences. Meaning is intimately connected with
culturally relevant experiences (Mahn, 1999; Palincsar, 1998; Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003).
This study takes the stance that knowledge is socially constructed by an individual
interacting within a sociocultural environment, as evident in Rogoff’s (1998) three lenses:
personal, interpersonal, and community or institutional (Rogoff & Angelillo, 2002;
Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009; Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003;
Rogoff et al., 1993). The sociocultural lenses have developed through research in non-
Western cultures and so have particular relevance for the PNG context. In studies of
children from a tribal village in India, a middle-class neighbourhood in Turkey, a middle-
class urban area in the United States, and a Mayan Indian town in Guatamala (Rogoff, et
al., 1993), the findings showed that the ways children think are not separate from social
and cultural factors. The lenses or perspectives through which children construct
knowledge are very important for this study, as the focus is on the individual learning in a
sociocultural context. Each of the three perspectives through which knowledge is
constructed is now discussed.
In the personal perspective the individual is engaged in personal activities using
cultural tools, such as language, cultural symbols and physical artefacts, to construct
knowledge. Figure 2.1 below highlights what the individual does in the process of
constructing knowledge. All experiences are focused on the individual as highlighted
visually by the solid line. This does not exclude the influence of the interpersonal
perspective and the community perspective. These two perspectives are still evident but
in the background of the individual’s activities, demonstrating a relational connection
between the individual, others and the culture.
Figure 2.1. Individual awareness of self (personal perspective) within cultural setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998)
19
In the interpersonal perspective, as presented in Figure 2.2, the individual interacts
with others, such as adults, older siblings, and peers, through cultural activities to
construct knowledge. The experiences are now focused on the individual with others in
set activities. This is shown visually in Figure 2.2 by the solid line that encompasses both
the interpersonal and personal perspective. Activities involve mutual involvement,
communication and coordination of individuals and their partners (Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff
& Correa-Chávez, 2009). This does not exclude the influence of the community
perspective, but forms the background of the individual’s interaction with others.
Figure 2.2. Individuals interacting with others (interpersonal) in the social setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998)
The final perspective is the community or institutional perspective. Figure 2.3
highlights the individual (personal perspective) as interacting with the community. The
learning process involves community activities in the co-construction of knowledge. In
the community perspective the focus is on contextual factors including books, stories,
toys, codes of behaviour, and norms of the community or institution. This is shown
visually in Figure 2.3 by the solid line that encompasses personal and community
perspectives. This does not exclude the influence of the interpersonal perspective as we
note again that this perspective is still evident, but is at the background of the individual’s
interaction with the community.
20
Figure 2.3. Individual interacting with the community (institutional) in the social setting (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998)
While it has been useful for this discussion to bring each of these perspectives to the
fore, research indicates that the three perspectives are interrelated within the sociocultural
context (Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009;
Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003).
Figure 2.4. The interrelationship of the three perspectives within sociocultural context (Adapted from Rogoff, 1998)
Figure 2.4 shows the interaction of the individual (personal perspective) with others close
to the individual (interpersonal perspective) and the wider community or institution
(community perspective). Rogoff emphasised that even though one of the perspectives is
the focus of a particular influence, the other perspectives remain involved but in the
background (Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009;
Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003) as illustrated in the previous figures. Rogoff’s theory of
sociocultural learning emphasises the key role of culture, which has particular
significance for determining how knowledge is constructed in PNG. This is different to
the social constructivist approach evident in elementary reforms, which acknowledges the
21
importance of social and cultural contexts, but restricts the role of the individual learner
in the construction of socially and culturally relevant knowledge.
2.2.5 Sociocultural theory of learning in PNG
In the PNG context, the role of culture is critical in determining how knowledge is
constructed. The majority, 85%, of PNG people live in rural agrarian communities with
very strong ties to the land, and world views are influences by what is culturally relevant
and specific. For example, Najike’s (2004) study on students’ traditional worldviews
about learning science in PNG found that students used cultural experiences to explain
natural phenomena. In other research on PNG secondary students’ scientific beliefs,
Pauka and his colleagues (2000) pointed out that students’ prior cultural experiences
significantly contributed to the formation of alternate science concepts prior to learning
high school science. In other words, the experiences an individual acquired through
interacting in a specific sociocultural setting plays a critical part in the formation of new
concepts or knowledge.
Teaching in non-Western cultural settings emphasizes the importance of social
participation, such as that of the expert and the novice performing an activity in a specific
cultural setting (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000). Rogoff and others’ (1993) study of
Guatamala Mayan toddlers and caregivers provides an example of learning through
guided participation in cultural activities. Drawing from the Guatamala Mayan study,
teaching in PNG communities can be seen more in terms of activity and process rather
than formal academic content. In other words, there may be a lot of activities happening
side-by-side or collaboratively between the novice and the expert but not necessarily to
promote formal learning of academic content. For example, there are cases where older
children are involved in teaching younger siblings how to paddle canoes. The older child
can be called a teacher in his own right but the same child cannot be called a teacher in
terms of formal practices of education (Carr, 2003). This is an instance of a novice
collaborating with an expert through side-by-side engagement and participation in a
shared endeavour to learn in a given cultural setting (Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009).
Thus learning is considered to take place when the child (intrapersonal perspective)
interacts with others close to the child (interpersonal perspective) and more
knowledgeable others of the wider community (community perspective) to construct
knowledge (Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). Rogoff calls this learning through community
participation.
22
In the PNG cultural context, interpersonal engagement, and participation through
shared endeavour, involves the use of language. Learning through community
participation reflects a process of knowledge construction in which the individual is the
unit of analysis, and the social interaction influences the individual’s cognitive
development or learning (Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff & Radziszewska, 1991). Children
construct knowledge as a result of this social interaction with older children and adults
(interpersonal) in the society where they live through participating in community
activities (community). By doing so they acquire cognitive, social and communicative
skills required for them to live within the expected norms of the specific culture or
community. This is evident in several studies (Rogoff & Angelillo, 2002; Rogoff &
Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff, et al., 1993; Rogoff & Radziszewska, 1991) with the Mayan and
European American children. The studies confirm that children construct knowledge
when learning through community participation, thus reflecting a pattern of organizing
and constructing knowledge in a specific cultural setting.
The use of language plays a very important role in the development and
construction of knowledge in a specific cultural context. Whatever the language, it is used
by individuals to frame concepts, and develop perceptions of objects and events, and their
relationship with the sociocultural environment (Bernstein & Lucas, 2005; Rogoff &
Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). For example, in a paper discussing
experiences working with teachers in an elementary school in PNG, Yasuako pointed out
an interesting use of the word ‘borrow’ ( 2004). He described an incident where a child
asked to “borrow” the toilet. The concept in the child’s setting is to “use” the toilet, not
request to take the toilet away. Thereafter the elementary teacher provided activities for
the children to interact with each other and the teacher in order to construct the concept of
the word ‘borrow’ through the use of language. A further example is an interesting study
by Paraide (2008). In this study, Paraide discusses how ‘number’ is used by the Tolai
people of the East New Britain Province in PNG. Paraide points out that the number
concept is constructed by individuals through their interaction within activities of their
cultural setting, such as counting coconuts, fish, bananas and, traditional money. Paraide
further adds that indigenous knowledge is embedded in the experiences and teachings of
indigenous people. While her findings do not specify the teaching theory, they do provide
information on how knowledge is passed from generation to generation, through the
language of storytelling and community based activities (Paraide, 2008).
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The use of language is also evident in a study which used an anthropological
approach to studying mathematics education in PNG. Were (2003) demonstrated how
individuals developed active thought processes to construct mathematical patterns by
interacting with others in the community to make meaning of a composite shell ornament
called the “kapkap” (Were, 2003). This is an example of the individual developing
cognition through side-by-side and collaborative learning (interpersonal) in a shared
community activity through use of language (Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff &
Gutierrez, 2003).
The construction of knowledge in non-western cultures such as PNG involves an
individual actively participating and interacting with members of family and others in
social settings. Knowledge is not constructed by the individual alone but is shared by
more experienced or knowledgeable others (Mel, 2002, 2005). While this may be the
case, Rogoff and Gutierrez (2003) would argue some knowledge is constructed by the
individual as they seek to identify and relate to the social environment. However, in light
of an individual’s development of concepts and knowledge, teaching in this form is what
Rogoff calls developing cognition through side-by-side engagement and participation in
shared social activity. The PNG traditional worldview of knowledge, and the instruction
used to arrive at this knowledge, is based on the knowledge sharing model – from the
learned to the learner through side-by-side engagement and participation in shared social
activity such as storytelling, chants and songs (Mel, 2005; Najike, 2004; Pauka, 2000).
While informal learning and recent PNG elementary education reforms may be based on
the view that individuals participate in learning through community participation,
approaches to teaching evident in formal learning in PNG classrooms prior to reform
were behaviourist and teacher-centred, or expert to novice (National Department of
Education, 2004).
The PNG elementary education reform has advocated a social constructivist, rather
than a sociocultural, approach to teaching and calls for holistic development of
individuals for two purposes (Matane, 1986). The first is to educate the individual child in
ways that will support his or her interests and needs. The second is to encourage social
transformation and the reconstruction of society aligned with PNG democratic ideals
(Matane, 1986; National Department of Education, 2004, 2008). The need to provide an
education for holistic development using social constructivist approaches to teaching and
learning as part of the reform has necessitated a shift in teaching perspectives from
24
teacher-centred to learner-centred. Such a shift implies a move from behaviourism to
constructivism, offering challenges for many teachers in the implementation phase of the
reform curriculum in PNG (National Department of Education, 2008)
2.2.6 PNG education reform and change in teaching perspectives
An historical analysis of education reforms worldwide indicates that progressive
pedagogies are often based on constructivist theories of learning (Windschitl, 2000) and
this is the case for PNG. The teaching theory that had the greatest influence prior to the
reform in PNG was the behaviourist theory (Matane, 1986; National Department of
Education, 1994). From that perspective, teaching and learning activities in formal
learning settings were guided by set behavioural objectives with the learner taking a more
passive role in the process of learning (National Department of Education, 1994, 2004).
This pedagogy of teaching was teacher-centred. The term teacher-centred is described in
other literature as ‘learning-centred’ (Dimmock, 2000; Hubball, Gold, Mighty, & Britnell,
2007; Hubball & Poole, 2003). However a learning-centred perspective goes beyond a
behavioural teacher-centred approach. It involves elements of both direct instruction and
active learning (O'Sullivan, 2004). The teacher is actively involved in giving direct
instructions to the learner, and in the process, questions are asked to engage the learner to
actively develop knowledge and understanding. In this sense it is not a behavioural
approach in the strictest sense but builds on it to promote active learning in children.
The elementary reform curriculum based on OBE has focused on learner-centred or
child-centred perspectives of teaching and learning (Tabulawa, 2003). While these terms
may differ slightly in terms of the degree of emphasis placed on the autonomy of the
learner, they are united by some common themes such as “their emphasis on the activity
as the central element in their methods, their emphasis on the centrality of the learner in
the educative process, and their common epistemological foundation” (Tabulawa, 2003,
p. 9). The common epistemological foundation is social constructivism and as may be
generally agreed, learner-centeredness is based on this foundation. In contrast to
behaviourism, the child initiates learning and the teacher plays the role of guide to assist
acquisition of new knowledge. Teaching and learning using such an approach employs a
mixed range of pedagogical strategies such as discussions or activities in groups or pairs, ,
small group projects and so on. From a social constructivist perspective, the assessment
of learning is oriented more towards the process of learning rather than the product
(Scheurman, 1998; Smagorinsky, 1995).
25
Current experiences in PNG schools indicate that, while the mandated teaching
theory is based on social constructivist theories, not all teachers adhere to it. This was
highlighted during a recent national teacher ratings conference in PNG (Pagelio, 2003).
Pagelio pointed out that the social constructivist approaches to teaching seemed to be
evident in only a small number of classrooms. This required shift in teaching approach
presents a challenge for many teachers in PNG.
One challenge relates to the suitability of learner-centred approaches in elementary
education in PNG. There has been recent debate regarding this challenge, suggesting that
a sociocultural perspective of teaching and learning which pays more attention to
culturally specific ways of knowing and learning might be better aligned with the reform
(Geketa, 2011; Mangkon, 2010). For example, the reform encourages an elementary
child to develop cultural knowledge in schools through learner-centred pedagogy which is
social constructivist in nature. This is at odds with how a child develops cultural
knowledge through cultural ways of learning which are sociocultural in nature. In other
words, teaching children to learn cultural values through the learner-centred pedagogy has
not worked, so attention to cultural ways of learning (McLaughlin, 2010) and its use in
schools might improve the quality of learning for children.
Another challenge relates to teachers’ perspectives of teaching and their confidence
in making the required shift from how they currently teach to what they need to do in the
reform. Therefore, there is a need to address teaching perspectives in teacher education
programs. Teacher improvement is essential to progress in achieving quality education
and quality life (Hamano, 2008) and teacher trainers play a large role in this process.
PNG’s reform challenges are similar to the experiences of other developing countries. As
a result of reforms to curriculum, it is necessary to upgrade teacher qualifications so that
teachers are adequately prepared to teach the elementary curriculum. Also, the
preparation of elementary teacher trainers is important in that they need to develop
understanding of learner-centred teaching and learning. Teachers’ conceptions,
perceptions and beliefs of teaching have an influence on their practice and therefore
quality of learning outcomes (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Kember &
Kwan, 2000; Prosser & Trigwell, 2004). There is paucity in literature about perspectives
of teaching in teacher training institutions and higher education institutions in PNG. This
study draws from the available literature about teachers’ perceptions and conceptions of
teaching in higher education to inform this investigation of teaching perspectives in
26
elementary teacher training in PNG. Teachers’ perceptions and conceptions of teaching in
higher education
2.3 TEACHERS’ CONCEPTIONS OF TEACHING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Over the last decade, a substantial body of research has examined teachers’
perceptions and conceptions of teaching in higher education institutions (Biggs & Tang,
2007; Kember & Kwan, 2000; Prosser & Trigwell, 2004). This research about
perceptions and conceptions can inform the discussion of perspectives of teaching for the
current study. Perception refers to how people form impressions, beliefs and opinions
about others, objects or events (Mabry, 2008). Conception refers to an element of thought
process where information is received from the environment in order to make meaning of
an event or object (Bernstein & Lucas, 2005). As conceptions and perceptions are
assumed to involve identical processes of categorising objects or events (Manuel, 2001),
in many studies, the terms are used interchangeably (Pratt, 2002).
Based on prior experiences, teachers enter higher institutions with different ideas
about teaching (Prosser, et al., 2003). These teachers come with personal theories of
teaching which range from merely transmitting knowledge to a more student-focused
approach (Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992). Personal theories are developed through practice
from a given sociocultural context and consists of a set of beliefs, ideas and images of
what constitutes teaching (Sweeney, Bula, & Cornett, 2001). In other words, theories are
based on prior experiences of non-formal teaching, such as activities involving teaching a
member of the family or the community, under other sociocultural contexts, and also
from the result of designing and implementing curriculum. Sociocultural theory suggests
that activities involving family or community are cooperative human activities as part of
developing knowledge through social and cultural interactions (Lemke, 2001). Therefore,
within this context, teachers’ conceptions and perceptions of teaching may impact on the
curriculum and instructional practice in higher learning institutions.
There is research evidence to demonstrate that variations in teaching approaches are
linked to teachers’ conceptions and perceptions of teaching (Lea & Callaghan, 2008; Sari,
Trigwell, Nevgi, & Ashwin, 2006). As a result, the selection of teaching approaches vary
with individual teachers, leading to different learning outcomes for their students (Lea &
Callaghan, 2008). Studies into understanding the conceptions and perceptions about
teaching in higher institutions are important because these have shown linkages to
27
practice and the quality of student learning outcomes (Kember, 1997; Kember & Kwan,
2000). These studies also indicate a number of different ways of conceptualizing
teaching of teachers in higher institutions.
The literature reveals that there are two broad orientations to teaching and
learning: teacher-centred/content-centred (Biggs & Tang, 2007) and student-
centred/learning-centred (Bennett et al., 2008). In a study of eight university lecturers,
Carnell (2007) found that teachers with student-centred conceptions of teaching led to
selection of teaching approaches that encouraged deep learning. Teachers with this
conception of teaching used approaches to teaching that emphasised collaboration in
constructing of knowledge (Lodge & Carnell, 2002). The two orientations provide a link
between teachers’ conceptions, perceptions and beliefs of teaching and the quality of
student learning outcomes (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Kember & Kwan,
2000; Prosser, et al., 2003). Hence, it is important to know the underlying beliefs,
conceptions and perceptions that underpin teachers’ approaches to teaching.
In earlier work Biggs (1999) identified three ways of conceptualizing teaching in
higher education. These were a focus on what the student is, what the teacher does and
what the student does. In the first perspective the teacher is largely viewed to be taking
control of the learning activities and transmitting information. In the second perspective,
the focus is on the teacher and what he or she does. The focus is not on what the students
are learning and the teacher may still be transmitting information. The last perspective of
teaching focuses on teaching to support learning and is seen to be more interactive than
the first two perspectives. The teacher employs a variety of activities to support learning
while playing the role of a facilitator (Biggs, 1999; Biggs & Tang, 2007). Biggs’
teaching conceptions and the influence it has on student learning outcomes in higher
education institutions has been widely supported (Reeves & Freeth, 2006).
While literature supports a link between conceptions of teaching and aspects of
student learning outcomes, lecturers’ theories about teaching alone do not influence
student learning. Another contributing factor is the learning context in which the lecturer
engages in teaching. This was evident in Kember’s (2009) study of teachers from six
departments of a university in Hong Kong. Kember further defined learning context to
include social and cultural factors as additional variables influencing teaching and
learning outcomes (Kember, 2009). This focus on contexts, especially the social and
28
cultural contexts as it relates to teachers’ perspectives, is well supported by the
sociocultural theory of teaching and learning described earlier in section 2.2.4.
2.4 BELIEFS UNDERPINNING TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING
The literature reviewed so far has provided descriptions about how individuals
construct knowledge (see Rogoff, 1991; 1993; Rogoff and Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff and
Angelillo, 2002), and how conceptions and perceptions of teaching held by teachers in
higher education influence teaching in practice. There has also been a growing body of
research into the beliefs which underpin construction of knowledge about teaching and
learning. Beliefs are generalizations about things such as causality or the meaning of
specific action (Yero, 2002). Akerlind, Bowden and Green (2005) define belief as a way
of thinking or the mindset that guides behaviour. Beliefs are formed from personal
experiences, education and values and as such, it is difficult to change teachers’ mindset
about certain practices (Pajares, 1992). Conceptions and beliefs differ in meaning. In
conceptions, there is an element of thought process involved to make meaning of an event
or an object (Bernstein & Lucas, 2005). On the other hand, beliefs are a way of thinking
or behaviour, and are not easy to change even when based on opposing evidence (Pajares,
1992). Therefore conceptions can change in context while beliefs are difficult to change,
as knowledge has personal values attached to it.
A key protagonist in the study about beliefs that underpin the construction of
knowledge has been William Perry. Perry’s (1970) ground-breaking effort to research
student development using Harvard undergraduates remains the cornerstone of a lot of
research into understanding epistemological beliefs that underpin the construction of
knowledge and perspectives of teaching. Epistemological beliefs are beliefs about
knowing and knowledge, and are considered to act as filters for all our knowledge and
beliefs (Schommer-Aitkins, 2008), including perspectives of teaching.
Perry’s seminal work showed that epistemological beliefs progress through four
main positions: dualism (knowledge is based on absolute truth, either right or wrong);
multiplism (knowledge is based on one’s personal opinions, there is some truth but cannot
be certain for some things); relativism (knowledge is personally constructed and reasoned
with evidence); and commitment (some presence of relativism but certain beliefs are
more valued than others) (Perry, 1970). . Other epistemological development models
were developed based on Perry’s (1970) intellectual and ethical development model and
29
these are; women’s ways of knowing (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986),
epistemological reflection (Magolda, 2009), reflective judgement (Kitchener & King,
2004), and argumentative reasoning (Kuhn, 2003). There are many similarities across the
different epistemological development models.
Belenky et al. (1986) developed the “women’s ways of knowing” model consisting
of four epistemological perspectives: silence or received knowledge (similar to Perry’s
dualism); subjective knowledge (similar to Perry’s multiplism); procedural knowledge
(similar to Perry’s relativism); and constructed knowledge (similar to Perry’s
commitment within relativism (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986). Kitchener
and King (2004) developed a “reflective judgement development” model consisting of
three reflective stages: pre-reflective thinking (similar to Perry’s dualism); quasi-
reflective thinking (between multiplism and relativism); and reflective thinking (similar
to Perry’s position of commitment) (Kitchener & King, 2004). Magolda (1987) extended
from the work of King and Kitchener’s reflective development model to contribute to our
understanding of the patterns and processes of cognitive change with her
“epistemological reflection” model. Magolda’s model consists of four ways of knowing:
absolute knowing (similar to Perry’s dualism); transitional knowing (similar to Perry’s
multiplism); independent knowing (similar to Perry’s relativism); and contextual knowing
(similar to Perry’s commitment) (Magolda, 1999). There has been a growing interest in
higher education students’ beliefs about knowledge and how it is developed.
More epistemological beliefs literature has emerged in the field of teacher
education. Recent studies (Brownlee, 2003, 2004; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Sing & Khine,
2008) provided evidence to suggest that epistemological beliefs underpin construction of
teachers’ perspectives of teaching and learning. For example, Brownlee’s (2003)
longitudinal study investigated the epistemological beliefs of 11 primary school teachers
following an epistemological beliefs teaching programme in a postgraduate teacher
education course. The study found that teachers with relativist epistemological beliefs
considered teaching as a process in which individuals actively constructed knowledge;
those with mixed beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing indicated that
individuals learn by constructing knowledge and receiving information from teachers. In
other words, the teachers were aware that there are multiple ways of perceiving reality in
different social and cultural contexts, which might be described as sociocultural
consciousness (Berthelsen & Brownlee, 2008; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). The participants
30
with multiplist beliefs indicated that individuals learnt by developing their own opinions
without any weighing up of evidence in that process.
In another study Walker et al. (2009) investigated 35 first year teacher education
students’ experience of effective teaching and learning in a higher education institution in
Australia. The study found that there was a relationship between epistemological beliefs
and perspectives of teaching. The study concluded by advocating that pedagogy and
content for teacher preparation should be informed by personal epistemology rather than
just instruction on the use of particular teaching strategies (Walker, et al., 2009). While
the focus of the Brownlee and others’ study was on the students, it provides useful
information about how perspectives may influence teaching and learning approaches for
elementary teacher trainers and their mentors in PNG (see Kember, 1997; Lea &
Callaghan, 2008; Prosser et al, 2003; Sari, Trigwell, Nevgi, & Ashwin, 2006).
Some studies have indicated that beliefs are only one of the influences, and that a
wider range of factors require consideration. A study in Singapore by Sing and Khine
(2008) with pre-service teachers found that while teachers hold pedagogical beliefs that
underline reform initiatives, their findings showed that beliefs did not always reflect
practices due to other factors. The study found that the classroom practice was
predominantly teacher-centred and identified other factors in relation to context, such as
time constraints and over-emphasis of examination results (Sing & Khine, 2008). A
study completed in PNG by Murphy (2005) into the implementation of reform curriculum
in the PNG schools reflected similar contradictions with elementary teachers’ practice.
The study found that while teachers expressed perspectives of teaching to be student-
centred, the actual practice in the classroom was teacher-centred. Therefore, while there is
an indication that teacher’s epistemological beliefs about teaching do have influence on
practice and student learning (Murphy, 2005), other factors may influence approaches to
teaching in schools and teacher training.
2.5 PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING
The research reviewed so far has focused on teachers’ conceptions and perceptions
of teaching in higher education institutions, which has a social constructivist orientation,
in that it considers the broader social context of learning. Understanding teachers’
perspectives of teaching in higher education is an area that has had less consideration.
This study uses a sociocultural approach to understand the context of teacher education in
31
PNG, in particular elementary teacher trainers’ perspectives of teaching for both adults
and children. The sociocultural approach as applied in this study looks at the interaction
between social and cultural contexts to help us to understand trainers’ perspectives of
teaching and learning in PNG
The way teachers conceptualize and perceive teaching varies in different
sociocultural contexts In higher education, Pratt (2000) moved from describing
‘conceptions’ and ‘beliefs’, to teachers’ perspectives and made specific reference to adult
education. A perspective of teaching consists of interrelated sets of beliefs and intentions
that guide the cause of action taken by teachers in the teaching and learning processes
(Fox, 1983; Kember, 1997; Pratt, 1998; Pratt, 2002b). This provides “a lens through
which we view teaching and learning” (Pratt, 2002, p. 6), in a range of sociocultural
contexts.
Pratt (1998) identified several qualitative perspectives of teaching and learning
from several years of teaching and research in Canada, Hong Kong, China and the United
States. Studying 253 adult educators, he attempted to understand teachers’ perspectives of
teaching across vastly different settings. Pratt points out that one approach to teaching
does not necessarily apply to all settings. Teachers’ responses revealed five qualitatively
different perspectives about teaching and learning in different contexts (Pratt, 1998).
These five perspectives of teaching and learning are: transmission, developmental,
apprenticeship, nurturing and social reform. Table 2.1 presents five perspectives of
teaching in relation to teaching and learning.
The transmission perspective views adult learners as a container to be filled with
knowledge. This knowledge is assumed to exist outside the learner and only within the
teacher or the text. Transmission teaching reflects the view that knowledge is passively
absorbed information rather than individual meaning making. The developmental
perspective has its orientation on the constructivist theory of learning with the primary
goal to increasingly develop complex ways of reasoning and problem solving. The
individual construction of knowledge and making meaning of reality is central rather than
passively absorbing of information. The apprenticeship perspective is a form of teaching
that is difficult to achieve in the classroom. This perspective considers that learning
occurs when people are engaged in authentic activities in real settings of application or
practice. A nurturing perspective assumes a long-term, persistent, caring effort in
learning. Learning takes place when the learner works in an environment where there is
32
no fear of failure. The learner is aware that their achievement is the product of their own
effort, accomplished through the support of the teacher and their peers. The final
perspective is social reform. This perspective is described as the most difficult to define
because it does not have a single, uniform set of strategies. This perspective views
learning as taking place when teachers are clear and organized in the delivery of content,
bring learners into diverse communities of practice, ask probing questions, and help them
bridge prior knowledge and new concepts. This perspective assumes that the teachers’
ideals are necessary for a better society, appropriate for all, and the ultimate goal to bring
about social change (Pratt, 2002b).
33
Table 2.1.
Five Perspectives of Teaching in Relation to Teaching and Learning
Perspective Perspective of Learning Perspective of Teaching
Transmission Student is a passive recipient of content knowledge
Transfer of information. Lecturer responsible for student learning and development. Expected to take learners through a set of tasks leading to mastery of the content
Developmental Student is a participant in constructing knowledge – from existing to new. Learners construct knowledge rather than reproduce teachers understanding
Lecturer’s present set tasks using meaningful examples based on students’ existing knowledge and try to build bridges from learners’ way of thinking to more complex and sophisticated ways of thinking and reasoning.
Apprenticeship Student is a participant in authentic tasks in real settings of application or practice. Knowledge is constructed through participation in a social group to develop competence and social identity in relation to a community of practice.
Lecturers set authentic tasks in real settings of practice. Responsible for teaching about performing rather than doing the work. Performing is different from teaching about performance.
Nurturing Knowledge is constructed as a result of the desire to be more self-sufficient and confident in learning, believing in the power of achieving own learning.
Lecturers set tasks and promote a climate of caring and trust by helping students set challenging goals and following through with support to ensure goals are achieved.
Social Reform Student participant in interrogating how knowledge is created, by whom and for what purpose.
Lecturers set tasks and promote interrogation of knowledge for the purpose of encouraging critical stance on issues in society.
Source: Adapted from: Pratt (2002b)
2.6 SUMMARY
Over the last decade in PNG there has been a national reform agenda which
advocates for a social constructivist approach to teaching and learning, however there is
evidence to suggest elementary teachers often demonstrate a more learning-centred
teaching approach (Murphy, 2005). The OBE reform encourages learners to assume a
more active role in their learning. OBE challenges teachers by advocating that learners
jointly construct knowledge in the classrooms (Jha, 2007; National Department of
Education, 1994, 2004). An alternate perspective is the sociocultural theory where
knowledge is constructed as a cultural process involving three lenses personal,
interpersonal and community. This theory recognises culturally specific skills, values and
34
knowledge as well as ways of knowing. The PNG elementary education reform is
experiencing challenges, in part because it advocates for a Western, learner-centred
perspective rather than culturally specific ways of knowing and learning.
There is a growing body of research into lecturers’ conceptions of teaching in
higher education institutions (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Brownlee, 2004; Kember & Kwan,
2000; Lea & Callaghan, 2008; Magolda, 2010; Prosser & Trigwell, 2004; Rogoff &
Correa-Chávez, 2009; Rosas & West, 2009; Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992; Sari, et al.,
2006). There is also a body of research which investigates teachers’ epistemological
beliefs (Brownlee, 2004; Magolda, 2010; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009; Rosas &
West, 2009). However, there is no research into the elementary teacher trainers’ and
mentors’ perspectives of teaching as a way to promote quality elementary education in
PNG. This study will address this gap in the research.
35
Chapter 3: Research Design
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a description of the rationale for the methodology and
research design chosen for this study. The chapter is divided into six main sections.
The first section (Section 3.2) relates to the aim and research questions. The second
section (Section 3.3) discusses the method used to answer these questions – the case
study. The case study is a single case study and its context in this study is further
discussed in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. The third section (Section 3.4) provides
discussion of the data collection technique used in this study. Section 3.5 discusses
how the data was analysed. Section 3.6 examines the criteria used for establishing
rigour in the research and Section 3.7 addresses ethical issues related to the study.
The chapter concludes with a summary of the discussions.
3.2 AIM & RESEARCH QUESTIONS
There is growing concern in PNG regarding the quality of elementary
education. The focus has been, and continues to be, on elementary curriculum and
teacher training (National Department of Education, 2004, 2005, 2008). Hence, the
aim of this study is to explore the perspectives of teaching held by elementary
teacher trainers and mentors at the completion of the two-year Bachelor of Early
Childhood (Teacher Education) degree program. The research questions for this
single case study are:
1. What are graduating elementary teacher trainers’ and their mentors’
perspectives of teaching in the PNG context?
2. What is the relationship between the trainers’ and the mentors’
perspectives of teaching and the perspectives of teaching evident in
the course planning documents?
Using an interpretivist paradigm, the research questions served to investigate,
describe, interpret and illuminate the perspectives of teaching held by teacher trainers
and their mentors in the PNG context. An interpretivist paradigm focuses on how
individuals and groups make sense of situations based on their experiences (Hatch &
Cunliffe, 2006) and how meaning is constructed and re-constructed, resulting in
36
many different interpretations and multiple realities (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The
study reflects an interpretivist paradigm because it describes trainers’ and mentors’
personal perspectives of teaching to provide accounts of their experiences in context
(Gibson, 2006).
3.3 THE CASE STUDY
The case in the study was a group of elementary teacher trainers and their
mentors who undertook an undergraduate degree in early childhood (in Teacher
Education) at PNGEI from 2008 to 2009. A case study mode of inquiry was used to
establish the relationship in teaching perspectives between the elementary teacher
trainers, their PNG mentors and the undergraduate program. Anthony and Jack
(2009) indicate that there is much debate about the exact nature of case study. For
this study we define case study as “a research methodology grounded in an
interpretive, constructivist paradigm, which guides an empirical inquiry of
contemporary phenomena within inseparable real-life contexts” (Anthony & Jack,
2009, p. 1172). Case study methods allow researchers to retain holistic and
meaningful characteristics of events that occur in real-life (Anthony & Jack, 2009).
This study was interpretive single case study that was used to advance understanding
of the contemporary phenomenon of perspectives of teaching in PNG. The case
presented a complex social phenomenon with no predetermined set of outcomes.
A case is also defined as a phenomenon that occurs in a bounded context as a
unit of analysis (Creswell, 2008). A bounded context refers to when a case is
separated from an activity or event for the purpose of research in terms of time,
place, or some physical boundary (Creswell, 2008). In this study, the case is bounded
in both place and time: it is a study of a group of elementary teacher trainers and
PNG mentors who participated in an undergraduate degree program in early
childhood at PNG Education Institute (PNGEI) from 2008 to 2009. The next section
discusses the context of this case study.
3.3.1 The case study context
The study took place at PNGEI in Port Moresby, the capital city of PNG.
Within the Institute, there are three academic departments called “Units”. The
Elementary Unit is responsible for planning, coordination and delivery of the pre-
service elementary teacher training program to 9,000 trainees per year. The Unit is
37
supported by 200 trainers located throughout the 21 provinces in PNG. The Primary
Unit provides in-service training to 1,000 primary teachers per year. The Vocational
Unit provides pre-service training for 30 prospective teachers and in-service training
for 40 teachers and managers of Vocational Schools per year.
PNGEI has 254 staff, which includes: one Director, three Unit Managers, 50
Lecturers and 200 Elementary Teacher Trainers. The elementary teacher training
programs are conducted in the 21 provinces through distance mode of course
delivery.
There has been a need to upgrade qualifications of the elementary teacher
trainers because many do not have the early childhood qualifications needed in
elementary education. This led to negotiations for an undergraduate degree program
in early childhood with an Australian university, using AusAID funding. Subsequent
to a number of consultative meetings between the Australian University and the
National Department of Education in PNG, the degree program for the elementary
trainers was developed and delivered in 2007, and 18 elementary teacher educators
successfully completed the program and graduated in 2009.
The undergraduate degree programme consists of eight units of work over four
semesters. The details of the units of work are provided in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1.
Early Childhood Degree Program in Education (Teacher Education)
Unit code Unit name Semester
EAZ006 Leadership and Management in Early Childhood Services 1
EDZ101 Introduction to Learning Facilitation 1
EAZ603 Development in Early Childhood Contexts 2
EAZ534 Arts, Sciences and Technology Education in Early Childhood 2
EAZ345 Early Childhood Curriculum: Language Education 3
EAZ535 Curriculum Decision-Making in Early Childhood 3
EAZ351 Family Studies and Early Childhood Education 4
EAZ021 Early Childhood Health, Safety, Nutrition and Wellness Education 4
Source: An Australian university course planning document
38
The units of work in Table 3.1 show a strong focus on principles and practices
for quality early years education and leadership. The two-year undergraduate
program consists of eight units and is covered over four semesters. Each semester
covers two units as indicated in Table 3.1. The program encourages elementary
teacher trainers to critically reflect on the nature of learning and teaching in relation
to elementary children throughout the course. This focus prompted the researcher’s
interest to investigate the perspectives of teaching held by teacher trainers.
The early childhood undergraduate degree programme was delivered through
two modes and included a residential component and a distance component. In the
residential component, two university lecturers from the Australian University
travelled to PNG to teach each semester for two weeks and were assisted by the
mentors. The mentors’ role during this time was to support students, elementary
teacher trainers, in class discussions. The distance mode took place when the trainers
returned to their provinces after the residential component. The trainers were
provided with study guides and readings by the university during the distance mode.
Assistance to complete the course requirements in this mode was provided by the
mentors who visited them in the provinces twice each semester.
3.3.2 Case study participants
The participants of the study included 18 elementary teacher trainers (trainers)
and five senior lecturers (mentors) from PNGEI. The trainers and the mentors are
responsible to the Ministry and the Secretary of Education to deliver the elementary
teacher training program. While the trainers are directly involved with the trainees
throughout the 21 provinces, the mentors provided support from the central office
through the responsible teacher training institution. Details of the participants are
discussed in the following sections.
Elementary teacher trainers
The trainers, who all held a certificate in elementary teacher training (CETT),
were selected to participate in the course from a total of 200 currently serving
throughout the 21 provinces in PNG. All were asked to write a 1,000 word
application as to why they aspired to a qualification in early childhood. Based on
these written responses, eighteen (ten male and eight female) trainers were selected
for the program by a panel of representatives from an Australian university, PNGEI
39
and Department of Education. The participants came from eight provinces (Central,
East Sepik, Gulf, Manus, Morobe, National Capital, Western Highlands and Simbu).
Ages ranged from 43 to 61 years and all had over 10 years of experience as senior
teachers in primary schools and as elementary trainers.
The participants were asked to participate in a broader research study as part of
a contractual requirement of AusAID. The study used journal entries to investigate
what elementary teacher trainers thought about teaching and learning as they
progressed through the early childhood programme at four separate times (J.
Brownlee, personal communication, August 18, 2010). This study will build on the
Brownlee study by using the journal entries to explore the elementary teacher
trainers’ perspectives of teaching at the end of their two-year Bachelor of Early
Childhood degree program. It further builds on the Brownlee study by including
mentors’ perspectives of teaching.
PNG mentors
The mentors were selected by the Governing Council of the PNG Education
Institute to support the Australian university staff in teaching the Bachelor of Early
Childhood (in teacher education) degree program. The five mentors (three female
and two male) were all experienced primary teacher educators with postgraduate
qualifications at Masters Level. The mentors’ ages ranged from 43 to 61 years and all
had 10 years of teaching and administrative experience in primary schools before
their current roles as primary teacher educators at PNGEI. The mentors’ role was to
support the elementary teacher trainers to complete their study towards a Bachelor of
Early Childhood (teacher education) degree. The various forms of support included:
1. providing comments and suggestions about the ongoing planning of
the Bachelor of Early Childhood (in teacher education) degree
program to the Australian university academic staff;
2. providing the elementary teacher trainers with academic support
during the residential components of the degree program, particularly
with lectures and tutorials; and
3. providing face-to-face mentoring at work sites of the elementary
teacher trainers in the provinces during the distance mode component
of the degree program.
40
3.4 DATA COLLECTION
One of the features of a qualitative case study research is the use of multiple
data sources, a strategy which enhances the credibility of study data (Yin, 2009).
Prospective data sources of a case study may include documentation, archival
records, interviews, artefacts and observation (Creswell, 2008).
The data collected were from three different sources. The first source of data
included journal entries which were collected from the 18 elementary teacher trainers
to better understand their perspectives of teaching. The second source of data was
semi-structured interview transcripts from mentors involved in assisting the
Australian university staff to deliver the bachelor of early childhood degree program
in PNG. The final source of data involved the course planning documents. A
summary is provided in Table 3.2 showing the types of data collected and how the
analysis was completed in relation to each of the research questions.
Table 3.2.
Summary of the Data Sources Collected and Analysed for this Study
Research questions Data collection Data analysis
What are the graduating elementary teacher trainers and their mentors perspectives of teaching in PNG context?
Documents: Journal entries with trainers completed in final semester of course. Documents: Semi structured interviews with mentors in final semester of course.
Pattern matching using an interpretivist paradigm through thematic analysis.
What is the relationship between the elementary teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching and the perspectives evident in course planning documents?
Unit outlines and course planning documents compared with journal and interview data.
Pattern matching using an interpretivist paradigm through thematic analysis.
Identify relationships of perspectives of teaching between trainers, mentors and the course documents by investigating patterns across all three sources.
The techniques used for collecting the data are now discussed in more detail.
Semi-structured interviews
Interviews are person-to-person interactions between two or more individuals
with a specific purpose in mind. Face-to-face interviews may consist of unstructured,
structured or semi-structured interviews (Creswell, 2008; Creswell, Hanson, Clark, &
Morales, 2007). This study used semi-structured interviews, which are flexible, and
allow for participants to respond in an open manner. They allow probing to take
41
place during the interview (Creswell, 2008). Semi-structured interview techniques
promote two-way communication within a fairly open framework (Biklen, 1992). As
a method of collecting information, the semi-structured interview can help gain
rapport and participants' trust, as well as a deeper understanding of responses (Burns,
2000). It allowed for a face-to-face interview so that in-depth opinions of mentors’
perspectives of teaching would be drawn to provide an understanding of the
phenomenon.
The following interview questions, related to the mentors’ roles, were used as a
way to examine their perspectives of teaching:
1. What do you see your role as a mentor in the program?
2. Working with the students in the tutorial groups, what do you see your
role as there?
3. How do you see your role as a mentor when you go out to visit the
students in their provinces?
The interview questions were chosen to investigate the mentors’ perspectives of
teaching adults in their roles as mentors and show how these varied as a result of
mentoring during the residential teaching blocks at PNGEI and the distance mode.
The interview was conducted in an office location in order to maintain audibility for
recording and comfort, and confidentiality of the respondents. The interview was
conducted in English, lasted from 20 to 30 minutes and were tape recorded for
transcription. There were five interviewees (two male, and three female). One
female interviewee was partially involved with direct mentoring as she had the
responsibility of being the PNG in-country co-ordinator of the early childhood
degree program.
Documents: Journal entries and course planning documents
Journal entries and course planning documents were used to gather information
about perspectives of teaching related to the elementary teachers and the course
respectively.
Journals. Journals were used to gather information about elementary trainers’
perspectives of teaching at the end of their course. The use of journals enhances
growth and learning as individuals reflect through activities such as self-assessment
42
and proactive reading of materials (Hiemstra, 2001). Hiemstra further states that
journal entries come in various forms and record personal thoughts, daily
experiences and evolving thoughts. In the context of this study, journals were viewed
as learning journals. The learning journal is typically hand written in a note book or a
folder as a means of recording thoughts, reflections, feelings, personal experiences
and even hopes or fears during an educational experience (Hiemstra, 2001). The
journals are kept with a very clear purpose in mind. For example, in this study, the
participants were asked through a series of questions about their perspectives of
teaching during the early childhood degree programme.
The use of journal entries in qualitative case studies is not always viewed
favourably by researchers. Some would argue that the use of journals places the
researcher at some distance from the participants, and the journal interpretations of
the represented reality are viewed through the researcher’s lens (Miller & Alvarado,
2005). However, in contrast to Miller and Alvarado, Yin (2009) states that journals
as source of document evidence are stable and can be reviewed repeatedly,
contributing to source of evidence for triangulation purpose. This study used journals
and the elementary teacher trainers were provided with 11 questions. The journal
questions included:
1. What is good teaching for young children? How have your beliefs
changed over the course?
2. What is good learning for young children? How have your beliefs
changed over the course?
3. What is the role of research (evidence) in elementary education?
4. What have you read, discussed, and reflected on that you think you
will use in your future roles as elementary education leader?
5. How has your view of elementary education leadership changed over
the course? Why has it changed?
6. Write about how your ideas were confirmed or changed through class
discussions?
7. How will you work with others (including families and communities)
to share ideas in your role as a trainer and educational leader?
43
8. What problems solving have you engaged in during your studies in
EAZO21 and EAZ351?
9. Did you engage in collaborative learning? If so, what did you learn
from working together on your investigation?
10. Comment on the value of integrated units for your learning.
11. What do you stand for in early childhood education and care (what are
your values)?
The intent of the questions was to draw an understanding of the trainers’
perspectives of teaching in the context of elementary teacher education in PNG. In
this respect, the responses concerned the perspectives of teaching children and adults.
The learning journals were submitted as part of their assessment. It was of concern
that individuals completing the journal reflections might write what they thought was
a required response, and not their actual reflection of the issues. In order to ensure
that participants did not simply write what they thought the lecturers wanted to hear,
the journals were assessed on a pass/fail basis only. The purpose of the questions was
to help them reflect on their understanding of good teaching and learning from their
own perspective. Participants were assured there were no right or wrong answers,
and that merely submitting their journal reflections was all that was needed in order
to pass this part of the assessment.
Course planning documents. The other sources of data used in the study were
the Australian university course planning documents. The course planning
documents (which consist of the overall aims and objectives of the course, and the
unit outlines) were important for the study because they reflected perspectives of
teaching, both implicitly and explicitly. The use of these documents together with the
interviews and journals provided a means of investigating the perspectives of
teaching evident in the group of elementary teacher trainers and their PNG mentors
at the completion of the early childhood program.
The use of documents in research is relevant for case study as an additional
source of evidence for data analysis to provide the study with credibility, or internal
reliability (Yin, 2009). The analysis facilitated the establishment of relationships
about perspectives of teaching between the trainers and mentors, and the course
44
planning document. The next section discusses data analysis procedures used for the
interviews, journals and the course planning documents.
3.5 DATA ANALYSIS
This study took a qualitative approach and used thematic analysis to analyse
data from journals and interviews to address research question one. The relationship
between these perspectives and those evident in the course planning documents
addresses research question two.
Thematic analysis is a commonly used method in qualitative analysis and is
not as dependent on specialized theory as opposed to some other qualitative
techniques such as narrative analysis (Bornat, 2008) or conversational analysis
(Gibson, 2006). Through its theoretical freedom, it served as a flexible and useful
data analysis tool (Braun & Clark, 2006) for the study.
Creswell (2005) identified three steps in thematic analysis: familiarization of
data, generating initial codes, and synthesising. Figure 3.1 is a diagrammatical
representation of the three steps.
Figure 3.1. Phases of thematic analysis
In Figure 3.1, the familiarization step involves reading and re-reading raw data and
noting first thoughts about the patterns of themes that emerge. Generating initial
codes involves grouping emerging themes and creating codes to guide analysis of
raw data. Finally, synthesising involves describe relationships between data and
considering links to previous research in the area.
45
The second research question addressed the relationship between the trainers’
and the mentors’ perspectives of teaching and the perspectives of teaching evident in
the course planning documents. In order to have an in-depth understanding of the
relationships between the three sources of data, the themes that were abstracted from
the study case ( Thorne, 1997 ) were pieced together to form a comprehensive picture
of collective experience across journals, interviews and course documents.
3.6 CRITERIA USED FOR ESTABLISHING RIGOUR
To promote rigour, three independent researchers completed a dialogical
analysis of the emerging themes. This dialogic analysis involved the key researcher
and two supervisors who were well-versed and experienced with the theoretical
framework of the study. The themes that emerged from the analysis were first
discussed with one supervisor. Subsequently, the themes and categories used in the
data analysis were modified and passed on to the second of the supervisors for
scrutiny. Consensus was reached through agreement as is typical of dialogical
reliability analysis.
A final level of checking took place by using a fourth person who was not
familiar with the data but was well-versed with the thematic data analysis technique.
This last step allowed an opportunity to check themes and categories developed by
the researcher and the two supervisors. There were no significant differences in the
rating patterns among the three raters and any minor disagreements of issues related
to the themes and categories were corrected through discussion as is typical of
dialogical reliability checks. This process reflects Braun and Clarks’ notion of
analysis for best fit as opposed to perfect fit. It draws on the interpretivist paradigm
of how knowledge is constructed to give credence to the understanding of the themes
and categories used in the study (Hughes, Blaxter, & Tight, 2010). The interpretivist
paradigm states that knowledge is socially constructed by individuals interacting
with the social and cultural environment (Sandberg, 2005) hence a best fit rather than
a perfect fit is recognised as appropriate for inter ratter reliabilities.
Another way of demonstrating rigour in case study research involves the use of
comprehensive data collection to support rich and robust descriptions of the events
studied (Yin, 2009). This study collected data from three sources - journals, course
46
documents and semi-structured interviews. The multiple sources of data collected
provided rich descriptions of the perspectives of teaching between the program and
the group of elementary teacher trainers, and their PNG mentors, at the completion of
the early childhood program. Within this process, Patton (2002) identifies four types
of triangulation in evaluation: data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory
triangulation and methodological triangulation. This study used data triangulation
to integrate the multiple sources of data and to make linkages to perspectives of
teaching as illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2. Sources of data and type of triangulation used for this study
Such convergence of data through triangulation is used to help establish credibility
and trustworthiness of the study.
Another aspect of rigour in case study research relates to transferability. Yin
(2003) suggests that replication logic can be used to ensure transferability of data,
rather than generalisability, by providing thick description of the context.
Replication logic says that if a researcher later follows the same procedure in another
context on the basis of the contextual details provided, the later researcher should
arrive at similar findings and conclusions (Yin, 2009). In other words, there is
transferability of data when another investigator is able to use the data findings in
another context. The current case study has provided thick description of the
47
elementary teacher education course and its participants to enable transferability of
findings.
3.7 ETHICAL ISSUES
Research projects that use human participants must ensure that ethical
clearance is sought to maintain ethical standards. Ethical clearance must be
completed because ethical principles and conventions set apart socially acceptable
behaviour from that which is socially unacceptable (Burns, 2000). One fundamental
and very important ethical principle in studies involving humans is the principle of
informed consent. Informed consent suggests that the participants need to understand
the nature and purpose of the study, and must consent to take part in the study
without coercion (NHMRC, ARC, & VCC, 2007). Through a meeting conducted by
the staff of the Australian university, participants were informed that their journals
and interviews would form part of this study and were provided the option of not
participating in the study.
Another important aspect of ethical research is to maintain confidentiality. The
data sources collected by the Australian university were journal entries, semi-
structured interview and course planning documents. Identity of these data sources
were removed to ensure privacy and confidentiality.
For the purpose of this study, the initial ethical clearance was sought from the
two Australian institutions involved in the elementary teacher education project –
AusAID (Port Moresby office) and Coffey International (the AusAID elementary
teacher education project management consultants). It also received ethical
clearance from the Teacher Education Division of the National Department of
Education. This study has met the requirements of the QUT University Human
Ethics Committee requirements. The ethics documents are presented in Appendices
1, 2 and 3.
The researcher was the director of the PNGEI at the time the early childhood
degree program commenced in 2007. The researcher was part of the teacher
education management team that initiated the course to be delivered by an Australian
university under the AusAID elementary education project in PNG. The researcher’s
role in the program was the allocation of PNG lecturers as mentors to work with the
Australian university team that conducted the program at PNGEI and to provide
48
input into the selection of the 18 elementary teacher trainers. The elementary teacher
trainers were serving as lecturers in the different provinces, directly under the
researcher’s management.
The researcher was not involved in the initial data collection process. This was
managed by university staff. The researcher has been given ethical approval to
analyse the de-identified journal and interview data. Further, the researcher will not
return to his position of Director at PNGEI on the completion of the research.
However, the researcher will continue to serve as an elementary teacher educator at
middle management level with the Teacher Education Division of the National
Department of Education. Therefore, there is no conflict of interest for the
researcher in undertaking this study.
3.8 SUMMARY
The study is a single exploratory case study which focused on perspectives of
teaching for elementary trainers, mentors and course planning documents (Creswell,
2008). Research used case study to provide richness of data. This richness of data
came from three different sources of data -journals, interview, and course planning
documents - and these were triangulated to demonstrate credibility. The findings
provide insight into understanding the perspectives of teaching between the program,
and the elementary teacher trainers and their mentors, in PNG and are now discussed
in Chapter 4.
49
Chapter 4: Results
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter reports the qualitative data that emerged from the participants’
journals, semi-structured interview and the course planning documents. The focus of
this study is on teachers’ perspectives of teaching. However, participants also
discussed aspects of learning when describing teaching. The rationale for including
the analysis of learning is strengthened by Lefrancois (2000) who states that,
teaching is an instructional process involving strategies (teaching) designed to lead
learners to attain certain goals (learning). Pratt (2002a) also stated that:
A perspective on teaching is an interrelated set of views and intentions that
gives direction and justification to our actions. It is a lens through which we
view teaching and learning. (p.6)
Using these definitions of teaching, the current study investigated perspectives
of teaching by analysing views about both learning and teaching. It was evident that
the participants discussed both learning and teaching when talking about their
perspectives of teaching. They also described teaching in terms of teaching both
children and adults. As a result, four subcategories emerged relating to perspectives
of teaching which included views about learning for children, teaching for children,
learning for adults and teaching for adults. The categories were abbreviated as:
CL - learning for children
CT - teaching for children
AL - learning for adults
AT - teaching for adults
The categories that reflect perspectives of teaching are now discussed in order
to understand the research phenomenon. The study investigated PNG Elementary
teacher trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives about teaching and the relationship
between these perspectives and the course intentions of an early childhood degree
program. The specific research questions were:
1. What are graduating elementary teacher trainers’ and their mentors’
perspectives of teaching in the PNG context?
50
2. What is the relationship between the trainers’ and their mentors’
perspectives of teaching and the perspectives of teaching evident in the
course planning documents?
This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section (Section 4.2)
relates to the discussion of perspectives of teaching for children. The next section
(Section 4.3) reports on the perspectives of teaching for adults. Finally, the course
planning documents are analysed in Section 4.4.
4.2 PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING FOR CHILDREN
Perspectives of teaching for elementary school children, incorporating views
about learning and teaching emerged from eighteen elementary teacher trainers’
journal data and, to a lesser extent, interview data from five mentors. The emerging
categories drawn from the data analysis are coded, explained and extracts provided
as exemplars to illustrate views that reflect perspectives of learning and teaching. A
code is an abbreviated label for each category. The results displayed in the graphs
indicate the number of participants who discussed a specific category, not the
number of times the category was discussed.
4.2.1 Views about Learning for Children (CL)
The results presented in this section are related to the participants’ views about
children’s learning. The codes, categories and exemplars are presented in Table 4.1.
51
Table 4.1
Codes, Categories and Exemplars Relating to Views About Children’s Learning
Code Category Exemplars CL1 Observation Children are good at imitating. They also learn from movement,
behaviour and characteristics of the teacher (P12, p 1).
CL2 Active participation Teachers apply strategies...like concrete materials in context (P7, p 1). Culture of democracy and active participation... in schools (P8, p1)
CL3 Making meaning for understanding
Help the child to understand and to learn from (M1, p 3). In this way the children will be able to comprehend the concepts...in the classroom (P4, p 1).
CL4 Problem solving Problem solving helps to advance children in their development of knowledge (P18, p 1).
CL5 Holistic & integrated learning
Good learning must be holistic type of learning...so they can be able to develop socially, physically and spiritually (P5, p 1).
CL6 Family and environment as partners in learning
Early childhood and care is...care that we give our children...traditional care that relatives take care of children (M4, p 1).
CL7 Contribute to development of society
Good learning is when the child is equipped to grow up and contribute to the development of PNG (P5, p 1).
CL8 Transformational learning I feel that learning is more transformational when children learn in integrated ways (P16, p 5).
CL9 Learning based on evidence
Children are confident to address issues based on available evidences to sustain the future (P3, p 5).
CL10 Remember & apply A child dug a blocked drain...to let the stilled water to run out and dry up. This is transformational learning applied to real life situation (P13, p 1).
CL11 Change in behaviour Good learning is when the learner is responding positively and shows behaviour change (P10, p 2).
CL12 Responsible for own learning
Good learning for children is to respect others and be responsible for own learning (P8, p 1).
CL13 Collaborative learning
Good learning for a child is when he/she is involved with others in group activities...and takes turns to learn from others (P14, p 1).
CL14 Needs-based learning Good learning for young children is learning that is relevant and suitable for children (P15, p 2).
CL15 Positive & friendly environment
Children learn as much as they can in a positive environment. I feel that is very important (M1, p 1).
Table 4.1 provides an explanation of the codes, categories and exemplars of views
about children’s learning that emerged from the journals and interview transcripts.
52
Figure 4.1 shows the frequency of responses for each of these categories for both
trainers and mentors. In the research questions, mentors were not asked to comment
on what effective learning for children involved. Their roles were predominantly
associated with teaching the trainers and so the interview questions varied slightly.
However, in the process of responding to their views about mentoring, four of the
mentors still made some references to children’s learning and these will be discussed
below.
Figure 4.1. Number of participants who discussed views of learning for children
Figure 4.1 shows that the majority (13 out of 18) of the elementary teacher
trainers discussed how children learn by Active participation (CL2) which involved
learning through hands on, practical experience and sometimes through play. This
category reflects a view that children are active rather than passive in the way they
learn as demonstrated by the following extracts.
Good learning is when all the children are actively participating in all the
learning activities (P41
Good learning for young children is learning by doing and hands on learning
practice (P8, p 1).
, p 2).
However, Active participation does not necessarily mean that they are building their
own meaning; it merely shows that children are actively involved in tasks that may
actually be quite teacher directed in their focus.
1 The code “P4” refers to the identifying number for trainers. P. 2 refers to the page number of the journal. The code “M” identifies mentors’ responses.
53
The category, Making meaning for understanding (CL3, 8 trainers and 1
mentor), indicates a viewpoint that effective learning for children is about children
learning through integrated learning activities and making meaning of new
information. The following extracts demonstrate this view.
Through integrated learning activities the children will be able to
comprehend the concepts in the classroom (P4, p 1).
Good learning involves teacher children creating meaning through lots of
integrated child-centred learning activities (P3, p 3).
This category, Making meaning for understanding (CL3) reflects the view that
children make meaning of what they learn through integrated child-centred learning
activities, rather than simply being active in their own learning as was evident in the
previous category.
In the category, Holistic and integrated learning (CL5, 8 trainers) trainers
described how effective learning for children was about the holistic intellectual
development of a child. This view is illustrated in the following extracts.
Learning that involves children engaged in activities that will develop them
socially, spiritually, physically and emotionally (P4, p 3).
It is interesting that this category reflects the view espoused in the reform curriculum
which calls for learning in schools to incorporate holistic and integrated approaches
to development of children (National Department of Education, 2004).
Another category that was described by many participants was Collaborative
learning (CL13). This was indicated by 8 out of 18 trainers. This category refers to
learning in social situations with peers. Specifically they described children learning
new knowledge through working in groups in social (e.g., classroom) or cultural
(e.g., community) situations. For example:
For children to do effective learning the teachers need to...slot in the
appropriate learning strategies, such as the group learning (activities) (P7, p
1).
Sharing personal experience ...and young children learn effectively when
there are collective ideas (P9, p 1).
54
Good learning for a child is when he/she is involved with others in group
activities...and takes turns to learn from others (P14, p 1).
The next category, described as Family and environment as partners in
learning (CL6), referred to a view that the family and local environment were
partners in the learning process using local knowledge. This was described by 6
trainers and 1 mentor and is exemplified in the extracts below.
...learn meaningful things in a real context...from their parents, other
relatives or the community individuals at home (P7, p 1).
We have a traditional way of taking care of children. The relatives and other
members are involved in the early care (M4, p 2).
This category reflects the view that beyond the immediate social (classroom)
environment of a learning situation, there are the wider contexts of social and
cultural influences on children.
Six trainers also talked about how children’s learning was about a change in
behaviour (CL11). This category referred to a view of learning based on changes
evident as a result of effective learning in school. Some changes simply referred to
positive behaviour changes as illustrated in the following extract:
Good learning is when the learner is responding positively and shows
behaviour change (P10, p 2).
At other times they referred to a change in behaviour in terms of becoming a useful
citizen:
Develop in young children’s lives so that they grow up and continue to be a
good citizen of their societies - CL11 (P8, p 4).
Overall, this category describes how good learning for children involves positive
behavioural change, and sometimes this behaviour change relates to becoming a
useful citizen.
The least common views about learning for children included Remember and
apply (CL10, 5 trainers), Contribute to development of society (CL7, 4 trainers),
Needs-based learning (CL14, 4 trainers), Problem solving (CL4, 3 trainers),
Transformational learning (CL8, 3 trainers), Observation (CL1, 3 trainers), Learning
based on evidence (CL9, 1 trainer), Responsible for their own learning (CL12, 2
trainers) and Positive and friendly environment (CL15, 2 mentors).
55
Key points about learning for children
• The most frequently discussed category was that children learn through Active
participation (CL2 13 trainers).
• Other common categories included Making meaning for understanding (CL3 8
trainers and 1 mentor), Holistic and integrated learning (CL5 8 trainers), Family
and environment as partners in learning (CL6 6trainers and 1 mentor) and
Collaborative learning (CL13 8 trainers).
• Less common categories were Observation (CL1 3 trainers), Remember and
apply (CL10 5 trainers), Change in behaviour (CL11 6 trainers), Contribute to
development of society (CL7 4 trainers), Transformational learning (CL8 3
trainers), and Responsible for own learning (CL12 2 trainers).
4.2.2 Views about Teaching for Children
This subsection relates to participants’ views about teaching children. Both
elementary teacher trainers and mentors views are discussed although we note here
that the mentors were not specifically asked to discuss this topic. However, some
mentors indicated views about teaching children in the process of discussing views
about mentoring. The codes, categories and exemplars are presented in Table 4.2.
The frequencies presented in Figure 4.2 indicate the number of participants who
discussed a specific category, not the number of times it was discussed. The
category code ‘CT15’ does not appear in Figure 4.2 but will appear in later analysis
of course planning documents.
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Table 4.2
Categories and Codes Relating to Teaching for Children From Journals and Interviews
Code Category Exemplars
CT1 Planning and preparation Good teaching is when the teacher gets him/herself prepared well
the prescribed...subject content (P4, p1). It is when effective teaching methods are applied under such teaching as child-centred (P7, p1).
CT2 Community orientated collaborative teaching
Good teaching for children must come from families and community first (P10, p1).
CT3 Transmission of knowledge I believe good teaching is…how well we use knowledge and deliver
to learners (P6, p1). Good early childhood education is that a child is well care for and well directed especially in a positive way of thinking and living… (M1, p2).
CT4 Family and environment as partners in teaching
Good teaching for children begins in the early years of a child (P4, p 1).
CT5 Teaching to impact life changes Teaching that will have more life impact on the children and citizen of this country (P15, p 1). CT6 Understand children’s learning
abilities, developmental level, cultural backgrounds
The language of instruction used must be understood by all at the level of the children (P2, p 1). The curriculum learnt must be relevant to enhance children’s learning and development (P3, p1).
CT7 Holistic and integrated teaching Good teaching for young children is to teach them ethical values such as standards of behaviour, qualities of character and human relationship (P8, p1).
CT8 Transmission of knowledge for meaningful learning
Once they are led they can explore and discover new information or knowledge through self-discovery (P6, p1).
CT9 Theory led teaching based on research
In order to deliver good teaching for children, they need to understand the theories by Vygotsky and Piaget (P1, p 1).
CT10 Teaching family and community values
Example of good teaching is when children learn how to sing a traditional song and dance (P13, p 1).
CT11 Teaching children to be responsible and self- directed learners
The world is changing and children need to become responsible learners (P3, p1).
CT12 Teaching for interconnected aspects of life
Educating our young in all aspects of life as a complete individual, to live a positive life and adapt to changes and challenges we are facing (P1, p11).
CT13 Teaching content knowledge
Good teaching is where the teacher is able to teach the lesson content well with sound knowledge of the content (P12, p 1).
CT14 Teaching through caring Good teaching for young children is learning in a positive environment with respect and love (P2, p1).
57
Table 4.2 provides an explanation of the codes, categories and exemplars for
children’s teaching that emerged from the journals and interview transcripts. Figure
4.2 shows the frequency of responses for each of these categories for both trainers
and mentors. In the research questions, mentors were not asked to comment on what
effective teaching for children involved. As was the case with children’s learning,
their roles were predominantly associated with teaching the trainers and so there
were slight variations in the interview questions. In the process of responding to
their views about mentoring, some mentors still made some references to teaching
children and these will be discussed below.
Figure 4.2. Number of participants who discussed views of teaching for children
Figure 4.2 shows the results of data analysed for categories related to views
about teaching children from the participants’ journals and interview transcripts. The
numbers represent the frequency of participants who described teaching for children
in each category.
The graph shows that the widely held view about teaching for children was to,
Understand children’s learning abilities, developmental levels and cultural
backgrounds (CT6), which was described by sixteen trainers and one mentor. This
view is demonstrated in the extracts below.
Good teaching is, understanding the needs of each individual child and
teaching from known to unknown (P8, p1).
58
Good teaching is to understand the child’s cultural context and use child-
centred activities based on themes relevant to the context (P4, p 1).
In addition to the view that teachers need to understand individual children’s needs,
this category also suggests that teachers need to understand the sociocultural settings
where teaching and learning take place. Learning is not simply related to children’s
developmental levels but is shaped by cultural assumptions.
Two other strongly held views were Planning and preparation (CT1) and
Teaching through caring (CT14). Planning and preparation (CT1) was described by
13 trainers. This category reflected the teachers’ need to plan and prepare lessons
using appropriate and effective teaching strategies to ensure positive learning.
Following this is an example from a participant’s extract.
Good teaching is when the classroom teacher prepares himself/herself with
lesson, knowledgeable of lesson context and skills …using child-centred
approach (P12, p 1).
Planning and preparation were viewed by the participants as an important part of
effective teaching. It also reflects the reform agenda in PNG. A focus on planning
for early childhood education is a clear element of the PNG elementary education
reforms. Teachers are encouraged in the reform agenda to pursue further studies and
participate in teacher in-service training to become well versed in both the subject
content and pedagogies.
The category, Teaching through caring (CT14) was described by 10 trainers
and 2 mentors. This category focuses on learning through a nurturing approach by
the teacher, demonstrated in the extract below.
Good teaching is about how well teachers deliver to learners with true spirit
of dedication, commitment and responsibility from the heart (P6, p1).
Here the role of teachers in early childhood education in PNG involves teaching with
love, care and responsibility which are the teaching goals in the elementary reform
curriculum. This view reflects a cultural approach to caring of children which is
emphasised in the reform for teachers to incorporate in the formal classroom context
(National Department of Education, 2004).
Other popular views about appropriate teaching expressed by trainers and
mentors included: Teaching family and community values (CT 10); Teaching to
59
impact life changes (CT 5); and Community orientated collaborative teaching (CT
2).
The category, Teaching family and community values (CT10) was described by
8 trainers and 1 mentor Teachers need to teach children to appreciate cultural
diversity (within families and communities) as demonstrated in the following extract.
Good teaching is when children learn cultural values such as traditional
chants and songs and dance (P13, p 1).
The PNG education reform calls for an elementary education that enables children to
be able to return to individual communities and contribute to the development of the
society (National Department of Education, 2004).
Teaching to impact life changes (CT5) was described by 9 trainers. This
category reflects teaching that prepares children with skills, knowledge and attitudes
for changes in society. The following extract demonstrates this view:
Teacher develops knowledge, skills and strategies that ensure children to
appreciate and create positive changes that will impact the future (P3, p 1).
The PNG education reform calls for improved quality of life in rural communities by
asking teachers to prepare the children with life skills such as cultural mathematics,
agriculture and cultural and community values (National Department of Education,
2005).
Seven trainers reflected on teaching as Community oriented collaborative
teaching (CT2). The views expressed in this category suggest that teaching children
is the responsibility of communities as demonstrated in the extract below.
Good teaching is about involving parents and the community members
contribute to children’s learning as partners in education (P3, p 2).
Here children’s learning is the responsibility of both the school (social) and the
community (cultural). It views teaching occurring in schools as complementing and
building on the children’s community experiences.
The views discussed by fewer participants included Transmission of knowledge
- CT3 (5 trainers and 1 mentor); Teaching for interconnected aspects of life - CT12
(5 trainers and 1 mentor); Teaching content knowledge - CT13 (4 trainers);
Transmission of knowledge for meaningful learning - CT8 (5 trainers); Family and
environment as partners in teaching - CT4 (3 trainers and 1 mentor); Holistic and
60
integrated teaching - CT7 (2 trainers); Theory-led teaching based on research - CT9
(2 trainers); and Teaching children to be responsible and self-directed learners -
CT11 (2 trainers).
Key points about teaching for children
• The most widely held views about teaching for children were to Understand
children’s learning abilities, developmental level and cultural backgrounds -
CT6 (16 trainers and 1 mentor); Planning and preparation - CT1 (13 trainers)
and Teaching through caring - CT14 (10 trainers and 2 mentors).
• The next most popular views were Teaching family and community values -
CT10 (8 trainers and 1 mentor); Teaching to impact life changes - CT5 (9
trainers); and Community orientated collaborative teaching - CT2 (7 trainers).
• The views discussed by fewer participants included Transmission of knowledge
- CT3 (5 trainers and 1 mentor); Teaching for interconnected aspects of life -
CT12 (5 trainers and 1 mentor); Teaching content knowledge - CT13 (4
trainers); Transmission of knowledge for meaningful learning - CT8 (5 trainers);
Family and environment as partners in teaching - CT4 (3 trainers and 1 mentor);
Holistic and integrated teaching - CT7 (2 trainers); Theory-led teaching based
on research - CT9 (2 trainers); and Teaching children to be responsible and
self-directed learners - CT11 (2 trainers).
The combined views about children’s teaching and learning in this study,
referred to as perspectives of teaching children, suggest that knowledge is established
through actions and interactions in the community (or sociocultural setting). The
findings of this study suggest an active perspective of teaching with a focus on
understanding children’s developmental levels and cultural backgrounds.
4.3 PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING FOR ADULTS
The focus of the perspectives of teaching in section 4.2 made reference to
elementary school children while this section focuses on teaching perspectives for
adults. The context from which the responses were analysed relates to elementary
teacher trainers’ and mentors’ experiences in elementary teacher education. The
trainers are responsible for training young adults to become elementary teachers.
61
The mentors are responsible for elementary and primary teacher in-service training
of mature adults.
This section is presented in two parts; firstly views about learning for adults
(AL), followed by views about teaching for adults (AT). As was the case for section
4.2, in each of these sub sections, the categories are first explained and exemplified
in Tables, and then presented in graphs to indicate the frequency of categories
evident for both the trainers and mentors. The results displayed in the graphs again
indicate the number of participants who discussed a specific category, not the
number of times the category was discussed.
4.3.1 Views about Learning for Adults
The results presented in this section are the participants’ views about adults’
learning. The codes, categories and exemplars drawn from the analysis of the
journals and the interview transcripts are presented in Table 4.3.
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Table 4.3
Examples Explaining How Categories Were Used to Create Codes
Code Category Exemplars
AL1 Problem solving and constructing meaning
By doing so, it deepened my understanding and knowledge of…teacher training, child development and curriculum practices (P6, p 3).
AL2 Develop and expand knowledge and skills
I am learning a lot from the course materials and I am making sense of many things to realign practice (M1, p 3).
AL3 Meeting teachers’ needs Previously, teachers thought their work started and ended
in the classroom, but now can work alongside and involve others in learning (P15, p 4).
AL4 Interesting and relevant for implementation
I enjoy working with friends. We exchange and share relevant and new ideas that could be practised in the classrooms (P2, p 3).
AL5 Collaborative learning Collaborative learning is good…I enjoy working with my friend and we exchange new ideas and share our experiences (P2, p21). Through collaboration, that’s what I mean by saying sharing through discussions and learning for professional growth (M3, p 2).
AL6 Building knowledge to address challenges I have learnt that holistic learning cannot be taught in bits
and pieces and should be take place in meaningful activities (P3, p5).
AL7 Good results demonstrating understanding
I will work collaboratively with others and improve on weak areas using knowledge gained from this course (P4, p5).
AL8 Involve love and care Good learning involves love and care for learners as social beings (P6, p 4).
AL9 Utilise and implement what was learned as agents of change
I am an agent of change for people and organisation I am working for (elementary education) (P6, p2). This course really helps me to take a new approach to teaching and learning of our young children (P9, p 1).
AL10 Observe and reflect on learning
I reflect what I observe in the schools I visit and learn from it (P17, p2). The learner needs to reflect all the time on existing practices and see what he’s doing in order to help him progress in learning (M1, p1).
AL12 Apply knowledge and skills at work
The teaching and learning theories I am learning are helpful and will apply this to practice (M3, p6).
AL13 Responsible for own learning
As mature learners, they are responsible for their own learning and we just guide, help, check and offer suggestion (M2, p3).
AL15 Discuss printed texts from course
Reading printed materials is a good learning resource to understand theories before discussing with both mentees and mentors (M3, p1).
AL16 Learning through research Good adult learning is to do research and read more to keep up to date with best practices and to understand concepts and strategies (M4, p7).
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Table 4.3 provides an explanation of the codes, categories and exemplars for adults’
learning that emerged from the data analysis. Figure 4.3 shows the frequency of
responses for each of these categories for both trainers and mentors. The mentors
were not asked specifically about how adults learn but these perspectives emerged
when they were asked about their role as mentors in the tutorial groups and as they
visited the students in the provinces. The trainers were asked about their own
learning which revealed their views about adult learning.
Figure 4.3. Number of participants who discussed views of learning for adults
Figure 4.3 does not show categories Evaluate practice (AL11) and Expand
pedagogies and interpersonal skills (AL14). These categories relate to perspectives
of adults’ learning identified in the course planning document which will be
discussed in section 4.4.
Figure 4.3 show that the majority of the participants (17 out of 18 trainers and
4 out of 5 mentors) described learning for adults as being able to Expand knowledge
and skills (AL2). This suggests a view of learning as an acquisition of more
knowledge as illustrated in the following extract.
Through the class discussions I can confirm that my knowledge expanded
and it helped me to speak openly and freely a lot more (P4, p 4).
Yes I have learned a lot to build my knowledge to develop skills to be an
adult educator (P5, p 2).
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These examples show how the acquisition of knowledge is important for adult
learning. This reflects the language of professional development experiences that
these trainers and mentors experience in PNG. Such professional development often
refers to trainers’ roles as delivering and transmitting information to elementary
teachers. In a sense, these responses reflect a simple additive process, and not a
depth of understanding.
The next most common views about adult learning included Collaborative
learning (AL5), Building knowledge to address challenges (AL6), Interesting and
relevant for implementation (AL4) and Observe and reflect on learning (AL10).
Collaborative learning (AL5), described by 11 trainers and 3 mentors, reflects
the view that effective learning occurs when adult learners work in pairs, groups or
as a whole class group to discuss, exchange ideas and learn from each other. This
view is demonstrated in the following extracts.
I learned many things through group discussions with peers and lecturers.
And through discussions; doubts, confusions and difficulties were sorted out
(P4, p 4).
Class discussion has been the best part of the two year period. My colleagues
in the class have also contributed to my learning (P11, p 2).
The category Collaborative learning reflects the view that learning through
interaction with peers enables an individual to revisit existing ideas, clarify
understandings or add to knowledge. It allows for meaningful dialogue and
opportunities to share perspectives, make connections and make sense of learning
(Peters, Cornu, & Collins, 2003). This challenges the assumptions evident in the
previous category which seemed to suggest that simply acquiring knowledge was
important in adult learning. The next category related to the building of knowledge
also suggests a stronger focus on meaning making and understanding.
Building knowledge to address challenges (AL6) described by 11 trainers
reflect that effective learning occurs when adults build knowledge and are therefore
able to address issues that confront them in their work. The following extracts
demonstrate this view.
Good adult learning is about building knowledge and skills to address the
challenges to create positive future (P4, p 4).
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As I undertook the units, I personally have acquired and build more
knowledge about elementary education and I am willing to take lead in
addressing challenges for change (P6, p 2).
Here, learning in order to address challenges is important in the reform context. The
quote by P6 also offers interesting insights into the possible links between acquiring
knowledge and understanding knowledge. P6 talks about both acquiring and building
knowledge as though they are complementary processes.
The third category, Interesting and relevant for implementation (AL4)
described by 10 trainers reflects the view that beneficial adult learning involves
learning that is applicable to future real life situations as demonstrated in the extract
below.
Good learning for adults is when learning activities are interesting and valid
for implementation in the future (P1, p 1).
This category mirrors the emphasis placed on the quality of elementary education
espoused in the National Plan for Education in PNG towards achieving a better
future through locally relevant education (National Department of Education, 2004).
The final category Observe and reflect on teaching (AL10) described by 6
trainers and 3 mentors suggests that useful adult learning is about engaging in
reflections on existing practices observed in schools, using course materials as a
prompt for reflection. This view is demonstrated in the following exemplars from
extracts.
The learner needs to reflect all the time on existing practices and see what
he’s doing in order to help him progress in learning (M1, p1).
Additional readings provide insight and avenues to discuss and reflect on
issues affecting teaching and learning in early childhood education (P18, p
2).
This category points towards a perspective of learning involving a deeper process of
reflection, which is an essential aspect of learning for meaning. This category also
reflects the emphasis placed on teachers by the reform to observe and reflect on day
to day practices to provide quality educational experiences for children (National
Department of Education, 2004).
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The remaining categories were described by fewer participants overall. The least
common categories included Meeting teachers’ needs (AL3, 6 trainers), Use what
was learned as agents of change (AL9, 4 trainers and 1 mentor), Problem solving
and construction of meaning (AL1, 4 trainers), Observe and reflect on learning (AL
10 6 trainers; 3 mentors), Good results demonstrating understanding (AL7, 3
trainers and 3 mentors), Learning through research (AL16, 2 mentors),
Responsibility for their own learning (AL13, 4 mentors), Involve love and care
(AL8, 3 trainers) and Discuss printed texts from course (AL15, 2 mentors).
Key points about learning for adults
• The most commonly discussed category by both trainers and mentors was
Expand knowledge and skills (AL2, 17 trainers and 4 mentors).
• The next most common categories included Apply knowledge, understanding
and skills at work (AL12, 3 mentors), Building knowledge to address challenges
(AL6, 11 trainers), Collaborative learning (AL5, 11 trainers and 3 mentors), and
Interesting and relevant for implementation (AL4, 10 trainers).
4.3.2 Views about Teaching for Adults
This final subsection involves participants’ views of teaching for adults. The
trainers and mentors were not specifically asked to discuss what adult teaching
involved. In spite of this, the trainers described views about teaching for adults in
their discussions about their personal learning. The mentors talked about their views
about adult teaching in the process of discussing what useful mentoring involved.
The codes, categories and exemplars are presented in Table 4.4 while a summary of
the results of the analysis are presented in Figure 4.4. The categories coded ‘AT26’
and ‘AT27’ do not appear in Figure 4.4 but will do so later in Section 4.4 when the
results of the analysis of course planning are described.
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Table 4.4
Data Extracts, Categories and Codes used in the Analysi
Code Category Exemplars AT1 Teaching for change
Each of us are agents of change for people we are working for as well as the organisation (P6, p 2).
AT2 Teaching that leads to
building knowledge The readings I discuss, reflect and build knowledge and skills about early childhood (P18, p 2).
AT3 Sharing & transmitting information
To share some experiences, I believe is very, very important and I have been doing it (M1, p 3).
AT4 Transmitting information
in partnership with others It is important in my duty to involve parents and the community to get across information (P12, p 3).
AT5 Collaborative teaching We sit down together, they ask me questions and then they give their views and I give my views and then we decide, we will work together (M5, p 5).
AT6 Meeting teachers’ needs They want to meet requirements and going out there is to check
and correct work for them to successfully complete required tasks (M2, p 5)
AT7 Needing knowledge in order to teach
Reading materials is what we need because useful, relevant information was found for use at work (P6, p 2).
AT8 Strategies for teaching adults
The readings from course materials have provided options as to what teaching strategy can be used with elementary teacher trainees who are adults (P1, p 4).
AT9 Interesting and relevant for implementation
Enjoying what is interesting and relevant to the classroom (P14, p 1).
AT10 Community awareness and training for understanding
Awareness and training to make them understand their roles (P1, p 1).
AT11 Teaching through care My role is to encourage and support the learner as much as I can and that’s the only way (M1, p 2).
AT12 Teaching through role
modelling In elementary teacher training it is vital to be a role model in the school setting (P9, p 1).
AT13 Holistic and integrated teaching
Teaching focus on all aspects of values, behaviour, human social relationship and life styles (P8, p 2).
AT14 Planning and Preparation The integration of units are very important for effective planning and teaching (P9, p 3)
AT15 Teaching with patience and support
It is about being supportive and being tolerant when people have difficulties (M3, p 3.)
AT16 Coaching Mentoring for me is like coaching a student and helping
for improvement (M4, p 8).
AT17 Facilitate and be available Just facilitate, do not tell them what to do, they do everything
and when they ask questions we go in and off suggestions for improvement (N5, p 2).
AT18 Sharing experiences and helping
It is about sharing experiences through discussions to assist new learning (P2, p 2).
AT19 Demonstrate, explain and lead
Mentoring is to be a model by demonstrating, showing and guiding somebody (M3, p 9.)
AT20 Scholarly advice with
theory-based suggestions I go out and provide scholarly advice to a student and have them explore theories through reading (M2, p 1).
AT21 Listen and ask probing
questions I ask questions to the trainers and listen and ask again to understand them so that I can help (M1, p4).
AT22 One on one individual help I think the best...approach and strategy is helping and encouraging the learner individually (M1, p 7).
AT23 Check, advise and approve I go and advice and check their work....and approve and provide
encouragement (M2, p 2).
AT24 Reflecting on teaching At the end of teaching you come to sit down and reflect what
you have done and also see if there are gaps in your teaching (M4, p8)
AT25 Teaching using strategies modelled in the course
What I learnt from the course I adapt and do the same with my students because I see improvement (M5, p4).
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Figure 4.3. Number of participants who discussed views of teaching for adults
Figure 4.3 shows the result of data analysed for each of the categories related to
teaching adults. The numbers shown against each code represents the number of
participants who indicated adult teaching in their discussion about teaching or
mentoring.
Figure 4.3 indicates that the majority of the participants discussed 2 categories:
Sharing and transmitting information (AT3, 16 trainers and 3 mentors) and
Collaborative teaching (AT5, 15 trainers and 3 mentors). The first category, Sharing
and transmitting information (AT3) reflects the view that teaching adults is about
sharing experiences and ideas in order to transmit information to the learner:
Good mentoring is to share experiences with mentees, I believe is very, very
important and I have been doing it to pass on information (M1, p3).
I as an elementary educator will conduct awareness, in-services and
encourage trainees, parents and community members in school programs to
transmit relevant information (P2, p 2).
This category reflects the view of a traditional approach to teaching which is
transmissive in nature. While the approach to adult teaching is transmissive, it is
interesting to note that the exemplars from M1 and P2 suggest the question, what is
the right condition for learning? Presumably for M1, the right condition for adult
learning is through sharing of experiences, whilst for P2, the right condition is
through awareness and in-service professional development.
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The second category, Collaborative teaching (AT5, 15 trainers and 3 mentors)
indicates that effective teaching for adults takes place when there are opportunities to
discuss and share ideas with one another:
We sit down together during and after school hours and they ask me
questions and then they give their views and I give my views and then we
decide, we will work together (M5, p 5).
These views mirror the reform emphasis which stresses the involvement of wider
community in the teaching and learning process at all levels of education (National
Department of Education, 2004, 2008).
Three other common categories described by the participants included
Teaching for change (AT1, 13 trainers), Transmitting information in partnership
with others (AT4, 7 trainers and 1 mentor), and Community Awareness and training
for understanding (AT10, 7 trainers and 1 mentor).
The first category, Teaching for change (AT1) indicates a standpoint that
effective teaching for adults is about using acquired knowledge to be leaders in
implementing change espoused in the reform. This view is demonstrated in the
following exemplars.
The course has been an eye opener for me personally as an educationist and
will work towards implementing change in the reform (P2, p 1).
The course made a lot of changes in my way of belief and I would like to
contribute to making changes at all levels I am involved with (P5, p 1).
This category takes a viewpoint that knowledge gained by adult learners can be used
to inform reform effort to change instructional practices for quality education.
Secondly, the category, Transmitting information in partnership with others
(AT4) presents a viewpoint that beneficial adult teaching is about working with other
partners to transmit information to the recipients at all levels of education. For
example,
It is important in my duty to involve parents and the community to get across
information to people at all levels (P12, p 3).
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This category reflects that adult teaching is about transmission of knowledge. This
differs to the category Collaborative teaching, because the focus is more on
transmitting rather than jointly constructing knowledge.
The third category, Community awareness and training for understanding
(AT10) teaches adults to be aware of various stakeholders and the community to
establish understanding of the school’s day to day operations. The following extract
demonstrates this view.
There has to be awareness and training to make stakeholders and the wider
community to understand their roles in elementary education (P1, p 1).
This category is similar to the category Sharing and transmitting knowledge (AT3),
the difference being that AT10 focuses more on involving the community in this
transmission of knowledge in the implementation of the elementary reform. The
object of awareness and training is seen to be a collective rather than individual
effort to implement reform change.
The following categories were discussed by fewer participants and include
Meeting teachers’ needs (AT6, 4 trainers and 4 mentors), Needing knowledge in
order to teach (AT7, 2 trainers and 1 mentor), Strategies for teaching adults (AT8, 3
trainers and 1 mentor), Interesting and relevant for implementation (AT9, 1 trainer),
Teaching through care (AT11, 1 trainer and 3 mentors), Teaching through role
modelling (AT12, 3 trainers and 1 mentor), Holistic and integrated teaching (AT13,
3 trainers), Planning and Preparation (AT14, 2 trainers and 2 mentors), and Building
knowledge (AT2, 1 trainer).
There were quite a few categories of adult teaching that were specific to
mentors only. These included: One-on-one individual help - AT22 (5 mentors);
Check, advise and approve - AT23 (5 mentors), Teaching with patience and support
- AT15 (4 mentors), Coaching - AT16 (4 mentors), Demonstrate, explain and lead -
AT19 (4 mentors); Facilitate and be available - AT17 (3 mentors), Scholarly advice
with theory-based suggestions - AT20 (3 mentors), Listen and ask probing questions
- AT21 (2 mentors), Reflecting on teaching – AT24 (2 mentors) and Strategies
modelled in the course - AT25 (2 mentors).
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The first category, One-on-one individual help (AT22) described by all 5
mentors reveals that effective adult teaching is about helping individual learners on a
one-to-one basis as illustrated in the following exemplar.
When you do mentoring you need to work one-to-one and help, encourage
and support to unpack a little bit more (M1, p 1).
This category reflects the view that individual learners are different and equipped
with different learning experiences. The approach taken to help learners individually
will draw from their existing experiences to provide quality learning experiences.
The second category, Check, advise and approve (AT23) described by all 5
mentors shows that learners take an active role in their learning while the teacher
facilitates the learning as demonstrated in the following extract.
In mentoring I offer advice, suggest and encourage and check if they are
faithful in their role as trainers (M2, p 1).
This category illustrates that the teachers’ role in teaching adults is passive allowing
the learners to work at their own pace. The teacher only checks, discusses and
encourages the adult learner in the process of teaching and learning.
The third category, Teaching with patience and support - AT15 (4 mentors)
mirrors the viewpoint that teaching adult learners requires understanding of their
developmental stages (level of experiences) in life. Demonstrating this view is an
example of the extract shown below.
I believe each trainer is different as they all have different experiences in
teaching and I think my role is to begin from where they are and support
them (M1, p 4).
This category shows that adult learners have within them varying years of
educational experience. Learning opportunities is viewed to be more of a supporting
role rather than transmission of knowledge.
The fourth category, Coaching (AT16), described by 4 mentors, illustrates that
teaching adults is about coaching as demonstrated in the following extract.
My role as a mentor is to coach the mentee when I go out to visit them and
to get the required tasks done to promote learning (M3, p 3).
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This category indicates that mentoring or coaching offers learning opportunities for
the adult learners.
Fifthly, the category Demonstrate, explain and lead (AT19), described by 4
mentors, suggests that effective adult teaching is about showing, explaining and
leading in the learning process as demonstrated in the following example.
When I go out to visit, I talk to the trainers and show by demonstrating what
is required for their learning. I just go out as a guide as someone who can
help them (M4, p 2).
This category reflects a transmissive view of teaching where the adult is a passive
learner.
Sixthly, Facilitate and be available (AT17, 3 mentors) suggests that adult
teaching is not about telling adults what is best for them as illustrated in the
following extract.
Good mentoring for me when I go out is to be available for the mentees and
to be a facilitator is a useful approach to teach adults. Because the mentees
have years of experience (M3, p 3).
This category suggests that teachers avoid the predictable method of telling and
allow the adult learners to take charge of their own learning drawing from years of
social and cultural experiences.
The seventh category, Scholarly advice with theory-based suggestions (AT20,
3 mentors), suggests that a helpful strategy for teaching adults is providing advice as
demonstrated in the following exemplar.
Good mentoring is providing scholarly advice based on good teaching
theories to the mentees. I only suggest but it is up to them to think of the best
approach (M3, p 2).
Category seven suggests that based on current teaching theories; the adult learner can
judge their own ability to engage in the task that is at hand for them.
Category eight, Listen and ask probing questions - AT21 (2 mentors) reflects
that listening and asking probing questions allows social interaction between the
teacher and the student as a social learning process.
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The ninth category, Reflecting on teaching - AT24 (2 mentors), shows that
effective teaching for adults involves reflection on practices of teaching.
The last category described by the mentors is Strategies modelled in the course
- AT25 (2 mentors). This category’s viewpoint about useful teaching for adults is to
mirror current best practices to the learners in the teaching and learning process.
Key points about teaching for adults
• The most common categories included Sharing and transmitting information -
AT3 (16 trainers and 3 mentors) and Collaborative teaching - AT5 (15 trainers
and 3 mentors).
• The next most frequently expressed views focussed on Teaching for change -
AT1 (13 trainers), Transmitting information in partnership with others - AT4 (7
trainers and 1 mentor) and Community awareness and training for
understanding - AT10 (7 trainers and 1 mentor).
• Less common categories included Meeting teachers’ needs (AT6, 4 trainers and
4 mentors), Needing knowledge in order to teach (AT7, 2 trainers and 1 mentor),
Strategies for teaching adults (AT8, 3 trainers and 1 mentor), Interesting and
relevant for implementation (AT9, 1 trainer), Teaching through care (AT11, 1
trainer and 3 mentors), Teaching through role modelling (AT12, 3 trainers and 1
mentor), Holistic and integrated teaching (AT13, 3 trainers), Planning and
Preparation (AT14, 2 trainers and 2 mentors), and Building knowledge (AT2, 1
trainer).
• There were quite a few categories of adult teaching that were specific to mentors
only: One-on-one individual help - AT22 (5 mentors), Check, advise and
approve - AT23 (5 mentors), Teaching with patience and support - AT15 (4
mentors), Coaching - AT16 (4 mentors), Demonstrate, explain and lead - AT19
(4 mentors); Facilitate and be available - AT17 (3 mentors), Scholarly advice
with theory-based suggestions - AT20 (3 mentors), Listen and ask probing
questions - AT21 (2 mentors), Reflecting on teaching – AT24 (2 mentors) and
Strategies modelled in the course - AT25 (2 mentors).
• Only trainers expressed that adult teaching involved Teaching for change (AT1
13 trainers).
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The overall view of teaching adults evident in views about teaching and
learning for adults was about expansion of knowledge and skills, with a particular
focus on collaboration and actively building meaningful knowledge. Trainers and
mentors have a collaborative and community oriented perception of teaching adults
which focuses on teaching for change in elementary education.
4.4 VIEWS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING REFLECTED IN COURSE PLANNING DOCUMENTS
The purpose of analysing the course planning documents was to establish if the
perspectives of teaching of teachers reflected in the journals and the interview
transcripts showed any relationship to that of the views reflected in the course
documents. The course planning documents included the Philosophical document
(Doc 1), Course Principles (Doc 2) and Course overview and target outcomes (Doc
3).
This subsection describes the perspectives about teaching and learning
espoused in the university course planning documents. The course planning
document was specifically designed to inform the development and delivery of the
Bachelor of Early Childhood. The codes, exemplars and categories are presented in
Table 4.5 and the analyses of the views reflected in the document are presented in
Figure 4.5. The results displayed in the graphs indicate the number of documents
that showed evidence of a specific category, not the number of times the category
was evident.
The analysis identifies perspectives that are common across the trainers,
mentors and the course planning documents; common to course documents and the
trainers; course documents and the mentors; common only across trainers and
mentors; and present only in the course planning documents. The result of these
analyses indicated perspectives that relate to adult learning and teaching and are
evident in course documents. These are presented in Table 4.5 and graphed as shown
in Figure 4.5.
4.4.1 Views about adult learning
Table 4.5 shows common categories identified from the analysis of the journals
and the interview transcripts across the three sources, between two sources or by the
documents only. This is illustrated in the following graph (Figure 4.5).
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Table 4.5 Examples Explaining How Categories Were Used to Create Codes
Code Category Exemplars AL1 Problem solving and
constructing meaning Develop evidence-based knowledge and skills that reflect issues pertaining to elementary education (Doc 3, p 1).
AL2 Develop and expand knowledge and skills
Develop knowledge and skills in facilitating adult learning to gain an overview of adult learning approaches (Doc 2, p 1).
AL4 Interesting and relevant for implementation
Develop personal and cultural values, beliefs and goals that is of interest and relevance to learning and knowing in elementary teacher education (Doc 2, p 1).
AL5 Collaborative learning Develop the ability to work independently and collaboratively including being a corporative and productive team member or leader (Doc 2, p 1).
AL6 Building knowledge to address challenges
Unit aims to develop understanding and focus on teachers’ use of knowledge of children in designing effective teaching and learning opportunities and monitoring progress (Doc 1, p 1).
AL9 Utilise and implement what was learned as agents of change
This unit aims to develop knowledge, skills and understanding to enable teachers to improve education for young children in line with PNG reform (Doc 2, p 1).
AL10 Observe and reflect on learning
Develop skills to observe, evaluate and appraise teacher effectiveness and practice (Doc 1, p 1).
AL11 Evaluate practice Evaluative learning is a thinking that emerges from evaluative beliefs about learning and knowing (Doc 2, p 1).
AL12 Apply knowledge and skills at work
Develop knowledge and skills and make active contribution to intellectual, social and cultural activities at work (Doc 3, p 2). The teaching and learning theories I am learning are helpful and will apply this to practice (M3, p 6).
AL13 Responsible for own learning
Develop the ability to work independently and demonstrate capacity for self-assessment of learning needs and assessment (Doc 2, p 2).
AL14 Expand knowledge of other pedagogies for learning
Develop teaching strategies and curriculum decision-making practices relevant to children in diverse social, cultural and geographical setting (Doc 1, p 2).
AL15 Printed texts from course as learning resources
Reading printed materials is a good learning resource to understand theories before discussing with both mentees and mentors (M3, p 1).
AL16 Learning through research
Good adult learning is to do research and read more to keep up to date with best practices and to understand concepts and strategies (M4, p7).
AL18 Lead and manage Develop characteristics of leadership and have the ability to lead and manage change productively (Doc 2, p 2).
AL19 Making critical analysis of learning
Develop skills to search and make critical evaluation of information from variety of sources (Doc 2, p 2).
AL20 Professional communication using technology
Develop lifelong learning and use variety of resources including appropriate technology (Doc 2, p 1).
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Figure 4.5 Categories evident in journals, interview transcripts and the course planning document
Figure 4.5 show categories that reflected views about adult learning across
either all 3 sources of data, 2 sources or that of the document only.
Some perspectives of teaching reflected in the journals and the interview
transcripts are evident in the course planning documents. The categories that are
common across all three sources of data include, Develop and expand knowledge and
skills – AL2 (17 trainers, 4 mentors and 3 course documents), and Collaborative
learning – AL5 (11 trainers, 3 mentors and 1 course document). Other shared views
are evident to a limited extent, e.g., Utilise and implement what was learned as
agents of change – AL9 (4 trainers, 1 mentor and 1 document) and Observe and
reflect on learning – AL10 (6 trainers, 3 mentors and 3 course documents). The most
common categories clearly showed that perspectives of adult learning emphasised
acquisition of more knowledge through collaborative learning.
The categories common only to the course planning documents and the trainers
included: Interesting and relevant for implementation – AL4 (10 trainers and 1
document), Building knowledge to address challenges – AL6 (11 trainers and 3
documents), with limited attention to Problem solving and constructing meaning –
AL1 (4 trainers and 2 documents). The overall views of these categories reflect
perspectives of learning as constructivist in nature with a focus on addressing
concerns.
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Four categories common only to the documents and the mentors included:
Apply knowledge and skills at work – AL12 (3 mentors and 1 document) and
Responsible for own learning – AL13 (4 mentors and 1 document), with limited
attention by participants to Printed texts from course as learning resources – AL15
(2 mentors and 1 document) and Learning through research – AL16 (2 mentors and
3 documents). The overall view of these categories reflect some key principles about
adult learning which include being responsible for one’s own learning and
recognising the usefulness of information in practice.
Five categories were indicated only in the course planning documents and were
not described by the trainers and mentors. These include: Evaluate practice - AL11
(2 documents), Expand knowledge of other pedagogies for learning – AL14 (1
document), Lead and manage – AL18 (1 document), Making critical analysis of
learning –AL19 (1 document) and Professional communication using technology –
AL20 (1 document). The results of these analyses are interesting in that these
categories reflect important perspectives of adult learning espoused in the aims and
objectives of the course but not described by either the trainers or mentors.
Categories reflected in all 3 course documents were: Develop and expand
knowledge and skills- AL2, Building knowledge to address challenges- AL6,
Observe and reflect on learning -AL10 and Learning through research -AL16.
Problem solving and constructing meaning -AL1 and Evaluate practice- AL11 were
common to 2 of 3 documents. Although the presence of a category in only one
document does not necessarily indicate lower importance, the repetition of some
categories highlights key perspectives regarding adult learning in course documents.
Course planning documents emphasise knowledge expansion, higher order thinking
(problem solving, reflection, critical analysis, and evaluation) and adult learning
strategies such as use of research, printed texts and technologies.
Key points about adult teaching in documents
• Categories common across all three sources of data include: Develop and expand
knowledge and skills – AL2 (17 trainers, 4 mentors and 3 course documents),
Collaborative learning – AL5 (11 trainers, 3 mentors and 1 course document),
Utilise and implement what was learned as agents of change – AL9 (4 trainers, 1
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mentor and 1 document) and Observe and reflect on learning – AL10 (6 trainers,
3 mentors and 3 course documents).
• Categories common only to the course planning documents and the trainers
were: Interesting and relevant for implementation – AL4 (10 trainers and 1
document) and Building knowledge to address challenges – AL6 (11 trainers and
3 documents), with limited attention to Problem solving and constructing
meaning – AL1 (4 trainers and 2 documents).
• Categories common only to the documents and the mentors were: Apply
knowledge and skills at work – AL12 (3 mentors and 1 document) and
Responsible for own learning – AL13 (4 mentors and 1 document), with limited
attention from participants to Printed texts from course as learning resources –
AL15 (2 mentors and 1 document) and Learning through research – AL16 (2
mentors and 3 documents).
• Categories mentioned only in the course planning documents included:
Evaluate practice - AL11 (2 documents), Expand knowledge of other
pedagogies for learning – AL14 (1 document), Lead and manage – AL18 (1
document), Making critical analysis of learning –AL19 (1 document) and
Professional communication using technology – AL20 (1 document).
• Categories reflected in all 3 course documents only included: Develop and
expand knowledge and skills -AL2, Building knowledge to address challenges-
AL6, Observe and reflect on learning -AL10 and Learning through research -
AL16. Problem solving and constructing meaning -AL1 and Evaluate practice -
AL11 were common to 2 of 3 documents.
4.4.2 Views about adult teaching
The results of the analyses in Table 4.6 indicate perspectives that relate to
teaching for adults evident in course documents. The categories presented in Table
4.6 are graphed in Figure 4.6. Figure 4.6 indicates the number of documents
showing evidence of a specific category, not the number of times the category was
evident.
The analysis identifies perspectives that are common across the trainers,
mentors and the course planning documents; common to course documents and the
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trainers; course documents and the mentors; common only across trainers and
mentors; and present only in the course planning documents.
The categories not shown in Table 4.6 and Figure 4.6 are those that were
common across the trainers and the mentors only and have already been discussed in
section 4.3. For example, Transmitting information in partnership with others –
(AT4) and Meeting teachers’ needs – (AT6).
Table 4 6
Category Exemplars AT1 Teaching for change Each of us is agents of change for people we are working for as well as
the organisation (P6, p 2). Develop ability to embrace innovation and manage change productively (Doc 1, p 2).
AT2 Teaching that leads to building knowledge
The readings I discuss reflect and build knowledge and skills about early childhood (P18, p2). Learning in this program will occur through participants interacting with discipline knowledge as it relates to their own context and that of others (Doc 2, p 1).
AT3 Sharing & transmitting information
The course will enable candidates to communicate with fellow colleagues, teacher education students and other professionals in elementary education (Doc 2, p 1). It is important to share with teachers and community to get across information (P12, p3).
AT5 Collaborative teaching
The course will enable candidates to develop an understanding of the principles of integration, collaboration and sustainability (Doc 2, p 1). We sit down together, they ask me questions and then they give their views and I give my views and then we decide, we will work together (M5, p 5).
AT7 Needing knowledge in order to teach
Candidates need to be conversant with the breadth of early childhood education in order to be elementary teacher educators (Doc 3, p 1). We need to have the right knowledge in order to train the teachers otherwise we will not train them properly (M5, p 2).
AT8 Strategies for teaching adults
Learning through learning workshops, journal reflections and short seminar presentations (Doc 3, p 3). The readings from course materials have provided options as to what teaching strategy can be used with elementary teacher trainees who are adults (P1, p 4).
AT10 Awareness and training for understanding
The delivery of the degree in context will provide understanding on issues of language, child development and teaching and learning as they apply to PNG setting (Doc 2, p 1). It is about awareness and training so that they can understand from that to do the work (M4, p 3).
AT13 Holistic and integrated teaching
Teaching focus on all aspects of values, behaviour, human social relationship and life styles (P8, p 2). To develop holistic view of the learner (Doc 1, p 3).
AT14 Planning and Preparation
Candidates develop skills in planning teaching and learning workshops and leadership action plans (Doc 3, p 2). It is important for mentees to consider planning and preparing the tasks they have to do which is important (M4, p 2).
AT25 Teaching using strategies modelled in the course
What I learnt from the course I adapt and do the same with my students because I see improvement (M5, p 4). Develop skills to use teaching kit in a hands on way to facilitate discussion on different pedagogies (Doc 1, p 6).
AT26 Teaching for Social Justice
Promote inter-culturally competent citizens who can engage in informed, ethical decision making when confronted with problems that involve diversity of perspectives (Doc 1, p 2).
AT27 Teaching that is relevant to specific context
Develop and value personal and cultural values and goals related to learning and knowing in elementary education in PNG (Doc 2, p 1).
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Table 4.6 shows common categories identified from the analysis of the journals
and the interview transcripts across the three sources, between two sources or in the
documents only. This is illustrated in the following graph (Figure 4.6).
Figure4.6. Categories about teaching for adults common across 3 sources
Figure 4.6 show categories that reflected views about teaching for adults across
either all 3 sources of data, 2 sources or only that of the documents.
The categories of teaching for adults that are common across all 3 data sources
include: Sharing and transmitting information - AT3 (16 trainers, 3 mentors and 2
documents), Collaborative teaching - AT5 (15 trainers, 3 mentors and 2 documents)
and to a limited extent Needing knowledge in order to teach - AT7(2 trainers, 2
mentors and 1 document), Strategies for teaching adults - AT8 (3 trainers, 2 mentors
and 1 document), Awareness and training for understanding - AT10 (7 trainers, 1
mentor and 1 document) and Planning and Preparation - AT 14 (2 trainers, 2
mentors and 1 document). The two most common categories of teaching: Sharing
and transmitting information and Collaborative teaching are similar to the views
espoused in relation to learning in the previous section - Develop and expand
knowledge and skills and Collaborative learning. This shows an interesting
connection between views about teaching and learning.
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A category common to only the course planning documents and the trainers
was Teaching for change – AT1 (13 trainers and 1 document), although Teaching
that leads to building knowledge – AT2 (1 trainer and 1 document) and Holistic and
integrated teaching – AT13 (3 trainers and 1 document) were shared by a few
trainers. The category, Teaching for change, is described by three quarters of the
trainers and is also reflected in one of the course documents. Furthermore, Teaching
for change reflects the focus about teaching and elementary teacher training
espoused in the PNG education reform.
One category common to only the course documents and the mentors was:
Teaching using strategies modelled in the course – AT 25. This category may
represent a view of adult teaching that is transmissive in nature, and may reflect
acceptance of approaches from other cultures.
Two categories, Teaching for Social Justice – AT26 and Teaching that is
relevant to specific context – AT27 were evident only in the course documents. The
categories most commonly represented in course documents (2 out of 3 documents)
were Sharing & transmitting information AT3, Collaborative teaching AT5 and
Needing knowledge in order to teach AT7, indicating an emphasis on expansion of
knowledge through social interaction. This perspective is also represented in
participants’ views indicating its relevance to the cultural context.
Key points about adult learning in documents
• Categories of teaching for adults common across all 3 data sources include:
Sharing and transmitting information - AT3 (16 trainers, 3 mentors and 2
documents), Collaborative teaching - AT5 (15 trainers, 3 mentors and 2
documents), Needing knowledge in order to teach - AT7 (2 trainers, 2 mentors
and 1 document), Strategies for teaching adults - AT8 (3 trainers, 2 mentors and
1 document), Awareness and training for understanding - AT10 (7 trainers, 1
mentor and 1 document) and Planning and Preparation - AT 14 (2 trainers, 2
mentors and 1 document).
• Categories common to only the course planning documents and the trainers
were: Teaching for change – AT1 (13 trainers and 1 document), Teaching that
leads to building knowledge – AT2 (1 trainer and 1 document) and Holistic and
integrated teaching – AT13 (3 trainers and 1 document).
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• Teaching using strategies modelled in the course – AT 25 was common to only
the course documents and the mentors.
• Teaching for Social Justice - AT26 (1 document) and Teaching that is relevant
to specific context - AT27 (1 document) were common only to the course
documents.
4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The findings presented in this chapter showed that the participants discussed
aspects of both children’s and adults’ learning when describing perspectives of
teaching. Teaching was viewed as an instructional process involving strategies
(teaching) designed to lead learners to attain certain goals (learning) (Lefrancois,
2000). Pratt (2002) suggests that “a perspective on teaching is an interrelated set of
views and intentions that gives direction and justification to our actions and is a lens
through which we view teaching and learning” (p. 6). These perspectives of teaching
are now discussed in depth in Chapter 5.
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Chapter 5: Discussion
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the perspectives of teaching including views about
teaching and learning in its totality in order to address the two research questions.
The first question is; What are the perspectives of teaching held by graduating
elementary teacher trainers and mentors in the PNG context? (Addressed in Section
5.2). The second is; What is the relationship between the course planning documents
and the perspectives of teaching held by trainers and mentors? (Addressed in
Section 5.3). Sociocultural theory, which suggests that knowledge is constructed by
an individual through interaction with others in social and cultural settings, is used as
a lens to discuss each of the research questions in turn.
5.2 WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTARY TEACHER TRAINERS’ AND MENTORS’ PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHING IN THE PNG CONTEXT?
The discussion of the perspectives of teaching in relation to the research
question, “What are the perspectives of teaching of the graduating elementary
teacher trainers and mentors in the PNG context?” is in two parts. Section 5.2.1
discusses the perspectives of teaching for children and section 5.2.2 is concerned
with perspectives of teaching for adults. Each section will build from the findings of
the participants’ views about both teaching and learning and draw from sociocultural
theory to describe teachers’ perspectives of teaching.
5.2.1 Perspectives of teaching for children
The results of the data analyses showed views about teaching and learning for
children, which were discussed to provide an understanding of trainers’ and mentors’
perspectives of teaching children. The categories which emerged from the journals
and interview transcripts are now discussed in turn, followed by an overview of
trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching children.
Views about teaching children
The analysis of views about teaching children indicated that some were held
more commonly than others. The most widely held views were Understand
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children’s learning abilities, developmental level and cultural backgrounds - CT6
(16 trainers and 1 mentor), Planning and preparation - CT1 (13 trainers) and
Teaching through caring - CT14 (10 trainers and 2 mentors). Teaching that is based
on learners’ existing knowledge attempts to build bridges from the learners’ current
way of thinking to new ways of thinking. The teacher’s ability to understand a
child’s developmental level, individual abilities and cultural background is very
important for the trainers as children’s learning differs between various cultural
groups in PNG. It would be erroneous to assume that children see the same event,
idea or an object in the same way. Sociocultural theory suggests that each
individual’s cultural experience is important in the process of learning (Boghossian,
2006; Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). Teaching that engages learners in set tasks based
on what is known to what is unknown reflects a developmental perspective of
teaching (Pratt, 2002b). According to Pratt, a developmental perspective of teaching
is learner-centred, with the process of teaching focussed on the cognitive
development of the learner. The primary goal of this view of teaching is to help the
learners develop increasingly complex cognitive structures beginning with what they
already know and gradually building new knowledge (Pratt, 2002b). While Pratt
indicates that a developmental view of teaching is based on learner-centred
constructivism, the results of the current study did not suggest such constructivist
principles. Rather, the current findings indicate that trainers and mentors were aware
of a need to understand a child’s cultural background in order to plan, prepare,
facilitate and structure learning experiences that were culturally appropriate.
The second commonly held view by trainers was careful planning and
preparation of learning activities. The role of planning and preparation was crucial
in the process of teaching and learning for children. The trainers were aware that,
within the PNG cultural context, teaching is about promoting meaningful inter-
related activities as whole rather than fragmented information or activities. Planning
and preparation of culturally appropriate educational experiences serves to provide a
framework that can be responsive to diversity within and between cultures based on
existing knowledge. In other words, teaching involves planning to assist children to
move from current ability (actual level), firstly with the teacher, then, gradually to
new learning (potential level of development) by the child on his or her own
(Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Therefore, the teachers’ understanding of children’s
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developmental levels and cultural backgrounds is crucial for planning and
preparation of teaching to scaffold learning to match the children’s ability level,
current understandings and ways of knowing.
Teaching through caring was also a common view of the trainers and is
important for understanding children’s learning abilities from different sociocultural
backgrounds. Teaching children with love and care and guiding them to achieve a
learning outcome without fear of failure is the approach described by many
participants in this study. This approach reflects a nurturing perspective of teaching
(Pratt, 2002b). According to Pratt, efficient teachers promote a climate of caring and
trust, helping the learner set challenging goals they can achieve with encouragement
and support. This means that teaching involves the promotion of individual growth
and well-being as well as the achievement of the set task (Pratt, 2002b).
The next most popular views about teaching for children which were discussed
mainly by the trainers were; Teaching family and community values - CT10 (8
trainers and 1 mentor), Teaching to impact life changes - CT5 (9 trainers) and
Community orientated collaborative teaching - CT2 (7 trainers). Taken together,
these categories reflect a view about preparing children for community life as
promoted in the PNG elementary education reform. This reform advocates for
teachers to teach family and cultural (community) values and in doing so, to work
with community members in the education of children towards achieving a better
future (National Department of Education, 2004).
The categories also illustrate social processes in learning. Sociocultural theory
suggests that the role of social processes is an important mechanism for learning and
development of an individual (Palincsar, 1998). According to Rogoff (1998), an
individual constructs knowledge socially through three perspectives. Firstly, by
engaging in personal activities (personal) using cultural tools (such as language,
cultural symbols and physical artefacts); secondly, through social interaction with
knowledgeable others (interpersonal) such as with older siblings through cultural
activities; and thirdly, through interactions with other members of the community
(community) (Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009). The categories
reflect the role of social interactions as individuals (personal), amongst learners
(interpersonal) and with the community (community) in providing opportunities to
participate in relevant learning experiences, therefore affirming the role of the social
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process in impacting changes in the life of an individual. In community oriented
collaborative activities, children participate in a broad range of joint activities and
internalise knowledge and skills. During social interactions, a child picks up
information from knowledgeable others by selecting, changing, amplifying and
interpreting objects to make meaning (Barton & Still, 2007). While the participants
were clear about preparing children for community life through social processes, few
participants explicitly reflected upon how children might construct meaning through
this process.
In the PNG cultural context, knowledge is acquired through transferral of
information by knowledgeable others (social interaction), which is referred to by
Hennessy et al. (2005) as “assisted performance”(p. 266) or guided participation
(Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). Guided participation is a culturally appropriate style of
teaching and is contextually relevant, in that the learning environment provided is
real life, activity-based for meaningful and authentic knowledge. Within the PNG
cultural context, such perspectives of teaching are evident when, for example, an
adult teaches a child the skills involved in spearing a fish. This transmission of
knowledge involves meaningful learning because the child needs to have some
understanding of light and the image of fish in the water in order to complete such
tasks.
Views about learning for children
In the analyses of views about learning for children, the most frequently
discussed category was that learning took place through Active participation (CL2,
13 trainers). Others included; Making meaning for understanding (CL3, 8 trainers
and 1 mentor), Holistic and integrated learning (CL5, 8 trainers), Collaborative
learning (CL13, 8 trainers) and Family and environment as partners in learning
(CL6, 6 trainers and 1 mentor). Learning for children was viewed by many trainers
as a result of active interactions and these interactions involved the social and
cultural environment (family, community, school and knowledgeable others)
(Boghossian, 2006; Bredo, 1994; Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009; Rogoff &
Gutierrez, 2003). Some described holistic and integrated learning activities, and
referred to the need for development of understanding as part of meaning making.
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Trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching children
The combined views about children’s teaching and learning in this study,
referred to as perspectives of teaching children, suggest that knowledge is established
through actions and interactions in the community (or sociocultural setting). The
findings of this study suggest an active perspective of teaching with a focus on
understanding children’s developmental levels and cultural backgrounds. However,
there is not a focus on what might be described as learner-centred perspectives of
teaching. The trainers and mentors in this study live in a broad range of provinces in
PNG. There are many provinces (20 in total) with small communities within these
provinces. Consequently, a great diversity in culture and language exists in PNG
(Gelade, 1999). Within each of the communities are villages. Each village is a
“cultural unit, an organ of civilisation, technology, agriculture and enterprise”
(Narokobi, 1983, p. 13). The villages within each province and community have
distinctive perspectives of teaching to connect children to their cultural values, norms
and way of living. The pedagogies used to teach the content knowledge in the
Highlands are different to that of the Coastal communities. For example, the
pedagogies used to teach a child how to grow kaukau (sweet potato) or make a
ceremonial head dress in the Highlands would be different to that of a Coastal child
learning how to spear a fish or make a canoe.
The findings of this study suggest an interactive, community focussed
perspective of teaching, which might be described as learning-centred, rather than
learner-centred and occurs through social and cultural interactions between the
teacher and learner. Learning-centred approaches in the cultural context involves
some elements of direct instruction and active teaching (O'Sullivan, 2004). In other
words, in this approach, the teacher is actively involved in giving direct instructions
to the learner. In the process, questions are asked so the learner actively participates
in the development of knowledge and meaning making. According to O’Sullivan,
the learning-centred perspective of teaching is often evident in developing countries
where there may be lower levels of teacher training and fewer resources. In this
approach the teacher identifies what children need to learn, and implements clear
teaching plans for mastery of the content, in a caring environment. Learning follows
as a set of instructional phases including informing the child of the objective,
directing attention to what is to be learned, providing guidance to learning,
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providing transfer of learning and evaluating performance at the end of the activity as
a way to assess the learning outcome (Dimmock, 2000). Conversely, the learner-
centred approach of teaching is more child-centred and focuses on the individual
child who is constructing and managing their own learning. In the planning and
preparation of educational activities in a learner-centred approach, the teacher’s
focus is on how to support the learner to build their own knowledge in social
contexts. Learning, from this perspective, may be characterised as active, self-
regulated and constructivist as it follows a set of activities designed to assist the child
to construct knowledge through social interactions (Tabulawa, 2003).
A learning-centred perspective of teaching children is at odds with the
learner-centred, social constructivist approach advocated in the elementary education
reform in PNG. O’ Sullivan (2004) argued that learner-centred Western pedagogies
are not appropriate for philosophical, pedagogical and practical reasons and its
implementation in developing country contexts was not successful. Philosophically,
a colonial point of view about what teaching is useful for the PNG cultural context is
not desirable. Pedagogically, the use of solely Western-oriented learner-centred
approaches to teaching in PNG is not producing desirable outcomes. In other words,
the theoretical framework for the elementary education reform and the pedagogies
imposed are Western-oriented and culturally inappropriate for PNG. Long before
westernisation of education in PNG, there existed traditional cultural perspectives of
teaching that were and still are, effective and contextually suitable for the learners in
PNG. In the traditional approach, teaching was an active process whereby
instructions were given to deliver content knowledge and the learners were required
to be actively involved to memorise and learn through rote learning examinations
purposes (National Department of Education, 1994, 2004). The same approach in the
cultural context also involved direct instructions and active learner participation,
however, learning was of immediate use and assessment was on the success of the
completion of an activity. Pratt (2002) argues that there should be a plurality of
teaching perspectives with no single dominant view of what constitutes effective
teaching (Pratt, 1998; Pratt, 2002b). There are variations in approaches to teaching
and learning in different cultures and no single approach should dominate (Rogoff &
Gutierrez, 2003). PNG has over 800 different cultures, each with its own distinct
language, indicating variations in teaching approaches used by each cultural group.
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Therefore a perspective of teaching which enables perspectives and pedagogies to
co-exist in elementary education may need to be considered, taking cultural views
into account. This will be discussed further in Section 5.4
5.2.2 Perspectives of teaching for adults
The results of the data analyses also showed views of teaching and learning for
adults. These views are discussed to provide an overall understanding of trainers’
and mentors’ perspectives of teaching adults in PNG. This is important since the
ways that teachers are trained may have an impact on their approaches to educating
children (O'Sullivan, 2004). The categories which emerged from the journals and
interview transcripts about perspectives of teaching and learning for adults are now
discussed in turn, followed by an overview of trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of
teaching adults.
Views about teaching adults
The analyses of the data indicates that the most common categories of views
about adult teaching discussed by both the trainers and mentors included Sharing and
transmitting information - AT3 (16 trainers and 3 mentors) and Collaborative
teaching - AT5 (15 trainers and 3 mentors). These views of teaching adults
emphasise transmission and social interdependence and the individual processes in
the development of knowledge (Mahn, 1999). While collaboration is typically
portrayed in the literature as a key to helping the learner construct knowledge and be
introduced to values and ways of knowing (Blumenfeld, Marx, Soloway, & Krajcik,
1996), it is not clear in the current data if there is a focus on construction of
knowledge. However, in this data we see a sociocultural focus on teaching through
sharing and collaboration with others, either within a whole class or among groups in
a class (social) and with knowledgeable others outside the classroom environment
(cultural) (Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002).
The analyses of data also showed other frequently expressed views about
teaching adults including Teaching for change - AT1 (13 trainers) and Community
awareness and training for understanding - AT10 (7 trainers and 1 mentor). This is
a community and future-oriented focus aligned with a view of teachers as change
agents in the educational reform in PNG. Another category, Meeting teachers’ needs
- AT6 (4 trainers and 4 mentors), involved trainers teaching trainees how to teach in
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elementary schools and mentors coaching trainers to succeed in the early childhood
degree course by addressing their learning needs.
There were some clear differences between trainers’ and mentors’ views about
teaching adults. In particular, the results of the analysis show that only trainers
expressed a view about adult teaching as involving teaching for change. Perhaps this
was because the mentors were not directly involved in training elementary teachers.
On the other hand, there were quite a few categories that were specific to mentors
only. These included; One-on-one individual help (AT22 5 mentors), Check, advise
and approve - AT23 (5 mentors), Teaching with patience and support - AT15 (4
mentors), Coaching - AT16 (4 mentors), Demonstrate, explain and lead - AT19 (4
mentors), Strategies modelled in the course - AT25 (2 mentors), Scholarly advice
with theory-based suggestions -AT20 (3 mentors), Facilitate and be available -
AT17 (3 mentors), Listen and ask probing questions - AT21 (2 mentors) and
Reflecting on teaching - AT24 (2 mentors). These categories focus on what the
mentor does, suggesting that the mentor is responsible for the performance of set
tasks and engages in a transferral of information through this approach, reflecting an
apprenticeship perspective of teaching. For example, an apprenticeship perspective
involves coaching, modelling, demonstrating and facilitating views of teaching
where the teacher guides the learners’ understanding to develop knowledge in the
context of their workplace (Pratt, 2002b). Learning is seen to result from engaging
in social practices to negotiate meaning, using experiences to align learning activities
to broaden knowledge (Wenger, 2000). Learning is a social and collective activity
and from a sociocultural view, takes place through collaborative processes (Rogoff &
Chavajay, 2002).
In summary, the perspective of teaching adults evident in these categories
suggests a process of transmission because there is little evidence from the trainers’
and mentors’ views to suggest that adult teaching is about facilitating the
construction of knowledge. However, trainers and mentors have a collaborative and
community oriented view of teaching adults focused on teaching for change in their
community. Sociocultural theory suggests that transmitting knowledge can be a
social source of development, in that the development of an individual relies on the
vast pool of experiences of more knowledgeable others (Mahn, 1999) shared or
transmitted through social interaction (Loertscher, Cobia, Carlson, & May, 2003).
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The primacy of this social interaction in the development of individuals is
emphasised in Vygotsky’s genetic law of development (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978).
Vygotsky’s genetic law of development was expanded by Rogoff (2003) and
characterised as guided participation (Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003). In essence, when
beginning an activity, learners depend on knowledgeable others and need to be
guided. Over time they take on increasing responsibility for their own learning.
Views about learning for adults
The analyses of data also showed views about learning for adults. The
category most commonly discussed by both the trainers and the mentors was Expand
knowledge and skills (AL2, 17 trainers and 4 mentors) and Collaborative learning -
AL5 (11 trainers and 3 mentors). This is similar to commonly expressed views about
adult teaching described earlier (Sharing and transmitting information and
Collaborative teaching), suggesting a coherence of views about teaching and
learning for adults. Learning from these perspectives seems to emphasise social
interdependence and the individual processes in the development of knowledge
(Loertscher, et al., 2003; Wenger, 2000).
With regard to collaborative learning highlighting the role of social interaction
in adult learning, it is not always clear whether this is about simply expanding skills
and knowledge or negotiating deeper meanings. Collaborative learning that engages
learners in the construction of shared meaning will help advance the learning of
knowledge and understanding (Rogoff & Correa-Chávez, 2009). However, a role
for deeper adult learning processes seems to be evident in the category Building
knowledge to address challenges (AL6, 11 trainers). This category provided insights
into a somewhat more active rather than passive view of adult learning. A small
number of participants also reflected on deep adult learning processes in; Problem
solving and construction of meaning (AL1, 4 trainers), Observe and reflect on
learning (AL 10 6 trainers; 3 mentors), Good results demonstrating understanding
(AL7, 3 trainers; 3 mentors), Learning through research (AL16, 2 mentors) and
adults holding personal Responsibility for their own learning (AL13, 4 mentors).
These responses suggest that both mentors and trainers believed that adult learning
went beyond merely expanding knowledge to include perspectives of learning as
active and meaningful. This is a surprising finding, considering that the categories
for adult teaching (discussed above) did not reflect such perspectives.
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Other commonly described views about learning for adults included;
Interesting and relevant for implementation (AL4, 10 trainers), Apply knowledge,
understanding and skills at work (AL12, 3 mentors), Meeting teachers’ needs (AL3,
6 trainers) and Use what was learned as agents of change (AL9, 4 trainers and 1
mentor). These views suggest that expansion of knowledge should be relevant and
purposeful in addressing training and reform challenges. The expansion of
knowledge is said to be human product, and according to sociocultural theory, it is
constructed socially and culturally through interactions with each other and the
environment in which they live (Pratt, 2002b; Simpson, 2006). Therefore, it is
anticipated that the expansion of knowledge would assist teachers to meet the
challenges of the reform to improve quality of education.
Overview: Trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching adults
The dominant view of teaching adults in the findings was about expansion of
knowledge and skills, with a particular focus on collaboration and actively building
meaningful knowledge. Trainers and mentors have a collaborative and community
oriented perception of teaching adults focusing on teaching for change in elementary
education. This indicated a much stronger learner-centred perspective of teaching
than was the case for the perspectives of teaching children. While the focus on
building knowledge to construct meaning was not evident for teaching children, this
was clearly the case for teaching adults.
5.3 HOW DO THE ELEMENTARY TEACHER TRAINERS’ AND MENTORS’ PERSPECTIVES RELATE TO THE COURSE DOCUMENTS?
The final research question was: What is the relationship of perspectives of
teaching between the course planning document and the trainers and the mentors?
This final question enabled the examination of how the perspectives of teaching
evident in the course planning documents for the degree program were related to
those of the trainers and mentors. The Bachelor of Early Childhood (Teacher
Education) served as a learning environment for the trainers and their mentors and
therefore provided a context for trainers’ and mentors’ perspectives of teaching.
This analysis relates to all three data sources; the course planning documents,
the trainers’ journals and the mentors’ interviews. It was evident that some
categories were present in all three course documents while others were present in
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only one of the three documents. It is noted that the presence of a category in only
one course document does not necessarily indicate lesser importance. Also, the
repetition of categories across documents does not imply greater emphasis on the
importance of key perspectives of adult teaching and learning. The design of the
course planning documents focussed on the perspectives of teaching adults and as a
result, no perspectives about teaching children will be discussed in this section.
Firstly, analysis of the categories common across course planning documents,
trainers’ journals and mentors’ interviews are presented, followed by trainers’
journals and the course documents only. Finally, the mentor interviews and the
course documents only are presented. The categories that only emerged in the course
documents are also discussed to indicate gaps between the course and participants’
views.
The categories that were common across all three sources of data in relation
to both adult learning and adult teaching included; Developing and expanding
knowledge and skills – AL2 (17 trainers, 4 mentors and 3 course documents),
Sharing and transmitting information AT3 (16 trainers, 3 mentors, 2 documents),
Collaborative learning – AL5 (11 trainers, 3 mentors and 1 course document) and
Collaborative teaching AT5 (15 trainers, 3 mentors, 2 documents). The view of
teaching as sharing, collaborating and transmitting information reflects approaches
used to build communal knowledge through conversation (social interaction), and
provides the opportunity for the learner to acquire useful strategies and crucial
knowledge from knowledgeable others (Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002; Rogoff & Correa-
Chávez, 2009). Teaching approaches that engage learners in transmitting
information reflect a view that the teacher is responsible for learning (Pratt, 1998;
Pratt, 2002b). However, the collaboration and sharing approaches to teaching and
learning indicate a reciprocal relationship that is more suggestive of active learning.
The course document categories less frequently represented across all three
data sources included; Awareness and training for understanding - AT10 (7 trainers,
1 mentor and 1 document), Observe and reflect on learning – AL10 (6 trainers, 3
mentors and 3 course documents), Utilise and implement what was learned as agents
of change – AL9 (4 trainers, 1 mentor and 1 document), Needing knowledge in order
to teach - AT7 (2 trainers, 2 mentors and 1 document), Strategies for teaching adults
- AT8 (3 trainers, 2 mentors and 1 document) and Planning and Preparation - AT 14
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(2 trainers, 2 mentors and 1 document). These views indicated some sharing of
perspectives involving active learner involvement, such as reflection, understanding,
planning and application of suitable ideas. Despite these categories being less
frequently represented, there was still evidence of a relationship across all three data
sources supporting an active view of teaching and learning.
Some categories were common to only the documents and the trainers. These
included; Build knowledge to address challenges AL6 (11 trainers, 3 documents),
Teaching for change AT1 (13 trainers, 1 document) and Problem solving and
constructing meaning AL1 (4 trainers, 2 documents). This indicated a view of
teaching suggesting that adult learners are most interested in information and ideas
that help solve problems they are presently facing or that address reform challenges.
This is at odds with an earlier view about transmissive perspective of teaching, as it
highlights the active nature of participants’ involvement in purposeful learning. This
perspective may be contextually relevant to the role of trainers in working directly
with trainees to support the implementation of educational reforms.
The analyses also showed other categories common only to the documents
and the mentors, including; Apply knowledge and skills at work – AL12 (3 mentors
and 1 document), Responsible for own learning – AL13 (4 mentors and 1 document),
Printed texts from course as learning resources – AL15 (2 mentors and 1 document)
and Learning through research – AL16 (2 mentors and 3 documents). The
overarching view identified from all these categories is being responsible for one’s
own learning and recognition of meaning or usefulness of information to be learned
through either printed texts or research. Teachers have a shared responsibility to
employ a blend of strategies to bring about effective and purposeful learning to adult
students. This perspective reflects the broader role of mentors in supporting adult
learning and its application to practice.
Categories identified only in the course planning documents included;
Evaluate practice - AL11 (2 documents), Expand knowledge of other pedagogies for
learning – AL14 (1 document), Lead and manage – AL18 (1 document), Making
critical analysis of learning –AL19 (1 document) and Professional communication
using technology – AL20 (1 document). The emphasis on adult learning strategies
and higher order thinking was not reflected in the elementary teacher trainers’ and
mentors’ views. However, the categories reflected an overall view of learning
95
through both transferral of information and deeper learning processes. An interesting
finding is related to two categories evident only in the course planning documents,
that is, Teaching for Social Justice – AT26 and Teaching that is relevant to specific
context – AT27. The latter category reflects a view of teaching that is suited to a
culturally diversified context. However, the absence of social justice views from the
participants’ views may indicate its lack of salience in this specific context.
The findings from the analysis of the course planning documents indicated that
the learning activities were context specific and designed to encourage learners in a
social practice to negotiate meaning or develop knowledge. The teaching practices
used in the course also helped the trainers to explicitly reflect on and to value their
culturally specific perspectives of teaching and learning through the use of journal
entries over the 4 semesters of the course. The learning context evident in the
course, commonly described by the elementary teacher trainers and the mentors was
about transferral of information to expand knowledge and skills through sharing and
collaboration. The findings also indicated that the perspective of teaching described
by the participants varied in different learning contexts. In summary, while the
findings suggest a stronger focus towards the learning-centred perspective of
teaching, the trainers and the mentors partly conformed to the learner-centred
perspective of teaching espoused in the course planning documents.
5.4 TOWARDS AN ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVE OF TEACHING IN PNG
The findings from this study showed that the trainers and mentors held
perspectives of teaching which were not necessarily strongly aligned with the
Western, learner-centred views of teaching and learning advocated in the elementary
education reform. The perspective of teaching children evident in this study included
cultural teaching approaches which were not learner-centred in nature but promoted
transfer of information by understanding the learner, showing care, promoting active,
holistic and community-based teaching and learning practices. It is important to
consider a culturally-based perspective of teaching to promote culturally specific
pedagogies in elementary education and for this to be reflected in the curriculum and
teacher training policy documents. Therefore, a culturally sensitive perspective of
teaching that can promote interesting, stimulating, and responsive approaches to
teaching and learning for diverse children requires further consideration (Gay, 2002;
Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002).
96
The education reform in PNG advocates for a learner-centred, social-
constructivist perspective of teaching and learning (National Department of
Education, 2004; NEC, 2009) which has dominated the PNG elementary education
system for the last decade and continues to do so. However, this mandated focus on
learner-centred teaching and learning does not seem to be producing the intended
learning outcomes of the elementary education reform (McLaughlin, 2010). The
colonial influence on the national curriculum framework means there has not been
due consideration given to the PNG cultural context in terms of teaching and learning
(Agigo, 2010). McLaughlin (2010) also believes that the implementation of the
reform has failed because it has not considered the PNG cultural context in terms of
teaching and learning. The pre-reform curriculum used the traditional approach to
teaching based on more learning-centred perspectives. The shift in policy to adopt
learner-centred perspectives of teaching that are social-constructivist in nature was to
allow for active involvement and participation of learners in the learning process
(National Department of Education, 1994).
Reform experiences from other developing countries indicate that the learner-
centred perspectives of teaching have not been successful and have often been seen
as a policy panacea (Sriprakash, 2010). The learner-centred perspective has been
introduced in many developing countries as a way of providing solutions to a myriad
of problems (O'Sullivan, 2004; Schweisfurth, 2011) such as examination-focussed
teaching and content that was irrelevant to learners’ lives (National Department of
Education, 1994). It was also expected that such perspectives would address issues
such as alleviating poverty and creating an educated elite that would contribute to the
social, economic and political development of a society (National Department of
Education, 2004; O'Sullivan, 2004; Sriprakash, 2010). However, implementation of
such reforms provides a challenge for developing countries because the shift from
learning-centred to learner-centred perspectives is profound. The success of the
learner-centred perspective of teaching is dependent on teachers’ understanding that
learners construct knowledge through social interactions to generate meaning
(O'Sullivan, 2004). This is a challenging task because culturally, in such developing
countries, knowledge is viewed typically as fixed, objective and culturally specific to
the learner (O'Sullivan, 2004; Schweisfurth, 2011). In addition, a lack of resources
97
and suitably qualified teachers often contributes to the difficulties experienced with
such reforms (Mukherjee & Banerji, 2008; O'Sullivan, 2004).
Clearly teachers’ perspectives of teaching which do not align with those of the
reforms have been an important factor in the challenges experienced in developing
countries. It is important, to realign teachers’ perspectives by drawing from their
cultural experiences and that of the reform to propose a perspective that would be
culturally relevant and appropriate. The perspective proposed is called culturally
connected teaching (see Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Proposed Culturally Connected perspective of teaching
The model shows the significance of culturally connected perspectives of
teaching and proposes that it be considered as an alternative as it is deemed to be
relevant and appropriate for the PNG context. This perspective does not exclude
learner-centred, constructivist perspectives of teaching, but rather advocates the co-
existence of both learning-centred and learner-centred perspectives as was evident in
the perspectives of teaching for adults in this study. This is shown in the figure as
concentric circles which build on each other. The culturally connected perspective
of teaching builds on the learning-centred and traditional perspectives typically
evident in elementary education by defining teaching as both transferring
information and internalisation of knowledge through a focus on non-verbal and
98
verbal interactions in the social and cultural environment. This includes localised
perspectives of teaching in addition to Western-oriented learner-centred approaches
with the intention of improving practice and quality of education. The co-existence
of the perspectives would ensure that connections are built in order to maximise
effective learning in the context of promoting sociocultural consciousness.
Socio-cultural consciousness is about being aware that there are multiple ways
of perceiving reality, and that these are influenced by varying cultural contexts
(Villegas & Lucas, 2002). This is very similar to evaluativistic epistemic beliefs
(Berthelsen, Brownlee, & Johansson, 2008) focusing on evaluating multiple
perspectives in context. Teachers with evaluativistic beliefs were more likely to
engage in teaching practices that were responsive to children and supported learning
for meaning. Sociocultural consciousness understands that the way people think,
behave and see things are influenced by their varying sociocultural contexts. This
means they would need to appreciate both learner-centred and learning-centred
perspectives of teaching as multiple ways of perceiving reality in PNG.
This appreciation of multiple teaching perspectives suggests that a culturally
connected perspective of teaching involves an ability to reflect critically. Explicit
reflection on the analysis of multiple teaching perspectives impacts pedagogical
decision making. Each teacher is unique and has different ways of teaching in
relation to family, community and school (which makes up the sociocultural
context). It is within this context that teachers have to understand how individuals
learn so that multiple perspectives can be appreciated. Furthermore, teachers have to
be culturally responsive to different ways of learning. The culturally connected
perspective acknowledges that each context is constituted by experiences from
interaction within social and cultural contexts (Rogoff & Gutierrez, 2003).
The culturally connected perspective of teaching is evident in the findings of
this study in regard to perspectives of teaching adults, which had elements of both
learner-centred and learning-centred views. It is important to consider perspectives
of teaching adults because the trainers and mentors will be responsible mainly for
teaching adults rather than children. These perspectives will influence quality
teacher training. In this study, one clear contextual influence on views of teaching
adults has been the Bachelor of Early Childhood course. Guthrie (2003) asserts that
teachers tend to select teaching approaches that work best for them within their
99
sociocultural context. In this case, it would have been obvious from the course
requirements that the trainers and mentors had to work partly within the learner-
centred perspective of teaching, yet negotiation of approaches relevant for the
cultural context also emerged in participants’ views. Sociocultural theory recognises
that perspectives of teaching occur in the complexity of interactions between
individuals (personal), the social setting (interpersonal) and the community. It also
recognises the impact of both internal and external influences on an individual and
the way in which that individual views reality or the world (Rogoff & Correa-
Chávez, 2009). In this respect, there exists a relationship between the individual
and the sociocultural environment, from which the individual’s perspective of
teaching is constructed, and it occurs through a web of interaction with others. One
sociocultural context for the mentors and trainers was the undergraduate degree
program which promoted learner-centred approaches to teaching and learning, in
addition to learning-centred perspectives.
Beyond the experience of the course, presumably the trainers’ and mentors’
cultural experiences in teaching and other educational experiences and transition
from the pre-reform to the reform curriculum have contributed to their teaching
perspectives. Cultural teaching experiences refer to the participants’ individual
experiences of the pedagogies involved in the cultural and community contexts. In
regards to the pre-reform experiences, teachers used teacher-centred approaches
reflecting a learning-centred perspective of teaching. The focus was on the teachers
and what they did. The pedagogy was based on transmission of information,
however, it also transmitted concepts and knowledge of subject content (Biggs &
Tang, 2007; National Department of Education, 1994). The focus of the pre-reform
approaches was on the teacher, but the reform pedagogies focused on the student,
and were learner-centred, social constructivist views of teaching and learning
(National Department of Education, 2004). While the reform had the intention to
incorporate culturally valued activities in the elementary school curriculum, there
was no mention of the use of cultural teaching pedagogies. McLaughlin (2010)
argues that such an approach is impractical and culturally inappropriate, as there is
no demonstration of cultural appreciation in the reform curriculum. Therefore, any
attempt to demonstrate cultural appreciation of teaching through the introduction of
100
the culturally connected perspectives of teaching in the reform will have a range of
implications.
5.5 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings of the current study show that the perspectives of teaching
mandated in the reform may be at odds with the teaching perspectives of the trainers
and mentors in this study. The trainers and the mentors are leaders in elementary
teacher training and so their perspectives of teaching are likely to impact on
elementary teachers and children more broadly in PNG. A culturally connected
perspective of teaching has been advocated as a way to enable both learning-centred
and learner-centred perspectives of teaching to co-exist. Such a change would have
implications for the revision of teacher training and connections with communities in
early elementary education in PNG.
Teacher training. The existing literature reveals that there are two broad
orientations to teaching and learning in higher education: teacher-centred/content-
centred (Biggs & Tang, 2007) and student-centred/learner-centred (Bennett et al.,
2008). The two orientations indicate a link between teachers’ conceptions,
perceptions and beliefs of teaching and the quality of student learning outcomes
(Biggs & Tang, 2007; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Kember & Kwan, 2000; Prosser, et al.,
2003) suggesting it is important to know the underlying perspectives of teaching to
understand trainers’ approaches to teaching. The proposed culturally connected
perspective of teaching contributes to this body of knowledge about teaching and
learning in higher education. Rather than viewing teaching as teacher-centred or
student-centred, it advocates for a culturally connected perspective of teaching that
links the two orientations (learning and learner centred perspectives). There has been
very little research about perspectives of teaching in teacher training institutions in
PNG, however this study contributes to the field by suggesting a new way of
thinking about teaching in higher education, particularly in developing countries.
As a result, elementary teacher training needs to support changes in
perspectives of teaching. In other words, the Certificate in Elementary Teacher
Training (CETT) program would need to be adapted to accommodate the proposed
perspective. A redeveloped CETT program would be designed to prepare elementary
trainers to teach in culturally responsive ways, to address quality issues in elementary
101
education. The pedagogies used in the training programs would need to model
culturally responsive teaching and engage trainers in critical reflection on such
perspectives of teaching. Culturally responsive teachers would be socioculturally
conscious, that is, aware that there are multiple ways of perceiving reality, and that
these are influenced by varying cultural contexts (Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Teachers
would need to appreciate both learner-centred and learning-centred perspectives of
teaching as multiple ways of perceiving reality in PNG. The preparation of
elementary teacher trainers that promotes sociocultural consciousness advances the
development of culturally responsive teachers, therefore, reflecting a culturally
connected perspective of teaching in higher education. It is argued that in order to
align reform requirements with practice, and demonstrate cultural appreciation, the
CETT training program should incorporate culturally connected perspectives to
ensure that teaching is relevant and effective for quality elementary education in the
PNG context.
The promotion of sociocultural consciousness and culturally connected
perspectives of teaching also shifts the approach in PNG from teacher training to
teacher education. The term teacher training emerges from an apprentice model
where the trainee learns by observing and then gradually takes on the teaching
responsibilities (Dyson, 2003). Teacher training involves modifying knowledge,
skills and attitudes to achieve effective teaching performance (Dyson, 2003; Smith,
1992), without focusing on perspectives of teaching. Conversely, teacher education
promotes deeper learning experiences focusing on constructing new perspectives of
teaching including knowledge, skills, beliefs, moral values and attitudes required in
all aspects of life, not just limited to only education or one field of activity (Cochran-
Smith, 2005; Gore, 2001). As a way of promoting deeper learning experiences, the
consideration to include culturally connected perspective of teaching in teacher
education would advance the teachers’ understanding of multiple perspectives of
knowledge construct. This would enable them to make critical reflections on the two
orientations of teaching – learner-centred and learning-centred approaches. Critical
reflections are important because individuals have different perspectives of teaching
and different ways of thinking in different contexts (Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992,
2001). The learning experiences provided through teacher education are important
because they impact on the quality of teachers’ practice in schools. This, in turn can
102
promote quality learning outcomes for children in the early years (Burchinal, 1999;
Lin, Gorrell, & Silvern, 2005; NICHD, 1999).
In order to accommodate culturally connected perspectives of teaching and to
promote change, it is important that the teacher training institute in PNG, PNGEI, is
supported. The National Department of Education, through the Teacher Education
Division (TED), would need place more emphasis on elementary education and
value the role played by elementary education in promoting quality outcomes for
children, families and society in general. To this end, policies would need to
advocate for the inclusion of culturally connected perspectives of teaching in teacher
preparation programs. In order to achieve this, the TED would need to shift teacher
preparation from the current CETT (distance mode with only 6 weeks face-to-face
training) to the residential Certificate in Elementary Teacher Education (CETE)
which involves a year long course at PNGEI. This shift to the residential model will
enable an improved depth of understanding of curriculum and pedagogy and a
stronger focus on sociocultural conscious. An in-depth understanding that reality
varies in different teaching contexts and has many interpretations, could be promoted
by advocating for approaches to teaching which include critical reflection on
perspectives of teaching in the diverse cultural communities of PNG.
Connection to communities. Currently, the elementary education reform
promotes the involvement of all stakeholders in the education process and calls for
greater school and community participation (sociocultural interactions) (National
Department of Education, 2003). The role of the community is to assist with the
development of the elementary school curriculum, based on its culture (the what).
They do not have a say in how children are taught, only what is taught because
typically teaching strategies from a learner-centred perspective require children to
construct their own meaning without direct instruction from adults (National
Department of Education, 2004). This perspective does not value the cultural way of
teaching children through active and direct instruction (learning-centred perspective).
Using the proposed culturally connected perspective of teaching, which accounts for
learner-centred and learning-centred perspectives, the process of collaboration with
communities would involve not only the use of cultural knowledge (the what) but
also culturally specific approaches to teaching (the how). These approaches to
teaching would include active and direct instruction typical of PNG communities as
103
well as the constructivist approaches advocated by the reform. By expanding the
current reform to include culturally connected perspectives of teaching, cultural
teaching strategies (community involvement in teaching) and knowledge (culturally
specific content knowledge) could be woven through learning experiences. There is
increasing realisation that family and community members do contribute to
children’s learning (Cairney, 2000; Rogoff & Chavajay, 2002) both in terms of
teaching strategies and cultural content knowledge.
As a way forward, the existing curriculum would have to be rearranged to align
the curriculum and pedagogy with both the reform (learner-centred perspectives) and
cultural (learning-centred perspectives) values. The re-arrangement of curriculum
documents and resource materials for teachers in PNG would have to reflect and
value more culturally connected pedagogies. In this respect, the curriculum change
would acknowledge and support pedagogical views of communities from varying
sociocultural contexts.
5.5.1 Limitations of the study
The study was limited to selected elementary teacher trainers from only 8 out
of the 23 provinces in PNG and these included East Sepik, Manus, Morobe, Gulf,
Central, National Capital, Western Highlands and Simbu. Limited accessibility from
Port Moresby to most of the 23 provinces was a contributing factor to this limitation.
However, the trainers selected were representative of the four regions – Northern
(East Sepik, Morobe), Southern (Gulf, Central and National Capital), Highlands
(Western Highlands and Simbu) and Islands (Manus). In an attempt to enable
transferability of the findings, rather than generalisability, the study provided thick
description of the context.
Another limitation was related to contextual influences. There were a number
of contextual influences that could have affected the mixed perspectives of teaching
adults (learning and learner centred). Participants experienced both the non-
residential and residential component of the Bachelor of Early Childhood course.
The non-residential context refers to trainers doing part of the degree program in
their respective work locations in the provinces. In this component of the course, the
mentors travelled to the provinces and provided the required learning support for the
trainers. The residential component refers to the 2 week teaching block when
104
academic staff from the Australian university travelled to PNG each semester. It is
possible that the learner-centred perspective evident in the mixed perspectives is
simply a response that reflects what the participants thought the university lecturers
agreed with, in order to be successful in the course.
5.5.2 Suggestions for Further Research
This study has provided some findings that are worthy of noting in regards to
teachers’ perspectives of teaching in the PNG elementary teacher education context.
The findings draw attention to the need for further research to see how teachers’
perspectives affect practice and the children’s learning outcomes. For example:
• Following the participants of this study into their place of work to examine
how their perspectives of teaching are applied to practice in elementary
teacher education.
• Following the beginning elementary teachers (trained by the participants) into
their classrooms to examine how perspectives of teaching influence learning
outcomes of students.
• Considering how field based training experiences in the CETT reflects
teaching perspectives.
• Extending the study to more of the elementary teacher trainers and all of
PNGEI lecturers involved with elementary teacher education.
A global and national need for quality education, has led to reform in PNG and
since 1993, a learner-centred pedagogy has been used in classrooms and teacher
education programs. A pressing issue inherent to the reform relates to the quality of
elementary curriculum and teacher preparation programs. As typical of other
developing countries, the PNG reform has had successes and challenges. The reform
successes for achieving quantity were applauded, but the challenges for achieving
quality were even greater for PNG. The Western-oriented pedagogy and the cultural
content developed by the communities and elementary schools has not worked for
PNG as there is no compatibility between the cultural content taught to the
elementary children and the pedagogy used to teach that content.
The findings from this study showed that culturally connected perspectives of
teaching provided insights into how teaching and learning are understood in different
105
sociocultural contexts. Promoting a culturally connected perspective of teaching
which aligns with cultural ways of learning, may provide an alternate perspective of
teaching to help children develop knowledge and make meaning. This investment in
quality education can promote meaningful participation and favourable long term
social outcomes for PNG.
106
Appendices
Appendix 1. Ethical approval from Teacher Education Division
107
Appendix 2. Ethical approval from Mentors
108
Appendix 3. Ethical approval from QUT
109
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