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Ch. 39: The Stormy Sixties
1960-1968
“Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been
passed to a new generation of Americans…”
“The Best and the Brightest” Power of Cabinet grows
R. Kennedy AG
Sec of Defense R. McNamara
Sec of State Dean Rusk
M. Bundy Nat’l Security Advisor
New Frontier Agenda1. Education2. Medicare3. Dept. of Urban Affairs
Today: Dept. of Housing and Urban Development – increase homeownership, urban development, affordable housing free from discrimination
4. Minimum wage: $1.25/hr.5. Increased SS benefits
Peace Corp• Volunteers who helped in developing countries such as Asia,
Latin America & Africa
Kennedy & Big Business• Acted more like a
Republican…• Cut taxes and give
loans• Reduce tariffs• And…
• Initiates moon missions• Economic stimulus• Military strategy• Scientific prestige
JFK & Khrushchev 1961
Khrushchev & The Wall 1961
Building of the “Death Strip”
Death Strip
French Opposition to U.S. influence in Europe
Charles De Gaulle
“Flexible response”a. Preparing for a variety of military responses rather than just
focusing on nuclear weaponsb. Kennedy built up all branches of militaryc. Special Forces AKA Green Berets
Vietminh & Ho Chi Minh Drive the French out of Vietnam
a. Eisenhower’s Domino theory
b. 1954: French post at Dien Bien Phu falls/guerilla tactics
c. July 1954:Geneva Accords (peace agreement)/temporary divide at 17th parallel
d. Diem agreed to countrywide elections for 1956
Kennedy and Vietnam
a. 1960: continues to support Diem via $ and military advisors, as did Eisenhower
b. Diem corrupt but nationalist; cancels election of 1956
c. Repressed Buddhist practices = Ngo Diem
Nationalist
Buddhist who sets himself aflame to protest Diem’s repression. Diem was a Catholic.
Kennedy and Vietnam
a. US executes Diem/JFK assassinated; within three wks of each other!
b. LBJ now president and does not want to appear “soft” on communism
Alliance for Progress
1. Provided economic help and promote democracy in LA; ineffective
2. Improved agriculture and crop exports but little change socially or politically
Bay of Pigs April 1961
a. US to train Cuban exiles: La Brigadab. Goal: to overthrow Castroc. Success or failure? Air support withdrawn! Plan failed miserably!
d. Public relations success for Castro
i. JFK considered incompetent
ii. $62 million in food and medical supplies for release of soldiers
Cuban missile crisis• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0suadZ6AmM
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
a. nuclear missiles in Cuba
b. Attack from Cuba = attack on Soviet Union
c. US quarantines Cuba = SU ships do not pass
d. Khrushchev & Kennedy make agreement?
Castro & Khrushchev
Fallout of Agreement between Khrushchev & JFK
a. Kennedyi. Used brinksmanship
not negotiationsii. Missed opportunity to
overthrow Castroiii. Cuban-Amer. go
Republican
b. KhrushchevLost face in SU &
worldwide
De’tente: Trying to ease tensions
a. Hotline- direct telephonic line between the White House and the Kremlin (1963)
b. Limited Test Ban Treaty- stopped nuclear testing in the atmosphere (1963)
Kremlin
JFK & Civil Rights
Freedom Rides 1961
1. Began with CORE organizationone of the earliest org. geared at nonviolent protest; est. sit-in concept
2. Goal of freedom rides? enforce desegregation
laws on interstate bus routes and terminals; Morgan v. Virginia (1946)
James Farmer
KKK at terminal Birmingham, Alabama & Bull Connor
James Meredith & Ole Miss (10/’62)
Violence in Birmingham, Ala. (1963)
1. Need to get JFK to respond2. MLK – “most segregated
city in the U.S.”3. EBC –
a. Safety commissioner/mayoral candidateb. Responds with harsh forcec. Televised
4. Ends with desegregation
Eugene “Bull” Connor
Birmingham, Al. May 1963
Birmingham, AlLetter from MLK
• “I guess it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to say, “Wait.” But when you have seen hate-filled policemen curse, kick, brutalize and even kill your black brothers and sisters; … when you see the vast majority of your twenty million Negro brothers smothering in the air-tight cage of poverty;…when you have to concoct an answer for a five-year-old son asking:…”Daddy, why do white people treat colored people so mean?”…then you will understand why we find it difficult to wait.”
April 16, 1963
16th St. bombing: Birmingham, Ala. (9/’63)
Guilty at 73 (1977)
Resistance to the Movement
1. “I say, segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!”
- George Wallace, Gov. of Alabama, June 1963
2. Pres. Kennedy orders Wallace to desegregate U of Al.
3. Medgar Evers;NAACP, veteran, assassinated by de la Beckwith (6/’63 Ms.)
March on WashingtonAug. 28, 1963
D. November 22, 1963
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964• federal law that prohibits employers from discriminating
against employees on the basis of sex, race, color, national origin, and religion. It generally applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including federal, state, and local governments. Title VII also applies to private and public colleges and universities, employment agencies, and labor organizations
• Specifically address gender and racial equality; especially sexual harassment
F. Freedom summer:The Struggle for Voting Rights
1. MississippiAA 50% of pop.; only 5% of registered voters
Selma Campaign (Alabama 1965)
1. 50% of population were AA - Only 3% registered voters
2. Voter-registration drive organized in hopes of violent response by whites so that Johnson’s admin. would pass voting act.
Bloody Sunday: Alabama state troopers attack civil-rights demonstrators outside Selma, Alabama, on Sunday,
March 7, 1965.
Voting Rights Act 1965
1. Got rid of literacy test2. Agents of the Federal
gov’t could register voters
3. Registered African American voters tripled in the South
4. Voting &discrimination addressed; on to social and economic equality = poverty issues “By the way, what’s the
big word?”
MAP 28.2 Impact of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Voter registration among African Americans in the South increased significantly between 1960 and 1971.
24th Amendment (1964): abolishes poll taxes
Malcolm “X” Little
1. member of the Nation of Islam (NI)
2. advocated armed self-defense & black nationalism
3. received a lot of press/controversial
4. Hajj/returns w/“Ballots or Bullets” theory
5. Assassinated during speaking engagement by NI members
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
1. Members usually young college students; nonviolence
2. Wanted only Blacks to fight “for the cause” (Kling)
3. “Black Power!”4. PES independence5. discord amongst the
AA community Stokely Carmichael
1966
Black Panthers
Huey Newton
Bobby Seale
Urban Violence1. Harlem, Watts, Chicago, Detroit….
Police brutality the culprit
2. Needed opportunities in jobs, housing, and education
April 4, 1968• James Earl Ray assassinates MLK
Violence erupts throughout the US/125 cities
Civil Rights Legacy1. Civil Rights Act 1964:
employment/public places
2. Voting Rights Act 1965:3. Civil Rights Act 1968:
banned discrimination in housing
4. Affirmative action: making special efforts to hire or enroll groups that have suffered from discrimination in the past
• Black pride• AA curriculum• Entertainers• 2/3rds registered voters• 7,000 elected officials• Ended de jure segregation• School integration; better
in South than in the North• College enrollment
increased
Golden Doors & Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
1. National origins quotas abolished
2. Limits visas annually to 120, 000 WH; 170, 000 EH
3. Family sponsorship allowed = problems due to so many qualifying
Johnson’s Great Society
War on PovertyPrograms:
a. Educational; headstart
b. Medical care for elderly; Medicare for retirees; Medicaid for poor
c. Immigration reformd. Voting rights bill
Roots of Poverty1. Unequal income
distribution• LBJ never addresses
it2. Social Welfare
budget increases by > 50%• Medicare, Social
Security, and unemployment comp
Urban Uprising
1. Why?a. Police brutalityb. Unemploymentc. No health facilitiesd. Poor schoolse. Inadequate housing
2. Where• Watts, San Francisco,
Detroit, Cleveland, Newark Watts Riots (1965)
Pres. Johnson expands the conflicta. Gulf Tonkin Incident
i. US naval ships fired uponii. Second attack unclear if it happenediii. US spying on NV
B. Pres. Johnson expands the conflict1. Tonkin Gulf Resolution
(Aug. 1964): a. Granted Johnson military
powers in Vietnam without officially declaring war!
b. Written weeks prior to Tonkin incident
2. Operation Rolling Thundera. First prolonged bombing of
North Vietnamb. In hopes of avoiding
sending ground troops
Election of 1964
Great Society ProgramsLBJ’s Agenda
• Medical Care Act: Medicare & Medicaid• Dept of Housing and Urban Development• Higher Education Act• Civil Rights Act 1968 & Voting Rights Act 1965• Truth in Packaging Act
All of these programs are still around today!
Doves vs. Hawks
Opposed war & wanted troops to
withdraw from Vietnam
Should continue & increase force in
Vietnam
Domino Theory (Pres. Eisenhower’s)
If Vietnam fell to communism others would follow, so the U.S. must help.
Losing Morale
1. soldiersa. Lose confidence b. Drugs and alcoholc. Killing superior
officers
2. At homea. Economy suffers/
Inflationb. Using SS funds
c. Increased taxes d. $21 B a year on ware. Living room war: media and credibility gap effect U.S. citizens
Days of Loss (1968)
1. March: Johnson announces he will not seek a second term
2. April: MLK assassinateda. AA riots; 46 deadb. Stokely Carmichael “US
declares war on us”3. Citizens more critical of war4. June: Robert Kennedy
assassinated; Sirhan Sirhan5. DNC Chicago – fighting
inside and outside Chicago: Mayor Daley “shoot to
kill” order,
A. The Tet Offensive (1968)
1. Tet: January 30, Vietnam’s New Years Eve2. Week-long peace agreement with Vietcong in honor of
the holiday3. Funerals also being held during this time4. Vietcong used coffins as decoys; filled with with
weapons5. Deaths due to attacks
Vietcong: 32,000 US: 3,000
6. Americans and Congress: “unwinnable” war
Public Opinion on War
1. Before Tet Offensive28% Doves56% Hawks
2. After Tet Offensive40% Doves40% Hawks
3. 60 % war mishandled4. 50% mistake to go in
1968 DNC - Chicago
Presidential Election 1968
Hubert Humphrey (D)
Richard M. Nixon (R)
Counterculture
Woodstock, NY(concert?)
Pot & LSD
3. “Free love” & Communes
Early Campus Protests(SDS reading)
a. Classroom strikesb. Sit-insc. War and campus
issues