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Chapter one: Introduction
Definitions of Research
The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search. The dictionary defines the
former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to
examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a
careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles.
The Advanced Learners Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of research as a
careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems
and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the
presumed relationships about various phenomena.
Research is defined as a search for knowledge.
Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
Research is an art of investigation.
Research is a movement from the known to the unknown.
Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
the practice of an art.
Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
Research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solutions to a problem.
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Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enumerating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions toward the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation.
Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical method consisting of
enumerating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions toward the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Characteristics of Research
From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as a research, a process must have
certain characteristics as listed below:
Controlled
In exploring the causality relation to two variables, the study must be set in way that minimizes
the effects of other factors affecting relationship. In social science research, however, since
controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the other variable must be quantified rather.
Rigorous
One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Valid and verifiable
This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can
be verified by you and others.
Empirical
This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical
The methods employed and procedures used should be critically scrutinized. The process of
investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the
procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Objectives of Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ( studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
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To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (
studies with this objective are called descriptive research studies);
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis testing research studies).
Motivations in Research
What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following among others:
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
Desire to face the challenges in solving the unresolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.
Types of Research
There are different bases in classifying researches; however we will see only the most
common bases and these classifications which are relevant to our syllabus.
First, there are two broad classification of research that follows:
1. Research in physical sciences
2. Research in social sciences
Physical sciences deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under guided
conditions. These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which man has complete
control.
Researches in social sciences are based on human behavior, which is influenced by so many
factors, such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological and economic. We dwell for
some time on this category of research in the forthcoming subtopics as the whole handout is
about social sciences research methods.
Social Research
Social research is part of research, which studies human behavior on a part of society. Social
research is to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify doubts and correct
the misconceived facts of social life.
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Social research can be defined as:
Systematic investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys.
A systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a
theory or in the practice of an art.
A scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to
discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences, interrelationships and
causal explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference,
develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid
study of human behavior and social life and thereby gain greater control overtime.
A study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his
understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics.
A collection of methods and methodologies that researchers apply systematically to produce
scientifically based knowledge about the social world.
Characteristics of Social Research
From the above given definitions the following characteristics of social research may be drawn:
1. It deals with social phenomena. It studies the behavior of human beings as a member of a
society and their feelings, responses and attitudes under different circumstances. It
encompasses the study of social phenomena covering economic, political, social, educational,
administrative and related aspects of social life. The social research was born out to solve
social problems.
2. It aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques are applied to find out
truth reasoning or relationship of various kind of human behavior.
3. It is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are used. It also
develops new scientific tools and concepts which facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behavior.
4. It assists in the undertaking of evolution of new theories. Every research highlights some
broad principles, establishes some scientific truth and analysis their sequences,
interrelationships and causal explanations. This results in expansion of knowledge,
improvement in the understanding of the social phenomena and in the evolution of new
theories.
5. It requires deep knowledge and minute investigation of the topic concerned.
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6. It must be objective. Research should not take his own interest because any personal bias
vitiates the universality criterion of scientific proposition.
7. Experimentation is not possible in social researches. However, in some cases social research
takes the shelter of controlled experiments.
8. Inter-relationship between variables under study is must. Besides it, the variables of social
research study can not be measured correctly, only rough estimation of variables is possible.
9. It is dynamic in nature; therefore, what was true of past might not be true of present.
10. It is inter-related. Therefore, we can not draw water-tight compartments for each sector or we
cannot say whether it is purely political, economic, or sociological research.
11. It tells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations as physical events.
12. It is complementary to research in physical sciences and both branches of knowledge help
each other and are the way to progress.
Motivating factors of social Research
The following are four motivating factors:
1. Curiosity about unknown: Curiosity is an intrinsic trait of human mind and a compelling
drive in the exploration of mans surroundings. It is natural instinct in the makings. A man is
always curious about the unknown and mysterious objects that he notices around him and
tries to understand them in his own. The same curiosity drives social scientists to explore,
reveal and understand unknown factors behind the social phenomena.
2. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relationship of Social problems: The research
of cause and effect relationship has been more relentless than almost any other scientist effort
upon which human energies have been spent.
3. Appearance of New and unexpected Situations: In modern complex and dynamic world a
man is often faced with many acute and difficult problems. It is the duty of the social scientist
to find out their real cause and suggest solutions to such problems.
4. Desire to Discover New and Old Scientific Procedures: It concerns with the technique or
methods used in social research. Social scientists have been busy in devising and developing
new methods and techniques in place old ones for dealing with social problems.
Importance of Social Research
In general way, some of the directly practical benefits and theoretic implications of social
research may be listed as follows:
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1. Guides in social planning: Adequate social planning depends for its success on a
systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities, of the people and their
culture, of their similarities and differences, of organizations and operative controls of
their needs, hopes and problems, etc.
2. Provides knowledge to Control any social Phenomena: By affording first hand
knowledge about the organization and working of society and its institution, Social
research acts as a source of a power to control social phenomena. Furthermore, social
research has practical implications for formal and informal types of leadership, pattern of
influence and reform in different spheres of society.
3. Contributes to the betterment of social welfare.
4. Ascertain orders among facts.
5. Contributes for the advancement and improvement of social research techniques.
6. Provides solutions to social problems.
7. Contributes to the development of developing countries.
Problems/challenges in Social Researches
Following are the main difficulties faced by the researchers in the application of scientific
methods in social research:
1. Complexity of Social Data: The behavior of human beings or economic problems, a subject
of social research, are influenced by so many factors. Because of these factors a researcher is
generally confused.
2. Problems in Interpreting Relationship Between Cause and Effect: In case of social
phenomena the cause and effect are interdependent and one stimulates the other. It is very
difficult to establish cause and effect relationship in social sciences and to find as to what is
the cause and what is its effect?
3. Problems of Concepts
4. Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Human society is constantly changing and
improving itself by past knowledge.
5. Problem of Maintaining Objectivity: Achieving an effective degree of objectivity in social
inquiry is very difficult task. Different findings on the same issue arise most often.
6. Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of science.
Because of the complexity of social data and irregularity of social behavior, predicting is
challenging in social researches.
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7. Difficulty in the verification of the Inferences: Verification of the results obtained is
possible in physical sciences but in the case of social sciences it is much more difficult. The
events in social sciences are non-repetitive and social scientists are ill-equipped with their
tools to verify prediction.
8. Difficulty in The Use of Experiment Methods: It is not possible to put human beings to
laboratory tests. Even if it is done their responses would not be natural but subject to the
awareness of the artificial conditions.
9. Incapability of being Dealt Through Empirical Method: Exact sciences tend to become
increasingly quantitative in its units, measures and terminology while most of matter of social
sciences in qualitative and does not admit to quantitative statement. Direct quantification of
socio-economic variables is not possible; we can have only rough estimates. Data is more
reliable in physical sciences. Because data obtained in social research is always changing, as
some variables are changing in social sciences. Empirical method gives very accurate results
when experiment on social phenomena is repeatedly carried on. But in case of social sciences
repeated experimentation is is not possible. Empirical methods are methods of statistics
therefore, all problems, limitations, distrusts in statistical methods are also problems of social
research. For example problem of unbiased sampling, selection of data etc.
10. Problem of Inter-disciplinary Research: Social research in any field are interrelated,
therefore, we can not draw watertight compartments for each sector social sciences. We can
not say whether it is purely political research, economic research or purely sociological
research. But in case of physical sciences, it is possible to a very great extent to state whether
it is physical or chemical or biological problem. The main problem in interdisciplinary
research is that every branch of knowledge has its own line of approach and a methodology
suited for the purpose when these are tried to be fitted in a single frame, distortions are bound
to take place.
11. Less Finance: Social researchers get less finance than a researcher in physical sciences as a
result the rate of progress in social sciences research is less than that of the physical sciences
researches.
To sum up, social sciences are less precise in its findings than the natural sciences because it
deals with human society whose group as well as individual behaviour has always been more
diverse, full of more surprises and less predicate. Like natural sciences we do not have nice neat
equations that will yield answers to all situations.
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Research can also be classified from other three perspectives. However, these perspectives are
not mutually exclusive.
1. The application of the research study;
2. the objectives in undertaking the research ; and
3. The type of information sought.
Classification of research based on Application of the research study
If you examine a research endeavors from the perspective of its application, there are two broad
categories: pure research and applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or
in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypothesis containing very abstract
and specialized concepts.
Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement
of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research
methodology.
The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of
knowledge of research methods.
In applied research the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of
research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in other ways-
such as for policy formulation, administration, and the enhancement of understanding of a
phenomenon.
Most of the researches in the social sciences are applied researches.
Classification of researches based on Objectives of the study
a) Descriptive Research
Includes surveys and fact finding enquires of different kinds.
Its major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present
In social science and business research it is often called expost fact research. Researcher has
no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
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Also includes attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they can not control the
variables. The methods used in descriptive researches are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods.
b) Correlational Research
c) Explanatory Research
d) Exploratory Research
Classification of researches based on the type of information Sought
a) Quantitative Research
Is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
b) Qualitative Research
is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind.
Pure Research
Applied
Research
Descriptive
Research
Correlational
Research
Explanatory
Research
Exploratory
Research
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Research
Types of Research
From the View point of
Application Objectives Type of information
sought
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is especially important in behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behavior.
E,g, Motivation research, attitude or opinion research, word association tests, sentence
completion etc.
Significance of Research
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization.
Research becomes an important aid in solving operational problems. This due to the
increasingly complex nature of business and government . Furthermore, research is helpful
aid in economic policy.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
Research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure
particularly for those students of Masters or PhD.
Research may mean a source of livelihhod for those professionals in research methodology.
Research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights for philosophers and thinkers.
Research may mean the development of new styles and creative work to literary person.
Research may mean the generalization of new theories to analysts and intellectuals.
Research Methods and Methodology
Research methods may be understood as all those methods/ techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
Research methods/ techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operation.
In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying
his research problem are termed as research methods.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the data collection
of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
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2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research Methodology
-is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
-may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
-consists of the various steps generally adopted by a researcher in studying a research problem along
with the logics behind them
--involves determing which research methods/techniques are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean or indicate.
-may differ from problem to problem.
-constitutes many dimensions and research methods is a part of it.
-has wider scope than research methods.
Decision of research methodology addresses the research methods to be used and the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of the research study and explain why we are using a particular
method and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either
by the research himself or by others.
\Research and scientific Methods
The two terms research and scientific methods are closely related.
Research, as already stated, can be termed as an inquiry in to the nature of , the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur.
On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they
may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.
In nutshell research methodology addresses:
why a research study has been undertaken how the research problem has been defined in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted why particular technique of analyzing data has been used
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Scientific method is a pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is
to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and combination of these
three in varying proportions.
The research process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. These activities indeed overlap continuously rather
than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
A brief description of these activities is as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. It is
like determination of the destination before undertaking a journey.
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables.
Formulation of the problem means defining the problem precisely. In other words, a problem
defined is half solved. Formulation of problem is often more essential than its solution because
when the problem is formulated, an appropriate technique can be applied to generate
alternative solutions.
Formulation of a problem involves the following steps:
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem
c) Surveying the available literature
d) Developing the idea through discussion
e) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
Importance of formulating a research problem
a) It determines the research destine. It indicates a way for the researcher. Without it a
clear and economical plan is impossible.
b) Research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the
building is dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well-designed and
strong, one can expect the building to be also. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, one can expect a good study to
follow.
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c) The way you formulate your research problem determines almost every step that
follows: the type of study design that can be used; the type of sampling strategy that
can be employed; the research instrument that can be used; and the type of analysis
that can be undertaken.
d) The quality of the research report(output of the research undertakings) is dependent on
the quality of the problem formulation.
Considerations in selecting a research problem
When selecting a research problem/topic there is a number of considerations to keep in
mind. These considerations are:
a) Interest
b) Magnitude
c) Measurement of concepts
d) Level of expertise
e) Relevance
f) Availability of data
g) Ethical issues
2. Extensive Literature Review
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery of it should be written down.
Reasons for Reviewing Literature
Literature review has three functions:
a) Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
b) Improving the methodology
c) Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area.
Procedures in reviewing the literature
Reviewing a literature is a continuous process. Often it begins before a specific research
problem has been formulated and continues until the report is finished.
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
a) Search for existing literature in your area of study
b) Review the literature selected
c) Develop a theoretical framework
d) Develop a conceptual framework.
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3. Development of Working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis.
Working hypotheses is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. Hypotheses
should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of hypotheses is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem. It also indicates the type of data and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. Sometimes,
particularly in case of exploratory researches, we do not need hypotheses.
4. Preparing the Research Design
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or programme of the research. It
includes outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
Research design is defined as a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed,
operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting
data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis and analyzing the results.
The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. Furthermore, research design explains how the researcher will
find answers to the research questions. It sets out the logic of the inquiry. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz.,
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a. Exploration
b. Description
c. Diagnosis
d. Experimentation.
When the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables, the suitable design will be on that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is valid,
workable, and manageable.
The functions of a research design
The research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or development
of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study, and the second emphasizes
the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their validity, objectivity, and accuracy.
A research design should include the following:
a) The study design per se and the logistical arrangements that you purpose to
undertake
b) The measurement procedures
c) The sampling strategy
d) The frame of analysis
e) Time frame
Selecting a study design
The study design is a part of the research design. It is the design of the study perse, whereas the
research design also includes other details related to the carrying out of the study.
The various designs have been classified by examining them from three different perspectives:
a) The number of contacts with the study population
b) The reference period of the study
c) The nature of the investigation.
The number of contacts
a) Cross-sectional study
b) Before-and- after study
c) Longitudinal studies
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Features of Good Research Design
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of
the following factors:
1. the means of obtaining information
2. the availability and skills of the researcher
3. the objective of the problem to be studied
4. The availability of time and money for the research work.
5. Determining Sampling Design:
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population.
A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry.
Because of the difficulty, relative inaccuracy and biasness related to census study determine sample,
few elements from the population, becomes mandatory.
In such cases, the researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design.
In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
With probability samples each element has unknown probability of being included in the sample but
in the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samplings are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.
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Types of study design
Number of contacts Reference period Nature of
investigation
Experimental
Non experimental
Quasi experimental
Retrospective
prospective
Retro- prospective
One Two Three or more
Crossectional studies Before and after Longitudinal
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Define
Research
problem
Review
concepts and
theories
Review
previous
research
findings
Formulate
hypothesis
Design
Research
(including
sample design)
Collect data (
Execution)
Analyze data
(test
hypothesis if any)
Interpre
t and
report
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The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of
the inquiry and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of
money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiments or through survey. If the researcher conducts
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contend in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any
one of the following ways:
a. Observation
b. Interview
c. Questionnaire
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting data taking in to consideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy.
7. Execution of the project
The researcher should see, during this phase, that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in
time.
8. Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should be condensed in to a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
9. Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated
earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which
should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test may be applied.
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10. Generalization and Interpretation
If a hypotheses is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off
new questions which inturn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the Research Report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him following the
appropriate formats and appropriate language.
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Chapter 2: Survey Research
2.1. Introduction
Webster defines a survey as the action of ascertaining facts regarding conditions or the condition of
something to provide exact information especially to persons responsible or interested and as a
systematic collection and analysis of data on some aspect of an area or group.
A survey, then, is much more than the mere compiling of data. The data must be analyzed, interpreted,
and evaluated. Only after this processing can data become information. The "exactness" of the
information is determined by the surveyor's methods. Unless he makes a systematic collection of data,
followed by a careful analysis and evaluation with predefined objectives, his collection of data cannot
become exact information.
A survey can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-
depth interview.
In experiments, researchers place people in small group, test one or two hypotheses with a few
variables, control the timing of the treatment and the dependent variable, and control for alternative
explanations. By contrast , survey researchers sample many respondents who answer the same
questions, measure many variables, test multiple hypotheses, under infer temporal order from
questions about past behavior, experience or characteristics.
There are four different types of surveys that are: Questionnaires, Interviews, observations and
projective techniques.
2.2. A history of Survey Research
The modern survey can be traced back to ancient form of census. A census includes information on
characteristics of the entire population in a territory. It is based on what people tell officials or what
officials observe
2.3. Types of Survey5
2.3.1. The Questionnaire
One of the steps in preparing the survey research is developing the data collection instrument.
The most common means of collecting data are the interview and the questionnaire.
In the past, the interview has been the most popular data-collecting instrument.
Recently, the questionnaire has surpassed the interview in popularity, especially in the military.
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The Questionnaire: Pros and Cons
It is important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire as opposed to the
personal interview. This knowledge will allow you to maximize the strengths of the questionnaire
while minimizing its weaknesses.
The advantages of administering a questionnaire instead of conducting an interview are:
lower costs
better samples
standardization
respondent privacy (anonymity)
It is free from the bias of the interviewers, answers are in respondents own words
Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
The primary advantage is lower cost, in time as well as money. Not having to train interviewers
eliminates a lengthy and expensive requirement of interviewing.
The questionnaire can be administered simultaneously to large groups whereas an interview requires
each individual to be questioned separately. This allows the questions to reach a given number of
respondents more efficiently than is possible with the interview. Finally, the cost of postage should be
less than that of travel or telephone expenses.
Since a typical questionnaire usually has a lower cost per respondent, it can reach more people within
a given budget (or time) limit. This can enhance the conduct of a larger and more representative
sample.
The questionnaire provides a standardized data-gathering procedure. Using a well- constructed
questionnaire can minimize the effects of potential human errors (for example, altering the pattern of
question asking, calling at inconvenient times, and biasing by explaining. The use of a questionnaire
also eliminates any bias introduced by the feelings of the respondents towards the interviewer (or vice
versa).
Although the point is debatable, most surveyors believe the respondent will answer a questionnaire
more frankly than he would answer an interviewer, because of a greater feeling of anonymity. The
respondent has no one to impress with his/her answers and need have no fear of anyone hearing them.
To maximize this feeling of privacy, it is important to guard, and emphasize, the respondent's
anonymity.
The primary disadvantages of the questionnaire are:
Non-returns,
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Misinterpretation, and
Validity problems.
It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
This method is the slowest of all.
Non-returns are questionnaires or individual questions that are not answered by the people to whom
they were sent. The important point about these low response rates is not the reduced size of the
sample, which could easily be overcome by sending out more questionnaires, but the possibility of
bias. Non-response is not a random process; it has its own determinants, which vary from survey to
survey.
For example, you may be surveying to determine the attitude of a group about a new policy. Some of
those opposed to it might be afraid to speak out, and they might comprise the majority of the non-
returns. This would introduce non-random (or systematic) bias into your survey results, especially if
you found only a small number of the returns were in favor of the policy. Non-returns cannot be
overcome entirely. What we can do is try to minimize them. Techniques to accomplish this are
covered later in this chapter.
Misinterpretation occurs when the respondent does not understand either the survey instructions or
the survey questions. If respondents become confused, they will either give up on the survey
(becoming a nonreturn) or answer questions in terms of the way they understand it, but not necessarily
the way you meant it. Some view the latter problem as a more dangerous occurrence than merely
nonresponding. The questionnaire instructions and questions must be able to stand on their own and
must use terms that have commonly understood meanings throughout the population under study. If
novel terms must be used, be sure to define them so all respondents understand your meaning.
The third disadvantage of using a questionnaire is inability to check on the validity of the answer.
Did the person you wanted to survey give the questionnaire to a friend or complete it personally? Did
the individual respond indiscriminately? Did the respondent deliberately choose answers to mislead
the surveyor? Without observing the respondent's reactions (as would be the case with an interview)
while completing the questionnaire, you have no way of knowing the true answers to these questions.
The secret in preparing a survey questionnaire is to take advantage of the strengths of questionnaires
(lower costs, more representative samples, standardization, and privacy) while minimizing the number
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of nonreturns, misinterpretations, and validity problems. This is not always as easy as it sounds. But an
inventive surveyor can very often find legitimate ways of overcoming the disadvantages.
THE CONTENTS
The key to minimizing the disadvantages of the survey questionnaire lies in the construction of the
questionnaire itself.
A poorly developed questionnaire contains the seeds of its own destruction. Each of the three portions
of the questionnaire - the cover letter, the instructions, and the questions - must work together to
have a positive impact on the success of the survey.
The cover letter should explain to the respondent the purpose of the survey and motivate him to
reply truthfully and quickly. If possible, it should explain why the survey is important to him, how
he was chosen to participate, and who is sponsoring the survey (the higher the level of sponsorship
the better). Also the confidentiality of the results should be strongly stressed. A well written cover
letter can help minimize both nonreturn and validity problems. In support of the statement above
regarding level of sponsorship, the signature block on the letter should be as high level as you can
get commensurate with the topic being investigated. Another tip that seems to help improve response
rate is to identify the survey as official. In general, the more official the survey appears, the less
likely it is to be disregarded.
The cover letter should be followed by a clear set of instructions explaining how to complete the
survey and where to return it. If the respondents do not understand the mechanical procedures
necessary to respond to the questions, their answers will be meaningless. In case of mail
questionnaire, the instructions substitute for your presence, so you must anticipate any questions or
problems that may arise and attempt to prevent them from occurring. Remember anonymity! If you
do not want respondents to provide their names say so explicitly in the instructions. If you need
respondents' name included on the survey for tracking or analysis purposes, you will need to put a
Privacy Act Statement somewhere on the survey. The"Instructions" page is usually a good place for
this statement. It places it in a prominent place where all respondents will see it, but does not clutter
the instrument itself or the cover letter.
The third and final part of the questionnaire is the set of questions. Since the questions are the
means by which you are going to collect your data, they should be consistent with your survey
plan. They should not be ambiguous or encourage feelings of frustration or anger that will lead to
nonreturns or validity problems.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
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1. Based on the situation of survey
When most people think of questionnaires, they think of the mail survey.
There are many advantages to mail surveys.
a) They are relatively inexpensive to administer. You can send the exact same instrument
to a wide number of people.
b) They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.
But there are some disadvantages as well.
a) Response rates from mail surveys are often very low.
b) Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written responses.
Self administered Questionnaires
A second type is the group administered questionnaire. A sample of respondents is brought
together and asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions. Traditionally, questionnaires were
administered in group settings for convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those
who were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate. If the respondents were
unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for clarification. And, there were often
organizational settings where it was relatively easy to assemble the group (in a company or business,
for instance).
What's the difference between a group administered questionnaire and a group interview or focus
group? In the group administered questionnaire, each respondent is handed an instrument and asked to
complete it while in the room. Each respondent completes an instrument. In the group interview or
focus group, the interviewer facilitates the session. People work as a group, listening to each other's
comments and answering the questions. Someone takes notes for the entire group -- people don't
complete an interview individually.
A less familiar type of questionnaire is the household drop-off survey. In this approach, a
researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and hands the respondent the instrument. In some
cases, the respondent is asked to mail it back or the interview returns to pick it up. This approach
attempts to blend the advantages of the mail survey and the group administered questionnaire. Like the
mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's convenient. Like the
group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes personal contact with the respondent -- they
don't just send an impersonal survey instrument. And, the respondent can ask questions about the
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study and get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to increase the
percent of people who are willing to respond.
2. Types of Questionnaires Based on Level of Measurement
We can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement. For instance, we might measure
occupation using a nominal question. Here, the number next to each response has no meaning except
as a placeholder for that response.
We might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for presidential candidates using an ordinal
question. We want the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to the candidate, where 1 is the
respondent's first choice.
We can also construct survey questions that attempt to measure on an interval level. One of the most
common of these types is the traditional 1-to-5 rating (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes
referred to as a Likert response scale. Here, we see how we might ask an opinion question on a 1-to-5
bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a neutral point and the two ends of the scale are at
opposite positions of the opinion):
Another interval question uses an approach called the semantic differential. Here, an object is
assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective pairs (using 5-point rating scale):
Finally, we can also get at interval measures by using what is called a cumulative or Guttman scale.
Here, the respondent checks each item with which they agree. The items themselves are constructed so
that they are cumulative -- if you agree to one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it in the list:
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3. Variable of structure or response format
The types of questionnaire vary widely. Questionnaires may be classified on a number of different
bases. The classification of questionnaires used here is based on the variablity of structure. It is how
you collect the answer from the respondent. Accordingly, we have:
structured/ standardized questionnaire
Unstructured/ non-structured questionnaire.
Structured questionnaires/response formats are those in which there are definite, concrete and
preordained questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate
answers or to elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with exactly the same
wording, and in the same wording, and in the same order to all respondents.
Structured questions/formats help the respondent to respond more easily and help the researcher to
accumulate and summarize responses more efficiently. But, they can also constrain the respondent and
limit the researcher's ability to understand what the respondent really means. There are many different
structured response formats, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. We'll review the major ones
here.
a) Fill- In-The-Blank. One of the simplest response formats is a blank line. A blank line can be used
for a number of different response types.
b) Check The Answer. The respondent places a check next to the response(s). Sometimes, we supply
a box that the person can fill in with an 'X' (which is sort of a variation on the check mark. By
convention, we usually use the checkmark format when we want to allow the respondent to select
multiple items.
Whenever you use a checklist, you want to be sure that you ask the following questions:
Are all of the alternatives covered?
Is the list of reasonable length?
Is the wording impartial?
Is the form of the response easy, uniform?
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Sometimes you may not be sure that you have covered all of the possible responses in a checklist. If
that is the case, you should probably allow the respondent to write in any other options that may apply.
c) Circle The Answer. Sometimes the respondent is asked to circle an item to indicate their
response. Usually we are asking them to circle a number.
Advantages of structured Questionnaire
a. It is easier and quicker for respondents to answer.
b. The answers of different respondents are easier to compare.
c. Answers are easier to code and statistically analyze.
d. The response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents.
e. Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive questions.
f. There are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions.
g. Less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage.
h. Replication is easier.
Disadvantages of structured Questionnaire
a. They can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have.
b. Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway.
c. Respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice.
d. It is confusing if many response choices are offered.
e. Misinterpretation of a question can go unnoticed.
f. Distinction between respondent answers may be blurred.
g. Clerical mistakes or making the wrong response is possible.
h. They force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues.
i. They force people to make choices they would not make in the real world.
Unstructured questionnaires/ Response Formats while there are a wide variety of structured response
formats, there are relatively few unstructured ones. What is an unstructured response format?
Generally, it's written text. If the respondent writes down text as the response, you've got an
unstructured response format. These can vary from short comment boxes to the transcript of an
interview. In almost every short questionnaire, there are one or more short text field questions.
Advantages of unstructured questionnaires/response format
a. They permit an unlimited number of possible answers.
b. Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses.
c. Unanticipated findings can be discovered.
d. They permit adequate answers to complex issues.
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e. They permit creativity; self expression, and richness of detail.
f. They reveal a respondents logic, thinking process, and frame of reference.
Disadvantages of unstructured questionnaire/response format
a. Different respondents give different degrees of detail in answers.
b. Responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless detail.
c. Comparison and statistical analysis become very difficult.
d. Coding response is difficult.
e. Articulate and highly literate respondents have an advantage.
f. Questions may be to general for respondents who loss direction.
g. Responses are written verbatim, which is difficult for interviewers.
h. A great amount of respondent time, thought and effort is necessary.
i. Respondents can be intimidated by questions.
j. Answers take up a lot of space in the questionnaire.
Questionnaire Construction/ Wording Decision
Many researchers have investigated the complex art of question writing. From their experiences, they
offer valuable advice. Below are some helpful hints typical of those that appear most often in texts on
question construction.
1. Keep the language simple.
Analyze your audience and write on their level. It usually suggested that writing at the sixth grade
level may be appropriate.
Avoid the use of technical terms or jargon.
2. Keep the questions short.
Long questions tend to become ambiguous and confusing. A respondent, in trying to comprehend a
long question, may leave out a clause and thus change the meaning of the question.
3. Keep the number of questions to a minimum.
There is no commonly agreed on maximum number of questions that should be asked, but research
suggests higher return rates correlate highly with shorter surveys.
Ask only questions that will contribute to your survey.
Apply the So what? and Who cares? tests to each question.
Nice-to-know questions only add to the size of the questionnaire.
Do not leave out, however, questions that would yield necessary data simply because it will shorten
your survey. If the information is necessary, ask the question.
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4. Limit each question to one idea or concept.
A question consisting of more than one idea may confuse the respondent and lead to a meaningless
answer.
Consider this question: Are you in favor of raising pay and lowering benefits? What would a yes (or
no) answer mean?
5. Do not ask leading questions.
These questions are worded in a manner that suggests an answer. Some respondents may give the
answer you are looking for whether or not they think it is right. Such questions can alienate the
respondent and may open your questionnaire to criticism.
A properly worded question gives no clue as to which answer you may believe to be the correct one.
6. Use subjective terms such as good, fair, and bad sparingly/economically, if at all.
These terms mean different things to different people. One person's fair may be another person's
bad. How much is often and how little is seldom?
7. Allow for all possible answers.
Respondents who cannot find their answer among your list will be forced to give an invalid reply or,
possibly, become frustrated and refuse to complete the survey.
Wording the question to reduce the number of possible answers is the first step.
Avoid dichotomous (two-answer) questions (except for obvious demographic questions such as
gender).
If you cannot avoid them, add a third option, such as no opinion, don't know, or other. These may
not get the answers you need but they will minimize the number of invalid responses. A great number
of don't know answers to a question in a fact-finding survey can be a useful piece of information.
But a majority of other answers may mean you have a poor question, and perhaps should be cautious
when analyzing the results.
8. Avoid emotional or morally charged questions and too direct questions
There are times when asking a question too directly may be too threatening or disturbing for
respondents. The respondent may feel your survey is getting a bit too personal!
For instance, consider a study where you want to discuss battlefield experiences with former soldiers
who experienced trauma. Examine the following three question options:
How did you feel about being in the war?
How well did the equipment hold up in the field?
How well were new recruits trained?
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The first question may be too direct. For this population it may elicit powerful negative emotions
based on their recollections. The second question is a less direct one. It asks about equipment in the
field, but, for this population, may also lead the discussion toward more difficult issues to discuss
directly. The last question is probably the least direct and least threatening. If you are doing a study
where the respondents may experience high levels of stress because of the questions you ask, you
should reconsider the ethics of doing the study.
9. Understand the should-would question.
Usually respondents answer should questions from a social or moral point of view while answering
would questions in terms of personal preference.
10. Formulate your questions and answers to obtain exact information and to minimize
confusion.
The survey author has to always be on the lookout for questions that could be misunderstood or
confusing. Some terms are just to vague to be useful. For instance, if you ask a question about the
"mass media," what do you mean? The newspapers? Radio? Television? How old are you? mean on
your last or your nearest birthday? Does What is your (military) grade? mean permanent or
temporary grade? As of what date?
By including instructions like Answer all questions as of (a certain date), you can alleviate many
such conflicts.
11. Include a few questions that can serve as checks on the accuracy and consistency of the
answers as a whole.
Have some questions that are worded differently, but are soliciting the same information, in different
parts of the questionnaire.
These questions should be designed to identify the respondents who are just marking answers
randomly or who are trying to game the survey (giving answers they think you want to hear).
If you find a respondent who answers these questions differently, you have reason to doubt the
validity of their entire set of responses. For this reason, you may decide to exclude their response
sheet(s) from the analysis.
12. Organize the pattern of the questions appropriately:
Place demographic questions at the end of the questionnaire.
Have your opening questions arouse interest.
Ask easier questions first.
To minimize conditioning, have general questions precede specific ones.
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Group similar questions together.
If you must use personal or emotional questions, place them at the end of the questionnaire.
Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing you to conduct your study
Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include what is absolutely necessary
Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent
Be alert for any sign that the respondent is uncomfortable
Thank the respondent at the end for participating
Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of the final results.
Note: The next two hints apply to the entire questionnaire including the cover letter, instructions, and
question.
13. Pretest (pilot test) the questionnaire.
This is the most important step in preparing your questionnaire.
The purpose of the pretest is to see just how well your cover letter motivates your respondents and
how clear your instructions, questions, and answers are.
You should choose a small group of people (from three to ten should be sufficient) you feel are
representative of the group you plan to survey.
After explaining the purpose of the pretest, let them read and answer the questions without
interruption. When they are through, ask them to critique the cover letter, instructions, and each of the
questions and answers. Don't be satisfied with learning only what confused or alienated them.
Question them to make sure that what they thought something meant was really what you intended it
to mean.
Use the above 12 hints as a checklist, and go through them with your pilot test group to get their
reactions on how well the questionnaire satisfies these points. Finally, redo any parts of the
questionnaire that are weak.
14. Have your questionnaire neatly produced on quality paper.
A professional looking product will increase your return rate. But always remember the adage You
can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.
A poorly designed survey that contains poorly written questions will yield useless data regardless of
how pretty it looks.
15. Be realistic in assuming about the respondents
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Sometimes we don't stop to consider how a question will appear from the respondent's point-of-view.
We don't think about the assumptions behind our questions. For instance, if you ask what social class
someone's in, you assume that they know what social class is and that they think of themselves as
being in one. In this kind of case, you may need to use a filter question first to determine whether
either of these assumptions is true.
16. Finally, make your survey interesting!
Question Placement
One of the most difficult tasks facing the survey designer involves the ordering of questions. Which
topics should be introduced early in the survey and which later? If you leave your most important
questions until the end, you may find that your respondents are too tired to give them the kind of
attention you would like. If you introduce them too early, they may not yet be ready to address the
topic, especially if it is a difficult or disturbing one. Whenever you think about question placement,
consider the following questions:
Is the answer influenced by prior questions?
Does question come too early or too late to arouse interest?
Does the question receive sufficient attention?
The Opening Questions
The opening few questions should, in general, be easy to answer. You might start with some simple
descriptive questions that will get the respondent rolling. You should never begin your survey with
sensitive or threatening questions.
Sensitive Questions
Before asking difficult and uncomfortable subjects, you should attempt to develop some trust or
rapport with the respondent. Often, preceding the sensitive questions with some easier warm-up ones
will help. But, you have to make sure that the sensitive material does not come up abruptly or appear
unconnected with the rest of the survey. It is often helpful to have a transition sentence between
sections of your instrument to give the respondent some idea of the kinds of questions that are coming.
For instance, you might lead into a section on personal material with the transition: In this next
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section of the survey, we'd like to ask you about your personal relationships. Remember, we do not
want you to answer any questions if you are uncomfortable doing so.
Bias and How to Combat It
Surveyors must be aware of ways the surveys might become biased and of the available means for
combating bias.
The main sources of bias in a questionnaire are:
a non-representative sample
leading questions
question misinterpretation
untruthful answers
Surveyors can expose themselves to possible non-representative sample bias in two ways.
The first is to actually choose a non-representative sample. This bias can be eliminated
by careful choice of the sample.
The second way is to have a large number of non-returns.
The nonreturn bias (also called non-respondent bias) can affect both the sample survey and the
complete survey. The bias stems from the fact that the returned questionnaires are not necessarily
evenly distributed throughout the sample. The opinions or attitudes expressed by those who returned
the survey may or may not represent the attitudes or opinions of those who did not return the survey. It
is impossible to determine which is true since the non-respondents remain an unknown quantity.
The following are techniques used to get people to reply to surveys.
1. Use follow-up letters.
These letters are sent to the nonrespondents after a period of a couple of weeks asking them again to
fill out and return the questionnaire. The content of this letter is similar to that of the cover letter.
If you are conducting a volunteer survey, you should anticipate the need for following up with non-
respondents and code the survey in some unobtrusive way to tell who has and who has not yet
responded. If you don't do that, but still need to get in touch with nonrespondents, consider placing ads
in local papers or base bulletins, announcements at commander's call, or notices posted in public
places. If at all possible, provide a fresh copy of the survey with the follow- up letter. This often
increases return rate over simply sending out a letter alone.
2. Use high-level sponsorship.
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This hint was mentioned in an earlier section. People tend to reply to surveys sponsored by
organizations they know or respect. Effort spent in doing this will result in a higher percentage of
returns. If possible, use the letterhead of the sponsor on your cover letter.
3. Make your questionnaire attractive, simple to fill out, and easy to read.
A professional product usually gets professional results.
4. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
You are asking for a person's time, so make your request as small as possible.
5. Use your cover letter to motivate the person to return the questionnaire.
One form of motivation is to have the letter signed by an individual known to be respected by the
target audience for your questionnaire. In addition, make sure the individual will be perceived by the
audience as having a vested interest in the information needed.
6. Use inducements to encourage a reply.
These can range from a small amount of money attached to the survey to an enclosed stamped
envelope. A promise to report the results to each respondent can be helpful. If you do promise a report,
be sure to send it.
Proper use of these techniques can lower the nonreturn rate to acceptable levels. Keep in mind, though,
that no matter what you do, there will always be non-respondents to your surveys. Make sure the effort
and resources you spend are in proportion with the return you expect to get.
The second source of bias is misinterpretations of questions. We have seen that these can be limited
by clear instructions, well-constructed questions, and through judicious pilot testing of the survey.
Biased questions can also be eliminated by constructing the questions properly and by using a pilot
test.
Finally, internal checks and a good motivational cover letter can control bias introduced by untruthful
answers.
Although bias cannot be eliminated totally, proper construction of the questionnaire, a well-chosen
sample, follow- up letters, and inducements can help control it.
SUMMARY
The questionnaire is the means for collecting your survey data. It should be designed with your data
collection plan in mind. Each of its three parts should take advantage of the strengths of questionnaires
while minimizing their weaknesses. Each of the different kinds of questions is useful for eliciting
different types of data, but each should be constructed carefully with well- developed construction
guidelines in mind. Properly constructed questions and well-followed survey procedures will allow
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you to obtain the data needed to check your hypothesis and, at the same time, minimize the chance that
one of the many types of bias will invalidate your survey results.
2.3.2. Schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being
filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in
the proforma.
In certain situations schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in
recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which
any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or
concept of difficult terms.
This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to
fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The enumerators should
be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained
to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the
schedule.
Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to find
out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hard working, and should have patience and
perseverance.
This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquires and can lead to fairly reliable
results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is
conducted through this method.
This method is suitable where finance and trained enumerators are available to cover a wide field and
where some significance is attached to the accuracy of the results obtained.
Advantages
It can be adopted even in those cases where informants are illiterates.
It eliminates to a great extent the problem of non-response
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The enumerator can explain the significance of the inquiry and the questions in the questionnaire
personally to the informants and thus ensuring collection of accurate and reliable information.
Limitations
The enumerator might be biased one and may not enter the answers given by the respondents
truthfully. He may twist or suppress the information provided by the informant.
Where there are many enumerators, they may interpret various terms in the questionnaire
according to their own understanding of the terms. The interpretation may be quite
unintentional.
The bias might be arising due to the state of mind of the informant or the environment in which
he is placed.
This method is some what costly and time consuming since it requires a large number of
enumerators who are paid persons.
Difference between questionnaires and Schedules
Both questionnaire and schedule are used method of collecting data in research surveys. There is
much resemblance in the nature of these two and this fact has made many people to remark that from
a particular point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from technical point of
view there is a difference between the two. The important points of difference are as under:
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a
covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is
generally filled out by the research worker or the numerator, who can interpret questions when
necessary.
2. Questionnaire is relatively economical
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of the respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be slow than schedule.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method, but in case of
schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method is only used when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of
schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.
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8. Wider and more representative sample coverage is possible in case of questionnaire method,
whereas in schedule there is usual remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively
wider area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively high in case of questionnaire
method than in case of schedule.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in
case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators,
11. Along with schedules observation method can be used but such thing is not possible in case of
questionnaire method.
2.3.3. Interviews
Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of data collection technique. They
require a personal sensitivity and adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the bounds of the
designed protocol. Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires and
schedules.
Types of Interviews
1. Face-to Face Interviews/ personal Interviews
In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. Unlike with mail
surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions. And, interviews are
generally easier for the respondent, especially if what is sought is opinions or impressions.
Advantages of Personal Interviews
a. It has the highest response rates.
b. Quick response can be attained.
c. Personal contacts are involved
d. Follow up questions can be asked.
e. It permits the longest questionnaire.
f. Higher flexibility
g. Interviewers can observe the surroundings and can use nonverbal communication and
visual aids.
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h. The interviewer can control who answers the questions.
i. All types of questions can be asked including complex questions using illustrations and
extensive probes.
Disadvantages of Personal Interviews
a. Interviews can be very time consuming
b. Interviews are resource intensive or very expensive as training, travel, supervision cost are
added.
c. Interviewer bias is greatest.
d. The interviewers wording, tone of voice, appearance may matter.
2. Telephone interview
Another type of interview is called telephone interview. It is a popular survey method. Most of the
major public opinion polls that are reported were based on telephone interviews.
Advantages
a. Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.
b. They allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and the respondent.
c. They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions.
d. They are cheaper than the personal interview.
e. No field staff is required.
f. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
Disadvantages
a. Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't have telephones.
b. People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes.
c. Telephone interviews have to be relatively short or people will feel imposed upon.
d. Noise may interrupt the process.
e. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
f. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
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The process of conducting the interview
1. Preparation
1.1. Knowing the Role of the Interviewer and Preparing on it
The interviewer is really the "jack-of-all-trades" in survey research. The interviewer's role is complex
and multifaceted. It includes the following tasks:
a) Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents
b) Motivate respondents to do good job
c) Clarify any confusion/concerns
d) Observe quality of responses
e) Conduct a good interview
1.2. Training the Interviewers
One of the most important aspects of any interview study is the training of the interviewers
themselves. In many ways the interviewers are your measures, and the quality of the results is totally
in their hands. Even in small studies involving only a single researcher-interviewer, it is important to
organize in detail and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.
Here are some of the major topics that should be included in interviewer training:
a) Describe the entire study
b) State who is sponsor of research
c) Teach enough about survey research
d) Explain the sampling logic and process
e) Explain interviewer bias
f) "Walk through" the interview
g) Explain respondent selection procedures
h) reading maps
i) identifying households
j) identify respondents
k) Rehearse interview
l) Explain supervision
m) Explain scheduling
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1.3. Make ready The Interviewer's Kit
2. Conducting the Interview
So all the preparation is complete, the training done, the interviewers ready to proceed, their "kits" in
hand. It's finally time to do an actual interview. Each interview is unique, like a small work of art (and
sometimes the art may not be very good). Every interview includes some common components.
There's the opening, where the interviewer gains entry and establishes the rapport and tone for what
follows. There's the middle game, the heart of the process, that consists of the protocol of questions
and the improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the endgame, the wrap-up, where the
interviewer and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it's a two-minute phone interview or
a personal interview that spans hours, the interview is a bit of theater, a mini-drama that involves real
lives in real time.
2.1. Opening Remarks
In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that a salesperson has. You have to get the
respondent's attention initially for a long enough period that you can sell them on the idea of
participating in the study. Many of the remarks here assume an interview that is being conducted at a
respondent's residence. But the analogies to other interview contexts should be straightforward.
Gaining entry
The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors can enhance the prospects.
Probably the most important factor is your initial appearance. The interviewer needs to dress
professionally and in a manner that will be comfortable to the respondent. In some contexts a business
suit and briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it may intimidate. The way the interviewer appears
initially to the respondent has to communicate some simple messages -- that you're trustworthy,
honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a manner of professional confidence, the sense that the
respondent has nothing to worry about because you know what you're doing -- is a difficult skill to
teach and an indispensable skill for achieving initial entry.
Doorstep technique
You're standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door, even if only halfway. You need to
smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there and suggest what you would like the respondent
to do. Don't ask -- suggest what you want. Instead of saying "May I come in to do an interview?", you
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might try a more imperative approach like " I'd like to take a few minutes of your time to interview
you for a very important study."
Introduction
If you've gotten this far without having the door slammed in your face, chances are you will be able to
get an interview. Without waiting for the respondent to ask questions, you should move to introducing
yourself. You should have this part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential
information in 20-30 seconds at most. State your name and the name of the organization you represent.
Show your identification badge and the letter that introduces you. You want to have as legitimate an
appearance as possible. If you have a three-ring binder