Chapter 2Chapter 2Environmental Laws, Environmental Laws, Economics and EthicsEconomics and Ethics

Overview of Chapter 2Overview of Chapter 2

Brief US Environmental HistoryBrief US Environmental History US Environmental LegislationUS Environmental Legislation Economics and the EnvironmentEconomics and the Environment Environmental Ethics, Values and Environmental Ethics, Values and

WorldviewsWorldviews

Environmental History of Environmental History of the USthe US

1717thth and 18 and 18thth Centuries- Centuries-Frontier AttitudeFrontier Attitude Natural Resources (land, Natural Resources (land,

timber soil, water) timber soil, water) seemed inexhaustibleseemed inexhaustible

Widespread Widespread Environmental Environmental DestructionDestruction

16001600 17001700 18001800 19001900

Dominated by Frontier AttitudeDominated by Frontier Attitude

Establishment Establishment of Jamestown, of Jamestown,

VAVA

Environmental History of Environmental History of the USthe US

John James Audobon (1785-1851)John James Audobon (1785-1851)

Henry David Thoreau (1817-Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)1862)

George Perkins Marsh (1801-George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882)1882)

19th century - US Naturalists voiced concerns 19th century - US Naturalists voiced concerns about natural resourcesabout natural resources Audobon - painted nature, which increased interest in Audobon - painted nature, which increased interest in

environmentenvironment Thoreau - naturalist author on simplifying life Thoreau - naturalist author on simplifying life Marsh - wrote Marsh - wrote Man and NatureMan and Nature

17501750 18001800 18501850 19001900

Environmental History of USEnvironmental History of US

General Revision ActGeneral Revision Act Gave President authority to establish forest reservesGave President authority to establish forest reserves Presidents Harrison, Cleveland, RooseveltPresidents Harrison, Cleveland, Roosevelt

Put 17.4 million hectares into reservePut 17.4 million hectares into reserve President Roosevelt President Roosevelt

Reserved additional 6.5 million hectares before signing bill Reserved additional 6.5 million hectares before signing bill preventing further forest reservationpreventing further forest reservation

1875 American 1875 American Forestry Assoc. Forestry Assoc. FormedFormed

18501850 18751875 19001900

1891 General 1891 General Revision ActRevision Act

1890 Yosemite and 1890 Yosemite and Sequoia National Sequoia National Parks EstablishedParks Established

Environmental History of USEnvironmental History of US

Utilitarian Utilitarian ConservationistConservationist Value natural Value natural

resources for their resources for their usefulness usefulness

RooseveltRoosevelt

Biocentric Biocentric PreservationistPreservationist

Protect nature because all life deserves Protect nature because all life deserves respect respect

John Muir (founded Sierra Club)John Muir (founded Sierra Club) Fought for National ParksFought for National Parks

Environmental History of USEnvironmental History of US

Antiquities ActAntiquities Act Allows president to set aside sites of scientific or Allows president to set aside sites of scientific or

historical importance (monuments)historical importance (monuments) American Dust Bowl (1930s droughts)American Dust Bowl (1930s droughts)

Basis for Soil Conservation ServiceBasis for Soil Conservation Service Created by Franklin RooseveltCreated by Franklin Roosevelt

1906 Antiquities 1906 Antiquities ActAct

1935 Creation of Soil 1935 Creation of Soil Conservation ServiceConservation Service

1916 National 1916 National Park Service Park Service CreatedCreated

19001900 19251925 19501950

Environmental History of USEnvironmental History of US

2020thth Century Naturalists Century Naturalists Leopold - Author (Leopold - Author (A Sand Country AlmanacA Sand Country Almanac)) Stegner - Author (Stegner - Author (Wilderness EssayWilderness Essay)) Carson - Author (Carson - Author (Silent SpringSilent Spring))

Heightened awareness of DDT and pesticidesHeightened awareness of DDT and pesticides

Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)

Wallace Stegner (1909-1993)Wallace Stegner (1909-1993)

Rachel Carson (1907-1964)Rachel Carson (1907-1964)

19001900 19251925 19501950 19751975

US Environmental US Environmental LegislationLegislation Environmental Protection AgencyEnvironmental Protection Agency

Est. 1970Est. 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

Cornerstone of Environmental LawCornerstone of Environmental Law Requires Environmental Impact Statements Requires Environmental Impact Statements

(EIS) for any proposed federal action(EIS) for any proposed federal action Ex: highway or dam constructionEx: highway or dam construction

Revolutionized environmental protection in Revolutionized environmental protection in USUS

Environmental Impact StatementEnvironmental Impact Statement

US Environmental US Environmental LegislationLegislation Numerous laws passed since 1970Numerous laws passed since 1970 They address:They address:

Clean waterClean water Clean airClean air Energy conservationEnergy conservation Hazardous wasteHazardous waste PesticidesPesticides Federal regulation of pollutionFederal regulation of pollution

Effects of Environmental Effects of Environmental LegislationLegislation

Since 1970Since 1970 Six air pollutants have dropped by Six air pollutants have dropped by

25%25% Since 1990Since 1990

wet sulfate levels decreased 20–35%wet sulfate levels decreased 20–35% As of 2007As of 2007

90% of US had healthy drinking 90% of US had healthy drinking water (up from 75% in 1993)water (up from 75% in 1993)

As of 2006As of 2006 45% of municipal waste is burned as 45% of municipal waste is burned as

waste-to-energy or recovered for waste-to-energy or recovered for recyclingrecycling

As of 2007As of 2007 Human exposure to hazardous Human exposure to hazardous

waste sites identified in 1969 is waste sites identified in 1969 is below 93%below 93%

Economics and the Economics and the EnvironmentEnvironment Economics - study of how people use Economics - study of how people use

limited resources to satisfy unlimited limited resources to satisfy unlimited wantswants Analytical tools include modelsAnalytical tools include models

Precepts to study Precepts to study EconomicsEconomics Economics is utilitarianEconomics is utilitarian

Goods and services have value that can Goods and services have value that can be converted to currencybe converted to currency

Rational Actor ModelRational Actor Model Assumes all individuals spend limited Assumes all individuals spend limited

resources to maximize individual utilitiesresources to maximize individual utilities Ideal economy Ideal economy

Resources are allocated efficientlyResources are allocated efficiently

Optimum Amount of Optimum Amount of PollutionPollution Optimum Amount of PollutionOptimum Amount of Pollution

Cost to society of having less pollution is Cost to society of having less pollution is offset by benefits to society of activity offset by benefits to society of activity creating pollutioncreating pollution

Must identify Must identify Marginal Cost of Pollution - Cost of small Marginal Cost of Pollution - Cost of small

additional amount of pollutionadditional amount of pollution Marginal Cost of Abatement - Cost of Marginal Cost of Abatement - Cost of

reducing small amount of pollutionreducing small amount of pollution

Economic Optimum Amount of Economic Optimum Amount of PollutionPollution

Private vs Social Cost of PollutionPrivate vs Social Cost of Pollution

Strategies for Pollution Strategies for Pollution ControlControl

Command and Control SolutionsCommand and Control Solutions Government agency requires limitations Government agency requires limitations

to emissions or pollutantsto emissions or pollutants Discourages development of low-cost Discourages development of low-cost

alternativesalternatives Environmental Taxes/Tradable Environmental Taxes/Tradable

PermitsPermits If taxes are set at correct level private If taxes are set at correct level private

marginal cost of pollution = social cost marginal cost of pollution = social cost of pollutionof pollution

Effect of Tax on Optimum PollutionEffect of Tax on Optimum Pollution

Critiques of Environmental Critiques of Environmental EconomicsEconomics

Ecosystem services have no known valueEcosystem services have no known value Utilitarian economics may not be Utilitarian economics may not be

appropriateappropriate Dynamic changes and time are not consideredDynamic changes and time are not considered

Difficult to assess Difficult to assess true costs of true costs of environmental environmental pollution and pollution and abatementabatement Impacts of pollution Impacts of pollution

on people and on people and nature is uncertainnature is uncertain

National Income AccountsNational Income Accounts

Estimates of National Economic Estimates of National Economic Performance and used in PoliticsPerformance and used in Politics Gross Domestic Product (GDP)Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Net Domestic Product (NDP)Net Domestic Product (NDP)

Environment may be overexploited to Environment may be overexploited to yield a higher GDP in developing yield a higher GDP in developing countriescountries

EPI (Environmental Performance Index)EPI (Environmental Performance Index) Assesses a country’s commitment to Assesses a country’s commitment to

environmental and resource managementenvironmental and resource management

Environmental JusticeEnvironmental Justice

The right of every citizen regardless The right of every citizen regardless of age, race and gender, social class of age, race and gender, social class or other factor, to adequate or other factor, to adequate protection from environmental protection from environmental hazardshazards

Generally, members of low income Generally, members of low income and minority communities:and minority communities: Face more environmental threats and Face more environmental threats and

have fewer environmental amenitieshave fewer environmental amenities Have less voice in planningHave less voice in planning

Environmental JusticeEnvironmental Justice

Challenge of environmental justiceChallenge of environmental justice To find equitable solutions that respect To find equitable solutions that respect

all groups of peopleall groups of people Local issueLocal issue National issueNational issue International issueInternational issue

Environmental EthicsEnvironmental Ethics

Field of ethics that considers the moral Field of ethics that considers the moral basis of environmental responsibilitybasis of environmental responsibility

Western WorldviewWestern Worldview Human superiority and dominance over Human superiority and dominance over

naturenature Deep Ecology WorldviewDeep Ecology Worldview

All species have an equal worth to humansAll species have an equal worth to humans Most people’s ethics fall somewhere in Most people’s ethics fall somewhere in

betweenbetween