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Chapter 12Chapter 12Informal Fallacies II: Informal Fallacies II:
Assumptions and InductionAssumptions and Induction
www.criticalthinking1ce.nelson.comwww.criticalthinking1ce.nelson.com
Invitation to Critical ThinkingInvitation to Critical ThinkingFirst Canadian EditionFirst Canadian Edition
Joel RudinowJoel RudinowVincent E. BarryVincent E. Barry
Mark LetteriMark Letteri
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-22
OverviewOverview
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions Fallacies of InductionsFallacies of Inductions
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-33
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions
• Informal fallacy of false dilemmaInformal fallacy of false dilemma• Loaded questions Loaded questions • Informal fallacy of innuendo Informal fallacy of innuendo • Informal fallacy of begging the Informal fallacy of begging the
question or circular reasoningquestion or circular reasoning
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-44
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions
False dilemma fallacy:False dilemma fallacy: a a fallacy of fallacy of underestimating or underrepresenting the underestimating or underrepresenting the number of possible alternatives for a given number of possible alternatives for a given issue.issue.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-55
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions
Loaded Questions:Loaded Questions: a question is so a question is so worded that you can’t answer it without worded that you can’t answer it without also granting a particular answer to some also granting a particular answer to some otherother question. question.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-66
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions
Innuendo:Innuendo: a fallacy in which a fallacy in which a judgment, a judgment, usually derogatory, is implied by hinting. usually derogatory, is implied by hinting.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-77
Fallacious AssumptionsFallacious Assumptions
Begging the question or circular Begging the question or circular reasoning:reasoning: a fallacy of assuming or a fallacy of assuming or presupposing one's conclusion as a presupposing one's conclusion as a premise.premise.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-88
Fallacies of InductionFallacies of Induction
GeneralizationsGeneralizations Small sampleSmall sample Unrepresentative Unrepresentative
samplesample Suppressed evidenceSuppressed evidence Bad baselineBad baselineAnalogiesAnalogies False analogiesFalse analogies Arguing Arguing ad ignorantiamad ignorantiam Invincible ignoranceInvincible ignorance
Hypothetical and causal Hypothetical and causal reasoningreasoning
Only game in townOnly game in town Jumping from correlation Jumping from correlation
to causeto cause Post hoc ergo propter hocPost hoc ergo propter hoc Overlooking a common Overlooking a common
causecause OversimplificationOversimplification Slippery slopeSlippery slope Gambler’s fallacyGambler’s fallacy
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-99
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: GeneralizationsGeneralizations
Small sampleSmall sample: a : a fallacy of statistical fallacy of statistical inference consisting of overestimating inference consisting of overestimating the statistical significance of evidence the statistical significance of evidence drawn from a small number of cases.drawn from a small number of cases.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1010
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: GeneralizationsGeneralizations
Unrepresentative sampleUnrepresentative sample: a : a fallacy of fallacy of statistical inference involving statistical inference involving overestimating the statistical overestimating the statistical significance of evidence drawn from a significance of evidence drawn from a sample of a particular kind.sample of a particular kind.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1111
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: GeneralizationsGeneralizations
Suppressed evidence:Suppressed evidence: persuasive strategy persuasive strategy consisting of covering up available consisting of covering up available evidence that conflicts with an intended evidence that conflicts with an intended conclusion.conclusion.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1212
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: GeneralizationsGeneralizations
Bad baselineBad baseline: a : a fallacy of statistical fallacy of statistical inference based on an inappropriate inference based on an inappropriate basis of comparison.basis of comparison.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1313
Fallacies of Induction: AnalogiesFallacies of Induction: Analogies
Faulty analogy: Faulty analogy: An An argument based on argument based on similarities that are similarities that are irrelevantirrelevant to the to the conclusion.conclusion.
An argument that glosses over relevant An argument that glosses over relevant differencesdifferences..
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1414
Fallacies of Induction: AnalogiesFallacies of Induction: Analogies
Arguing Arguing ad ignorantiamad ignorantiam:: a a fallacy of fallacy of inferring a statement from the absence of inferring a statement from the absence of evidence or lack of proof of its opposite.evidence or lack of proof of its opposite.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1515
Fallacies of Induction: AnalogiesFallacies of Induction: Analogies
Invincible ignorance:Invincible ignorance: fallacy of refusing to fallacy of refusing to give due consideration to evidence that give due consideration to evidence that conflicts with what one is already conflicts with what one is already committed to believing.committed to believing.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1616
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Only game in town:Only game in town: concluding hastily that concluding hastily that some explanation or solution holds true some explanation or solution holds true simply because one cannot think of a simply because one cannot think of a better one.better one.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1717
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Jumping from correlation to cause:Jumping from correlation to cause: causal fallacy in which causal fallacy in which an observed an observed statistical correlation is interpreted as statistical correlation is interpreted as showing a causal connection without first showing a causal connection without first having made a reasonable attempt to having made a reasonable attempt to isolate the cause by controlling the isolate the cause by controlling the relevant variables experimentally.relevant variables experimentally.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1818
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Post hoc ergo propter hocPost hoc ergo propter hoc:: aa variety of variety of causal fallacy in which order of events in causal fallacy in which order of events in time is taken to establish a cause and time is taken to establish a cause and effect relationship.effect relationship.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-1919
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Overlooking a common cause:Overlooking a common cause: causal causal fallacy in which one of two effects of some fallacy in which one of two effects of some common cause is taken to cause the common cause is taken to cause the otherother..
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-2020
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Causal oversimplification:Causal oversimplification: a a variety of variety of causal fallacy in which significant causal causal fallacy in which significant causal factors or variables are overlooked.factors or variables are overlooked.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-2121
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Gambler’s fallacy:Gambler’s fallacy: any of a variety of fallacies of any of a variety of fallacies of inductive reasoning concerning estimating or inductive reasoning concerning estimating or beating the odds, often based on the use of past beating the odds, often based on the use of past outcomes to predict the future outcome of outcomes to predict the future outcome of chance events.chance events.
© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 12-12-2222
Fallacies of Induction: Fallacies of Induction: Hypothetical and Hypothetical and Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning
Slippery slope:Slippery slope: a fallacy consisting of a fallacy consisting of objecting to something on the grounds that objecting to something on the grounds that it will lead, by dubious causal reasoning, to it will lead, by dubious causal reasoning, to some unacceptable set of consequences.some unacceptable set of consequences.