Chapter 12Chapter 12

Theories Theories of of

LinguisticsLinguistics

FunctionalismFunctionalism Formalism Formalism

1. The functional 1. The functional perspectiveperspective The Prague The Prague

SchoolSchool The London The London

SchoolSchool

Prague Linguistic Circle: Prague Linguistic Circle: Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in

1926, with such activists as R. 1926, with such activists as R.

Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy

(1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-(1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-

2000).2000). The Circle stood at the heart of The Circle stood at the heart of

important developments in structural important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.

1.1 The Prague School1.1 The Prague School

Three important points:Three important points:

Stressed synchronic linguistics, but Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.studies.

L is systemic in that no element of L L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated in isolation and assessment evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.elements in the same language system.

L is functional in that it is a tool for L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community functions or tasks for the community using it.using it.

1.1.1 Prague School 1.1.1 Prague School PhonologyPhonology N. Trubetzkoy: N. Trubetzkoy: Principle Principle

of Phonologyof Phonology (1939). (1939). Phonetics & phonology: Phonetics & phonology:

different for parole & different for parole & langue.langue.

Phoneme: an abstract Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.unit of the sound system.

Distinctive features: Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.phonological oppositions.

1.1.2 Trubetzkoy’s 1.1.2 Trubetzkoy’s contributionscontributions

Showed distinctive functions of Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of the accurate definition of the phoneme.phoneme.

Defined the sphere of phonological Defined the sphere of phonological studies.studies.

Revealed interdependent Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.relations between phonemes.

Put forward a set of Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological methodologies for phonological studies.studies.

Analysis of utterances (or texts) Analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they in terms of the information they contain.contain.

The role of each utterance part is The role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.contribution to the whole.

A sentence contains a point of A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure, called the The point of departure, called the THEME, is the ground on which the THEME, is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.speaker and the hearer meet.

The goal of discourse, called the The goal of discourse, called the RHEME, presents the very RHEME, presents the very information that is to be imparted to information that is to be imparted to the hearer.the hearer.

Movement from Theme to Rheme Movement from Theme to Rheme reveals the movement of the mind reveals the movement of the mind itself.itself.

Therefore, the functional sentence Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe perspective (FSP) aims to describe how information is distributed in how information is distributed in sentences. It deals particularly with sentences. It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known the effect of the distribution of known (given) info and new info in (given) info and new info in discourse.discourse.

New info:New info: to be transmitted to the to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.reader or hearer.

SallySally stands on the tablestands on the table..

Theme RhemeTheme Rheme On the table standsOn the table stands SallySally..

ThemeTheme Rheme Rheme

1.1.3 Three levels of a 1.1.3 Three levels of a sentencesentence Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP)Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP) Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP)Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP) Communicative Sentence Pattern Communicative Sentence Pattern

(CSP)(CSP)

JohnJohn has writtenhas written a novela novel.. Subject Verb Object Subject Verb Object (GSP)(GSP) Agent Action Goal Agent Action Goal (SSP)(SSP) Theme Transition Rheme Theme Transition Rheme

(CSP)(CSP)

1.1.4 Communicative 1.1.4 Communicative dynamism (CD)dynamism (CD) J. FirbasJ. Firbas Linguistic communication Linguistic communication

is dynamic, not static.is dynamic, not static. CD measures the amount CD measures the amount

of info an element carries of info an element carries in a sentence. The degree in a sentence. The degree of CD is the effect of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic contributed by a linguistic element. For example,element. For example,

He was cross.He was cross. CD: The lowest degree of CD is CD: The lowest degree of CD is

carried by carried by hehe, and the highest , and the highest degree of CD is carried by degree of CD is carried by crosscross, , with the degree carried by with the degree carried by waswas ranking between them.ranking between them.

Normally the subject carries a lower Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or adverbial provided object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or either the verb or the object and/or adverbial are contextually adverbial are contextually independent. This is because a known independent. This is because a known or unknown agent expressed by the or unknown agent expressed by the subject appears to be communicatively subject appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown less important than an unknown action expressed by the finite verb action expressed by the finite verb and/or an unknown goal (object or and/or an unknown goal (object or adverbial of place) at or towards which adverbial of place) at or towards which the action is directed. For example,the action is directed. For example,

A man broke into the house and stole A man broke into the house and stole all the money.all the money.

The ultimate purpose of the The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action communication is to state the action and/or its goal, not the agent.and/or its goal, not the agent.

However, if the subject is followed by However, if the subject is followed by a verb expressing “existence or a verb expressing “existence or appearance on the scene” and is appearance on the scene” and is contextually independent, then it will contextually independent, then it will carry the highest degree of CD, carry the highest degree of CD, becausean unknown person or thing becausean unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene the act of appearing and the scene itself, e.g.itself, e.g.

An old man appeared in the waiting An old man appeared in the waiting room at five o’clock.room at five o’clock.

If the subject is contextually If the subject is contextually dependent, a contextually dependent, a contextually independent adverbial of time or independent adverbial of time or place becomes an important local place becomes an important local and temporal specification, carrying and temporal specification, carrying greater degree of CD than both the greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb, as insubject and the finite verb, as in

The old man was sitting in the The old man was sitting in the waiting room.waiting room.

1.2 The London School1.2 The London School

B. Malinowski (1884-B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of 1942), professor of anthropology (1927).anthropology (1927).

J. R. Firth (1890-J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first 1960), the first professor of linguistics professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).in the UK (1944).

M. A. K. Halliday M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of (1925- ), student of Firth.Firth.

All three stressed the importance All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the of context of situation and the system aspect of L. system aspect of L.

Thus also known as Thus also known as systemic systemic linguisticslinguistics and and functional functional linguisticslinguistics, or , or systemic-systemic-functional linguistics/grammarfunctional linguistics/grammar..

1.2.1 Malinowski’s 1.2.1 Malinowski’s theoriestheories Language “is to be Language “is to be

regarded as a mode of regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a action, rather than as a counterpart of counterpart of thought”.thought”.

The meaning of an The meaning of an utterance comes from utterance comes from its relation to the its relation to the situational context in situational context in which it occurs.which it occurs.

Three types of situational context:Three types of situational context:

situations in which speech situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;interrelates with bodily activity;

narrative situations;narrative situations; situations in which speech is situations in which speech is

used to fill a speech vacuum--used to fill a speech vacuum--phatic communion.phatic communion.

1.2.2 Firth’s theories1.2.2 Firth’s theories

Regarded L as a social Regarded L as a social process, a means of social process, a means of social life. In order to live, life. In order to live, human beings have to human beings have to learn and learning L is a learn and learning L is a means of participation in means of participation in social activities. L is a social activities. L is a means of doing things and means of doing things and of making others do of making others do things, a means of acting things, a means of acting and living.and living.

L is both inborn and acquired.L is both inborn and acquired. The object of linguistic study is L in use.The object of linguistic study is L in use. The goal of linguistic inquiry is to The goal of linguistic inquiry is to

analyse meaningful elements of L in analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establish corresponding order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.linguistic elements.

The method of linguistic study is to The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, decide on the composite elements of L, explain their relations on various levels, explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of human activities in the environment of language use.language use.

Firth attempted to integrate Firth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological linguistic studies with sociological studies: because human beings are studies: because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and inseparable from cultural values, and L is an important part of cultural L is an important part of cultural values, linguistics can help reveal the values, linguistics can help reveal the social nature of human beings.social nature of human beings.

Meaning is use, thus defining Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its an element at any level and its context on that level. Therefore the context on that level. Therefore the meaning of any sentence consists of meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:five parts:

1. the relationship of each phoneme 1. the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;to its phonetic context;

2. the relationship of each lexical 2. the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the item to the others in the sentence;sentence;

3. the morphological relations of 3. the morphological relations of each word;each word;

4. the sentence type of which the 4. the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;given sentence is an example;

5. the relationship of the sentence 5. the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.to its context of situation.

In analysing typical context of situation, In analysing typical context of situation, one has to carry out the analysis on four one has to carry out the analysis on four levels:levels:

Internal relations of the text:Internal relations of the text:

1. syntagmatic relations in structure1. syntagmatic relations in structure

2. Paradigmatic relations in system2. Paradigmatic relations in system Internal relations of the context of Internal relations of the context of

situation:situation:

3. relations between text and non-3. relations between text and non-linguistic elementslinguistic elements

4. analytical relations between elements of 4. analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the the text and elements within the situationsituation

A model covering both the A model covering both the situational context and the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:linguistic context of a text:

1. The relevant features of the 1. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalitiesparticipants: persons, personalitiesa. verbal action of participantsa. verbal action of participantsb. non-verbal action of participantsb. non-verbal action of participants

2. 2. The relevant topics, inc. objects, The relevant topics, inc. objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-events, and non-linguistic, non-human events.human events.

3. The effects of the verbal action.3. The effects of the verbal action.

Prosodic analysis:Prosodic analysis: prosodic phonology prosodic phonology Since any human utterance is Since any human utterance is

continuous speech flow made up of at continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable, it cannot be cut into least one syllable, it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptions are phonological descriptions are insufficient.insufficient.

It is not phonemes that make up the It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, the features of Phonematic Units, the features of which are fewer than those of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic phonemes and are called prosodic units.units.

He did not define prosodic units, He did not define prosodic units, but his discussion indicates that but his discussion indicates that they include such features as they include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, these features cannot any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit be found in one phonematic unit alone.alone.

1.2.3 Systemic-functional 1.2.3 Systemic-functional grammargrammar M A K Halliday (1925- ).M A K Halliday (1925- ). Two components and Two components and

inseparable parts:inseparable parts: systemic grammar:systemic grammar:

internal relations in L as internal relations in L as a system network, a system network, meaning potential.meaning potential.

functional grammar:functional grammar: L as L as a means of social a means of social interaction, uses or interaction, uses or functions of language functions of language form.form.

Systemic grammarSystemic grammar

Functional grammarFunctional grammar

Ideational function (experiential & Ideational function (experiential & logical):logical): to convey new info, to convey new info, communicate a content unknown to communicate a content unknown to the hearerthe hearer

Interpersonal function:Interpersonal function: to express to express social and personal relationssocial and personal relations

Textual function:Textual function: to make any stretch to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a living passage different from a random list of sentences.random list of sentences.

2. Generative Grammar2. Generative Grammar

NOAM NOAM CHOMSKY CHOMSKY (1928- ), (1928- ), institute institute professor at professor at MIT. Linguist, MIT. Linguist, philosopher, philosopher, and political and political activist.activist.

The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955/1975)(1955/1975)

Syntactic Structures (1957)Syntactic Structures (1957) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) Cartesian Linguistics (1966)Cartesian Linguistics (1966) The Sound Pattern of English (1968)The Sound Pattern of English (1968) Language and Mind (1968/1972/2006)Language and Mind (1968/1972/2006) Reflections on Language (1975)Reflections on Language (1975) Rules and Representations (1980)Rules and Representations (1980) Lectures on Government and Binding (1981)Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) Knowledge of Language (1986)Knowledge of Language (1986) Barriers (1986)Barriers (1986) Language and Problems of Knowledge Language and Problems of Knowledge

(1988)(1988) Language and Thought (1993)Language and Thought (1993) The Minimalist Program (1995)The Minimalist Program (1995) New Horizons in the Study of Language and New Horizons in the Study of Language and

Mind (2000)Mind (2000) On Nature and Language (2002)On Nature and Language (2002)

2.1 Early theories 2.1 Early theories (1957)(1957) Innateness hypothesisInnateness hypothesis Language acquisition mechanismLanguage acquisition mechanism Competence and performanceCompetence and performance Generating an infinite set of Generating an infinite set of

sentences from a finite set of sentences from a finite set of elementselements

Deep structure and surface Deep structure and surface structurestructure

Phrase structure rulesPhrase structure rules TransformationsTransformations

Phrase structure rulesPhrase structure rules

S S NP VP NP VP VP VP V NP V NP NP NP Det N Det N V V act, beat, catch, dive, … act, beat, catch, dive, … N N man, boy, book, flower, ... man, boy, book, flower, ...

Transformational rulesTransformational rules

NPNP11 + Aux + V + NP + Aux + V + NP22 John + will + write + a storyJohn + will + write + a story

NPNP22 + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP11

a story + will + be + en + write + by a story + will + be + en + write + by + John+ John

2.2 The standard 2.2 The standard theory (1965)theory (1965) Colorless green ideas sleep Colorless green ideas sleep

furiously.furiously. SubcategorizationSubcategorization N N [+N, [+N, Common]Common] [+Common] [+Common] [ [Count]Count] [+Count] [+Count] [ [Animate]Animate] [-Common] [-Common] [ [Animate]Animate] [+Animate] [+Animate] [ [Human]Human] [-Count] [-Count] [ [Abstract]Abstract]

sinceritysincerity [+N, +Common, -Count, [+N, +Common, -Count,

+Abstract]+Abstract]

boyboy [+N, +Common, +Count, [+N, +Common, +Count,

+Animate, +Human]+Animate, +Human]

2.3

Trace theory:Trace theory: a phonetically null a phonetically null element to occupy the position element to occupy the position from which a syntactic element from which a syntactic element has been moved.has been moved.

I really love MaryI really love Mary Mary I really love Mary I really love tt

Indexing:Indexing:

WhoWhoii said Mary kissed him said Mary kissed himii??

whowhoii [ [SS t tii said Mary kissed him said Mary kissed himii]]

*Who*Whoii did he did heii say Mary kissed? say Mary kissed?

*who*whoii [ [SS he heii said Mary kissed t said Mary kissed tii]]

JohnJohnii said Mary kissed him said Mary kissed himii

*he*heii said Mary kissed John said Mary kissed Johnii

2.4 GB/PP theory (1981)2.4 GB/PP theory (1981)

Government and Binding TheoryGovernment and Binding Theory (early)(early)

oror Principles and parameters Principles and parameters

TheoryTheory (later) (later) 1980s1980s

2.4.1 Principles2.4.1 Principles

X-bar theoryX-bar theory Government theoryGovernment theory Binding theoryBinding theory Case theoryCase theory -theory-theory Bounding theoryBounding theory Control theoryControl theory

2.4.2 Government2.4.2 Government

speak the languagespeak the language ( (speakspeak governs governs the languagethe language))

speak about the languagespeak about the language ( (aboutabout governs governs the languagethe language, , speakspeak governs governs about the languageabout the language))

2.4.3

2.4.4 Binding2.4.4 Binding

The logical relation between a The logical relation between a quantifier and a variable. quantifier and a variable.

Binding Theory:Binding Theory: A. An anaphor is bound in its A. An anaphor is bound in its

governing category.governing category. B. A pronominal is free in its B. A pronominal is free in its

governing category.governing category. C. An r-expression is free.C. An r-expression is free.

AnaphoraAnaphora

‘‘ oneself’ and ‘each other’oneself’ and ‘each other’ JohnJohn11 likes himself likes himself11.. TheyThey11 hit each other hit each other11.. JohnJohn11 doesn’t like Bill’s doesn’t like Bill’s22 criticism of criticism of

himselfhimself22.. JohnJohn11 likes him likes him22.. BillBill11 says John says John22 likes him likes him11.. BillBill11 says John says John22 likes the man likes the man33..

2.4.5 Parameters2.4.5 Parameters

The null subject parameterThe null subject parameter Head parameterHead parameter Wh-parameterWh-parameter

2.5 The Minimalist 2.5 The Minimalist ProgramProgram

(1) He has become very fond of Mary.TP

T′

VP

AP

A′

PP

PRN

T

V

ADV

A

P NMaryof

fond

very

become

has

He

2.5.1 Merge2.5.1 Merge

(2) You will marry me. (2a) Will you marry me?(2) You will marry me. (2a) Will you marry me?

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

T

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

Tyou

will

marryV N

me

Ø

V Nmemarry

will

you

QWill+

2.5.2 Move2.5.2 Move

(3) I care not for her. (3) I care not for her. (Shakespearean English)(Shakespearean English)

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

T

I

care

not

PRNme

Ø

PP

V′ADV

Vcare

Pfor

(3a) Know you not the cause?(3a) Know you not the cause?

CP

TP

T′

VP

V′

DPV

ADV

T

PRN

CKnow

you

know

not

know the cause

(2)

(1)