Chapter 2

Foundations of Individual Behavior

MRS. Shefa EL Sagga.

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Learning Objectives

Contrast the two types of ability.

Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB.

Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB.

Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning.

Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB.

Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.

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Ability

Ability

An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Types of Ability

Intellectual Abilities Physical Abilities

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Intellectual Ability

1. Intellectual Ability

The capacity to do mental activities such as; thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

1. Number Aptitude…>>> as accountant.2. Verbal Comprehension…>>> as manager.3. Perceptual Speed…>>> as investigator.4. Inductive Reasoning …>>> as market researcher.5. Deductive Reasoning …>>> as supervisor.6. Spatial Visualization …>>> as an engineering.7. Memory …>>> as salesperson.19/2/2011 OB19/2/2011 OB 44

Physical Ability

2. Physical Ability

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

Dimensions of Physical Ability

Strength Factors: (Dynamic strength - Trunk strength - Static strength - Explosive strength). Flexibility Factors: (Extent flexibility - Dynamic flexibility).Other Factors: (Body coordination – Balance – Stamina).

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Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements

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The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the

organization

Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

Personal Characteristics

Age

Gender

Race

Religion

Sexual orientation

gender identity

Tenure

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Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

Personal Characteristics

Age:Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.

Gender: Few differences between men and women that affect job performance.

Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself):Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based than race-based. 19/2/2011 OB19/2/2011 OB 88

Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

Personal Characteristics

Other Biographical Characteristics

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Tenure: People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.

Religion: Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11 world.

Sexual orientation: Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.

gender identity: Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

Learning

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Social-Learning Theory.

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Learning

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Social-Learning Theory

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

People can learn through observation and direct experience.

BehaviorismBehavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Attentional processes - Retention processes - Motor reproduction processes - Reinforcement processes.19/2/2011 OB19/2/2011 OB 1111

Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response

Key Concepts

1. Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

2. Some rewards are more effective than others.

3. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

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Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Shaping Behavior

Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning).

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning).

ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”).

PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”).

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Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Schedule of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

1. Fixed interval schedule: Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

2. Variable interval schedule: Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

3. Fixed ratio schedule: Reward given at amounts of output.

4. Variable ratio schedule: Reward given at a variable amounts of output.19/2/2011 OB19/2/2011 OB 1414

Behavior modification (OB Mode)

Behavior Modification (OB Mode)

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

Steps 1. Identify critical behaviors.

2. Develop baseline data.

3. Identify behavioral consequences.

4. Develop and apply intervention.

5. Evaluate performance improvement.

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Behavior modification (OB Mode)

Problems with Behavior Modification (OB Mode)

OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.

OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling.

Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.19/2/2011 OB19/2/2011 OB 1616

Global Implications

Schedule of Reinforcement

Intellectual Abilities

Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across cultures

Biographical Characteristics

Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships described in this chapter.

LearningAgain, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point

Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical composition.

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Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement TheoryChapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory When professors give random quizzes or take random attendance,

students often complain that they are adults, old enough to make their own decisions, and should therefore not be required to come to class. How do you reconcile this argument with what we know about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a classmate.

1. What kind of reinforcement schedule are these professors using? Would a different schedule be preferable? If so, which one?.

2. Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred. Do you think that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester college class? Discuss with a neighbor.

3. What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of students learning all class material? Use theories from the text to frame your answer.

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