Chapter one Chapter one

Introducing LinguisticsIntroducing Linguistics

What is Language ?What is Language ?

A definition:A definition: Language is human speech; the ability to coLanguage is human speech; the ability to co

mmunicate by this means; a system of vocammunicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds tl sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the o which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts aexpression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of sund feelings; the written representation of such a system. (Webster's New World Dictionach a system. (Webster's New World Dictionary)ry)

Language is many things indeeLanguage is many things indeedd• A medium of communicationA medium of communication• A system of codeA system of code• A carrier of cultureA carrier of culture• An instrument for thinkingAn instrument for thinking• A glue of a communityA glue of a community• A social institutionA social institution

Language is defined as:Language is defined as:

A systm of arbitrary vocal symboA systm of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicatiols used for human communicatio

nn

Language is Symbolic Language is Symbolic

People use signs to communicate. People use signs to communicate.

The working of signs is called by Saussure "seThe working of signs is called by Saussure "semiology", by Pierce "semiotics“. miology", by Pierce "semiotics“. Signs ---ubiquitous in human society. the loc Signs ---ubiquitous in human society. the location of language in sign systems and the relatation of language in sign systems and the relationship between an object and the sign that stionship between an object and the sign that stands for the object.ands for the object.

Language is ArbitraryLanguage is Arbitrary

A. No logical connection between meaning and sounds. e.g. A. No logical connection between meaning and sounds. e.g. dogdog to to denote the animal dog, denote the animal dog, pigpig ,animal pig ,animal pig

e.g. e.g. skinskin not not skniskni has nothing to do with the nature of skin has nothing to do with the nature of skin B. Implied meaning of B. Implied meaning of ArbitraryArbitrary sign sign = a concept and a sound image combined = a concept and a sound image combined sign= sign= a signified and a sinifier a signified and a sinifier a. The speaker of a language does not have the power to chana. The speaker of a language does not have the power to chan

ge a sign in any way once it has become established in the languge a sign in any way once it has become established in the language community.age community.

b. b. Arbitrary Arbitrary = the result of the need to express a wide range of = the result of the need to express a wide range of meanings speakers associate linguistic signs with things and conmeanings speakers associate linguistic signs with things and concepts, based on the convention established in the community.cepts, based on the convention established in the community.

Language is Primarily VocalLanguage is Primarily Vocal

All language use sounds. Writing is All language use sounds. Writing is based on speaking, to capture sounds based on speaking, to capture sounds and meanings on paper.and meanings on paper.

The primary medium of language is The primary medium of language is sound.sound.

Why?Why?

Five reasons: Five reasons: 1. Children learn to speak before they learn to 1. Children learn to speak before they learn to

read and write.read and write. 2. Children automatically learn a language as they 2. Children automatically learn a language as they

grow up.18 months -12 yrs : sufficient exposure to grow up.18 months -12 yrs : sufficient exposure to writing: not natural, needs teachers writing: not natural, needs teachers

3. The spoken form came earlier than written form 3. The spoken form came earlier than written form in history.in history.

4. writing is based on speech.4. writing is based on speech. 5. Spoken language is used more often than 5. Spoken language is used more often than

writing.writing. Implied Meaning :Implied Meaning : 1. Writing extends language beyond the limitations 1. Writing extends language beyond the limitations

of time and space.of time and space. 2. Written language is more polished than speech, 2. Written language is more polished than speech,

great differences; e.g. classical Latin & language great differences; e.g. classical Latin & language used in Roman Empire.used in Roman Empire.

Language is Human Language is Human SpecificSpecific

Human language is different from animal communications in the foHuman language is different from animal communications in the following aspects.llowing aspects.

1. the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space= displ1. the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space= displacement of lgeacement of lge

2. the ability to produce the understand an indefinite number of no2. the ability to produce the understand an indefinite number of novel sentences.=creativity of lgevel sentences.=creativity of lge

3. learning -a more important factor in human language than in ani3. learning -a more important factor in human language than in animal communication.mal communication.

4. Language is complex in its structure.4. Language is complex in its structure. 5. Animal communication system is closed, whereas human lge is o5. Animal communication system is closed, whereas human lge is o

penpen 6. Humans can perform acts with lge.= performative function of lge6. Humans can perform acts with lge.= performative function of lge

Language is used for Language is used for CommunicationCommunication

We use more words than we use gestureWe use more words than we use gestures when we communicate with others.s when we communicate with others.

Why is so?Why is so?

Just reflect on what we have discussed aJust reflect on what we have discussed above.bove.

Features of human Language Features of human Language

1. Creativity/productivity1. Creativity/productivity2. Duality2. Duality3. Arbitrariness3. Arbitrariness4. Displacement4. Displacement5. Cultural transmission5. Cultural transmission6. Interchangeability6. Interchangeability7. Reflexivity7. Reflexivity

People can learn and use a language. Two basic systems: a system of sounds ; People can learn and use a language. Two basic systems: a system of sounds ; a system of meanings. It's called the duality of language. a system of meanings. It's called the duality of language. Concern: features of the two systems and their relationship.Concern: features of the two systems and their relationship.

Creativity is the first and foremost striking Creativity is the first and foremost striking feature of human languagefeature of human language. .

It refers to the fact that language providIt refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages tes opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for hat have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.understanding novel messages.The grammar rules and the words are finThe grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every ite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.speaker uses language creatively.

DualityDuality

• Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.the other of meanings.

• People can learn and use a language. Two basic systemPeople can learn and use a language. Two basic systems: a system of sounds ; a system of meanings. It's called s: a system of sounds ; a system of meanings. It's called the duality of language.the duality of language.

• Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certaiCertain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.n meanings.

• Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounCertain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.ds or sequences of speech sounds.

• Concern: features of the two systems and their relationConcern: features of the two systems and their relationship.ship.

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

• The relationship between the two subsyThe relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.stems of language is arbitrary.

• There is no logical connection between sThere is no logical connection between sound and meaning.ound and meaning.

DisplacementDisplacement

• There is no limit in time or space for langThere is no limit in time or space for language.uage.

• Language can be used to refer to things Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future. real or imagined, past, present or future.

Cultural transmissionCultural transmission

• Culture cannot be genetically transmitteCulture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.d. Instead, it must be learned.

• Language is a way of transmitting culturLanguage is a way of transmitting culture.e.

• Language is the carrier of culture. Language is the carrier of culture.

InterchangeabilityInterchangeability

All members of a speech community can All members of a speech community can send and receive messages. send and receive messages.

ReflexivityReflexivity

• Human languages can be used to descriHuman languages can be used to describe themselves.be themselves.

• The language used to talk about languaThe language used to talk about language is called meta-language. ge is called meta-language.

The functions of language: threThe functions of language: three meta-functions e meta-functions

The ideational functionThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record inforTo identify things, to think, or to record infor

mation.mation.The interpersonal functionThe interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.To get along in a community.The textual functionThe textual functionTo form a text.To form a text.

Types of languageTypes of language• Natural languages and artifical languagesNatural languages and artifical languages A natural language is one that is the mothA natural language is one that is the moth

er tongue of an ethnic community.er tongue of an ethnic community. Natural languages that are used to break tNatural languages that are used to break t

he barrier of communication between nathe barrier of communication between nations are called world lingua francas.ions are called world lingua francas.

An artifical languages is an invented one.An artifical languages is an invented one. Esperanto was created by a Polish oculist Esperanto was created by a Polish oculist

Genetic classification Genetic classification

The Indo-European family is one of the laThe Indo-European family is one of the largest families.rgest families.

English belongs to the West Germanic diEnglish belongs to the West Germanic division.vision.

Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan famChinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family.ily.

Typological classificationTypological classification

• Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word orgrammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnameseder, such as Chinese and Vietnamese

• Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are exSynthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the wordpressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such s, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and Germanas English and German

• Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particulsequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkisar grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish h

The myth of language – language The myth of language – language originorigin• The Biblical accountThe Biblical account Language was God’s gift to human beings.Language was God’s gift to human beings.• The bow-wow theoryThe bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of aLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of a

nimals, like quack, cuckoo.nimals, like quack, cuckoo.• The pooh-pooh theoryThe pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of paiLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pai

n or joy.n or joy.• The yo-he-ho theoryThe yo-he-ho theory Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engagLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engag

ed in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a red in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.ock, etc.

• The evolution theoryThe evolution theory Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call

of social need of social need

What is linguistics?What is linguistics?

• Linguistics is the scientific study of languLinguistics is the scientific study of language. age.

The object of study in linguistics is languThe object of study in linguistics is language.age.

• Observing & questioningObserving & questioning• Formulating hypothesesFormulating hypotheses• Verifying the hypothesesVerifying the hypotheses• Proposing a theoryProposing a theory

Branches of linguisticsBranches of linguistics Internal branches: intra-disciplinary dInternal branches: intra-disciplinary d

ivisionsivisions – Phonetics Phonetics the production of speech, the production of speech, – Phonology Phonology studies the rules governig the structure ,studies the rules governig the structure ,

the sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of sythe sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.llables.

– Morphology Morphology the internal organization of words, the the internal organization of words, the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-forminimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation process.mation process.

– Syntax Syntax principles of forming and undrstanding corrprinciples of forming and undrstanding correct English sentencesect English sentences

– Semantics Semantics How meaning is encoded in a language How meaning is encoded in a language– Pragmatics Pragmatics the study of meaning in context.the study of meaning in context.

External branches: inter-disciplinExternal branches: inter-disciplinary divisions ary divisions

– PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics the interrelation of language an the interrelation of language and mindin processing and producing utterances and d mindin processing and producing utterances and in language acquisitionin language acquisition

– Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics the social function of language anthe social function of language and the social characteristics of its users. d the social characteristics of its users.

– Anthropological linguistics Anthropological linguistics thethe history and structhistory and structure of unwritten languages ure of unwritten languages

– Computational languistics Computational languistics the use of computer tthe use of computer to process or produce huamn languageo process or produce huamn language

– Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics the application of linguistic the the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in language teaching.ories and descriptions in language teaching.

Features ofFeatures of Modern linguistiModern linguisticscsSpoken language rather than writtenSpoken language rather than written

Descriptive and prescriptive Descriptive and prescriptive

Synchronic and diachronic Synchronic and diachronic

Theoretically rather than pedagogicall oriented Theoretically rather than pedagogicall oriented