57
Chapter 3 India: Subsistence Agriculture Under Arid Conditions
Chapter 3
India: Subsistence Agriculture Under Arid Conditions
Introduction
Dryland agriculture plays an important role in the food system of India. About
seventy per cent of the cropped area in India is cultivated under dry conditions and a
large proportion of output of important crops such as cereals, pulses, oil-seeds and
cotton comes from these areas. These areas produce forty-two percent of total food
grains, almost all the coarse grains and more than three-fourth of pulses and oil-seeds
of the country. About ninety per cent of jowar and bajra is produced in arid and semi
arid regions and about two-third of rice and mustard and nearly one-third of wheat are
cultivated in dry areas1• Although the problem of the dryland/rainfed farming had
been with us for a long time, it .was brought into sharp focus only after the
phenomenal growth of agriculture under the 'Green Revolution' strategy, which
started in the mid-sixties. The production gains of the 'Green Revolution' under the
new technology were confined mostly to crops like wheat and rice in regions with
good water resources and assured irrigation. Variation in the performance of HYV
seed-fertilizer technoJ.ogy and its close association with assured rain and irrigation
facilities have been well observed and highlighted by several studies2•
The 'Green Revolution' strategy resulted in the accentuation of regional disparities,
particularly between irrigated/wet areas and dry areas of the country. This rapidly
growing disparity between the high growth of agriculture and income in the 'Green
Revolution' areas and otherwise stagnant growth in the dry area aroused the concern
1 Government of India, Planning Commission, "Seventh Five Year Plan 1985-90 Vol. II, p. I 0, 1985 2 Among other see, Rao, C. H. H., "Technological Change and Distribution of Gain" Macmillan, Delhi, 1975, K. N. ·Raj, "Some Questions concerning growth, Transformation, and planning of agriculture in Developing Countries" in Comparative Experience of Agricultural Development in Developing Countries of Asia and Southeast, since World War II, papers and proceeding of International Seminar held at New Delhi, Indian Society of Agricultural Economics Bombay. Shalla G. S., Alagh, Y. K. Performance of Indian Agriculture, A District-wise study, Planning Commission, Government of India, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1977, New Delhi.
90
for the dry areas. The problem has another dimension. All the water resources of the
nation, even if fully exploited by the tum of century, would not irrigate more than
half of the total crop land. The other half will continue to depend on low and
uncertain rainfall. Therefore, the nature of growth we adopt for agriculture must take
into account the developmental problem of such a vast area and a wide variety of
crops. Therefore any development, which neglects dry areas, will remain lopsided and
unstable. Therefore, diversifying the technological basis of growth so as to
encompass dry areas will not only achieve a higher and more stable growth but will
also ensure growth with equity, for inter-regional distribution of gains3. The Seventh
Five Year Plan (1985-90) in fact has gone further to add that "in order to achieve a
steady increase in production of foodgrains, particularly of coarse cereals, pulses, oil
seeds and cotton and also the national objectives of reducing poverty, unemployment,
regional disparities the development of drylandlrainfed farming assumes great
importance and immediate revelence"4•
3.1 Dimensions of Dry Farming in India
Dryland farming is often equated with rainfed farming. However, it is necessary to ·,.
distinguish dryland farming from absolutely arid or desert areas on the one hand and
the areas having a relatively assured rainfall. The availability of irrigational facilities
has also to be taken into account as a significant factor modifying the intensity of
dryland farming in different rainfall zones. Keeping these aspects in view, the Fourth
Five Year Plan (1969-74) defined dry farming areas as those which receive an annual
rainfall ranging from 375 mm to 1125 mm and which have very limited irrigational
facility5. Areas where annual rainfall is below 375 mm are considered as absolutely
arid and desert areas need special attention and specific techniques in order to
improve their production. The dry farming areas, as defined in the Fourth Five Year
Plan, however, do not include areas which already possess irrigation covering to the
3 Rangaswami, P., "Dry Farming Technology in India. A Study of Its- Profitability in Selected Areas" Agricole Publishing Academy, New Delhi, 1982. 4 Government of India, Planning Commission "Seventh Five Year Plan 1985-90, Vol. II, p. 150, 1985. 5 Singh, R. P. ( 1994), Dry land Farming in India: Past, Present and Future; in Dry land Farming in India Constraints and challenges- edited by J. L. Raina, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur
91
extent of 30 to 50 per cent of cropped area and also those with rainfall between 750
mm to 1125 mm (with irrigation level of 10 per cent), as the problem of these areas is
not that much acute. But the agricultural areas where rainfall ranges between 375 mm
to 750 mq1 and irrigation level is below 10 per cent are the ones, which really belongs
to reality dry fanning areas. It is these dry farming tracts, which are characterised by
low yield and maximum instability in agricultural output and, therefore, present a
problem of acute economic distress. These areas cover central part of Rajasthan,
Saurashtra region of Gujarat, and the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats in
Karnataka and Maharashtra .
According to the Indian Agricultural Atlas, the dryland areas include the zones
having an annual rainfall upto 750 mm. Such areas fall within the arid and semi-arid
climates of the tropics and cover parts of the States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. About
5 1 Mha land area of India falls under this category6 and produces most of the coarse
grains, pulses, oilseeds, cotton and dry fodder. With traditional farming, the
production of these commodities is, however, low and risky. With the new dry
farming technology, generated by various dryland research centers in different
agroclimatic zones, it is likely to at least double the production from its present level.
There are two distinct dry zones in Indi<i: one in the north and other in the south. The
Northern region includes extensive areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh,
while the second zone comprises extensive areas of peninsular India, which go by the
name of'Deccan Plateau'.
The semi-arid tropical zone of India covering 80% of the cultivable area supports a
large population of men and animals; hence due .. to heavy pressure on the same
ecosystem, there is over-exploitation of land and vegetation.7 Unpredictable
distribution of low annual' rainfall (30 and 42% of geographical area receiving 0-75
and 75-125 em precipitation respectively with approximately 80 per cent occurring
6 Shafi, M., Raza M., 1987, Dry land Agriculture in India, Rawat Pub., Jaipur. 7 Mann, H.S., 1977. Introduction. In Desertification and its Control, I. C. A.R., New Delhi, P. 1-5.
92
during the rainy season. 8 The dry semi-arid tropics (SAT) have annual rainfall
between 50-70 em wetS AT 100-150 em dry-wet SAT between 75-100 cm9. So, due
to this scarcity of rain and growing population it is imperative to develop our
drylands. Such irrigation systems should be used which can give maximum benefit
for less expenditure, with optimum use of available water.
3.2 Geographical Background
The Republic of India is one of the largest countries in the World, with an area of
3,287,263 sq km and a population of 1.2 billion (2001). This calls for accelerated
efforts to produce more foodgrains, both from irrigated and dryland areas. It has three
well marked and, indeed, obvious relief regions: the Himalayan system in the north,
the Plateau of the Peninsula and, in between, the Great Plains of the Indus and Ganga
basins.
In northern India there are three seasons. A 'cool season' lasts from December to
February, and brings average temperatures o( 10° - 15°C to Delhi and the Punjab, but
with a high diurnal range (from as high as 26°C by day to freezinl~oint or below at
night) and, although this is the season of the 'dry' north-east monsoon, depressions
from the north-west may bring rain to the Punjab and indeed, further down the plains
to the east. In the 'hot season' of the north temperatures rise until, in May the average
is 32°-35°C (as high as 48°C by day), and rain is very rare. With the 'burst' of the
monsoon in June and July, temperatures fall and the rains begin, to last until
September or October. ·, ,
In the Ganga delta, to take another regional example, the 'cool season' is less cool
than in Delhi (l9°C average for January in Calcutta), the hot season less hot (30°C
May average), and the rains much heavier- there is hardly a year in which Calcutta's
8 Mehrotra, Naresh, 1977. "Future Research for stabilizing Agricultural Production in Dryland Areas." Presented at 61
h Annual Workshop. All-India Coord. Res. Proj. Dryland Agri. Haryana Agri. Uni., Hisar. 9 Oppen, M. V. and Subba Rao, K. V., 1988. Water Management "Options for Rainfed Agriculture in the Semi-Arid Tropics." In Procc. Nat. Semi. On Water Management-the Key to Development of Agriculture, (ed.) J. S. Kanwar, Agricole Pub. Academy, New Delhi, P.555.
93
streets do not suffer serious flooding at least once. The 'hot season' is, moreover,
punctuated by 'mango showers', which are even more significant in Assam.
In the peninsula, the coolness of the 'cool season' tends to be diminished as one goes
south, as 'does the striking heat of the 'hot season', partly because in places such as
Mumbai temperatures are never as high as in, say, Delhi, and partly because in the far
south it is always hot, except where temperatures are mitigated by altitude. In Tamil
Nadu, for example, average monthly temperatures vary only from 24°C in January to
32°C in May and June. In the peninsula, too, the southwest monsoon brings
particularly heavy rains to the westward-facing scarps of the Western Ghats, which
receive 200-250 em in four months. The dry season also decreases southward till in
Kerala, in the far southwest, it lasts for only a month or two. In Tamil Nadu, there is
an almost complete reversal of the normal monsoonal rainfall regime: the heaviest
rains fall in October to January (inclusive) and the southwest monsoon period is
relatively dry.
The theme of contrast in Indian climate is best expressed by drawing attention to the
tremendous difference between, on the one hand, the deserts of Rajasthan and the
rather less dry sands of Ramanathapuram, in south-eastern Tamil Nadu, and, on the
other, the verdant landscapes of the north-eastern Deccan and of Kerala.
There is extreme variation in rainfall ranging from 10 centimetres (em) at Jaisalmer in
western Rajasthan to 1,000 em at Cheerapunji in Meghalaya. The country receives an
average annual precipitation of 400 million hectare metres (mhm), of which 70 mhm
is lost through evaporation. Of the remaining 330 mhm, around 150 mhm enters the
soil and 180 mhm constitutes the runoff. For all the major and minor irrigation
projects in the country up to this point, we have been able to utilise only 17 mhm out
of 180 runoff, thus leaving about 160 mhm of precipitation that flows through rivers
into the sea.
Nearly 80% of the total rainfall is received during the period June to September,
called the rainy season. Of the total foodgrains produced in the country, nearly 96%
94
are accounted to the kharif (rainy) season 10. The quantum and distribution of rainfall
during this season governs the productivity and production of rainfed crops. Late
onset of monsoon, long dry spells during the season, and early withdrawal of
monsoon are some of the common aberrations that lead to reduced production and
frequent crop failures. There is high variability in the total and seasonal distribution
of rainfall :- the co-efficient of variation increasing with decreasing average annual
rainfall.
Rainfed farming is supported by five major soil groups, viz., Vertisols (and related
soils), Alfisols, Aridisols, Sub-montane soils, Inceptisols and Entisols. Of these,
Vertisols (commonly called 'black soils') carry the greater potential of crop
production under rainfed conditions. These soils occupy about 22% of the
geographical area. Annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 1500 mm. These soils are
characterised by high clay content (30-70%) and high available water-holding
capacity. However, they are highly erodible and produce large amounts of runoff. The
soils are low in nitrogen and often in available phosphorus too.
Alfisols, commonly termed as 'red soils' occupy about 20% of the geographical area.
Annual rainfall ranges from 750 to 2000 mm. These soils are characterised by
moderate (10 to 20%) clay and low organic matter content; poor nutrient status,
particularly with respect to nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and calcium; have low
water retention capacity due to shallow depths; frequently have a compact sub-soil;
are prone to erosion and crusting; and produce large volumes of runoff.
Aridisols, occupying nearly 29 million hectares, are found in low rainfall regions.
These soils are characterised by low clay content, low water retentivity and poor soil
fertility. Crop failures on these soils are common. They have a tendency to crust.
They are better suited to alternate land-use systems (Agro-forestry etc.)
10Singh, R. P. ( 1994), Dry land Fanning in India: Past, Present and Future; in Dry land Farming in India Constraints and challenges- edited by J. L. Raina, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur.
95
Sub-montane soils, spreading in the hill and foothill regions, experience an average
annual rainfall varying from 750 to 2000 mm. These soils are highly prone to erosion
and runoff loss, because of topographic reasons.
Inceptisols and Entisols, commonly known as 'alluvial soils' occupy nearly 21% of
the geographical area; are very deep; of variable texture; and generally deficient in
nitrogen and phosphorus. The soils possess high agronomic potential.
3.3 Economy and Agriculture in General
The two most distinctive features of the Indian economy are its size and diversity.
India is a vast country, in terms of its area and population. The population is largely
rural, with about 74% of the total residing in approximately 600,000 villages. The
employment rate in various sectors is different. Agriculture claims the maximum
percentage among the sectors (Chart 1), (See Appendix 2, table 1). Of India's total
area of around 3.3m.sq km; about 55% is available for cultivation. The remainder
consists of forests, deserts, land in urban use, meadows and pasture, or fallow land. '
Of the cultivable land, only about 33% is under assured irrig-~n. The remainder is
dependent upon the rain-fed agriculture. The pattern of rainfall, under the
southeastern and the southwestern monsoons, is highly seasonal and highly variable.
Except in the extreme south most of the rain falls in the summer months of June to
September, and is essential for prosperity and survival. A small but essential amount
of rain falls in the winter, allowing some areas to grow winter food crops in addition
to summer crops.
The economy is dependent upon agriculture for food and incomes, and because
agriculture is critically dependent on the monsoon, the fear that inadequate rainfall in
every third or fifth year is likely to produce unfavourable conditions affects the
population. Much of India's farmland is of poor natural fertility, being subject to
erosion, salinity or leaching: the result of years of population pressure on a poor
agricultural economy. The land itself is being subjected to environmental pressures,
the long-term effects of which may be catastrophic.
96
Chart 1
~ectoral Distribution of Total Workers
90.00
80.00
70.00 ,--- ---- --- ---··
______ j El Males f-----
60.00
- 50.00 c:
1 ' ___ ---~J: ~:;~les : ____ _
Cll 0 .... Cll
40.00 (l.
30.00
20.00
Sectors
Source of Data: The Far East and Australasia 1999, 30th edition. Europa Pub. Ltd. England.
96 b
India is a major producer of a number of agricultural commodities, including rice,
groundnuts, sugar cane (of which it is the World's leading producer) and tea, although
its share of world trade in these commodities is generally low. Domestic production is
dominateq by food grains (cereals and pulses), which constitute roughly two-thirds of
total agricultural output. The bulk of India's production of food grains consists of
cereals, principally rice, wheat, sorghum(jawar), maize and various forms of millet,
mainly cat-tail millet (bajra). Less than 8% of the production of food grains is
provided by pulses, which are a useful source of vegetable protein for consumers. The
estimated production of major food grains in 1997/98 was (in metric tons): milled rice
83.5m.; wheat 66.4m.; coarse cereals 31.3m.; pulses 13.lm.; total 194.lm. The
remaining one-third of total agricultural production consisted of non-food cash crops,
of which the most important were. oilseeds (especially groundnuts), short-staple
cotton, jute, sugar cane and tea. While many non-food products are important sources
of foreign exchange (e. g. tea, oil-cakes, coffee and sugar), the economy is critically
dependent on the production of food grains, which are, by far, the most important
consumer goods. Their production provides the major source of income to the rural
economy.
Between 1960 and the·early 1980s India's total agricultural production expanded at
an average annual rate of just fewer than 2%. Between 1967/68 and 1995/96 the
average annual rate of output ~?f food grains increased by 2.7% (rice by 2.9%, wheat
by 4.7% and pulses by 0.9%). Food grain output reached 152.4m. tons in 1983/84,
when India became self-sufficient and even exported small quantities. The harvest of
food grains fell to 140.4m. tons during the last major drought year of 1987/88, but
rose to an estimated peak of 194.1m. tons in 1997/98 (See Appendix 2, table 2).
The total value of our processed food sector today is estimated to be around Rs.
70,000 crore, while this output has been assessed to be capable of being raised to Rs.
250,000 crore by year 2008. 11
97
Horticultural crops in India are currently grown in 12 million hectares, which
represents 7 per cent of India's total cropped area. Annual horticultural production is
estimated at 131 million metric tones, which is over 18 per cent of India's gross
agricultural output. India is one of the largest producers of fruits & vegetables with 44
million mt tonnes of fruit production in 1999-00 and vegetable production of 87.5
million mt tons in the same period. India has the world's largest number of livestock
and ranks first in the cattle population and is the second largest milk producer in the
world.
However, the enormous production and its potential is marred by colossal wastage,
very low level of processing and non-availability of post-harvest infrastructure. As
per the report prepared in 1981 by Shri M. S. Swaminathan, former Member of the
Planning Commission, upto 40% of certain fruits and vegetables go waste due to their
perishable nature and non-availability of appropriate post harvest infrastructure.
3.4 HISTORY OF DRYLAND FARMING, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
A focus to develop dryland farming dates back to the year 1880, when the first
Famine Commission was appointed by the then British Government. This
Commission had its roots in the recurring droughts which country faced from 1860
onwards. An important recommendation of the commission was to set up protective
irrigation projects. It was however, in 1923 when the first dry farming research to
tackle the problems of scarcity tracts of the erstwhile Bombay state (presently
Maharashtra State) was initiated on a small plot at Manjari near Pune. Following that
in 1933-35, the then Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (now Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, or ICAR) sponsored a Dry Farming Scheme at 5 centres
viz., Solapur, Bijapur, Raichur, Hagari and Rohtak. In 1962-63, another soil
conservation programme "Soil Conservation in the Catchments of River Valley
Projects" was launched for prevention of siltation of reservoirs and flood control. In
1959, the Central Arid Zone Research Institute was setup to study the problems of
11 Saigal, Omesh, Food processing Industry: Current Scene and Prospects, Yojana, Vol.45; No I,
98
desert areas. It was in 1970 when an All India Coordinated Research project for
Dry land Agriculture (AICRP DA) was instituted by ICAR at 23 Centres (now 22
Centres exist) across contrasting agro-climatic regions of the country. The unique
feature of, this project, compared to earlier programmes, was its reliance on multi
disciplinary approach in identifying the constraints limiting crop yield in arid and
seasonally dry areas of the country. In 1983, an All India coordinated Research
project on Agrometeorology (AICRPAM) was started to give further stimulus to the
dryland research by understanding and defining the crop growth related weather
factors. The modest beginning of AICRPDA led to the establishment of a full-fledged
research organization-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) in
1985 at Hyderbed. The main purpose of flagging off CRIDA was to embark upon
lead research in dryland agricultur<:;, leaving location specific problems and their
solutions to AICRPDA and AICRPAM. Initially AICRPDA, and later on CRIDA (up
to 1987), got extensive support from CIDA (Canadian International Development
Agency) through an instrument of bilateral collaboration between the Governments of
India and Canada signed in 1970. Almost coinciding with the inception of AICRPDA,
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (JCRISAT) was also
founded at Hyderabad in 1972.
Keeping in view the diversity in rainfed farming and complexity of problems it faced, : ·.\
it came to be recognized that further fillip to rainfed agriculture research could be
provided by multi-disciplinary working across diversely mandated institutes. In
pursuance of this perception, ICAR funded the establishment of several Institutes
with specific research programmes (Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute
at Jhansi in 1962, National Research Center for Agroforestry also at Jhansi in 1988,
and national Research Center for Arid Horticulture at Bikaner in 1990) and for
specific agro-eco settings (Central Arid Zone Research Institute at Jodhpur in 1959,
Research Complex for North East Hill Regions at Barapani in 1975, and Central
Agricultural Research Institute for Island Agriculture at Port Blair in 1978).
Simultaneously, Government from time to time took up a series of development
Jan.2001, P.33-34
99
programmes utilizing technologies developed by vanous research Institutes. The
major objective of these initiatives was to stabilize productivity and to enhance
employment and income generating opportunities in rainfed regions.
Dryfarming projects launched initially during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61)
were expanded substantially during the fourth Five Year Plan (1969-7 4 ). Foil owing
mid-term appraisal of the Fourth Five Year Plan, Rural Works Programme
promulgated in 1970/71 was redesignated as Drought Prone Area Programme
(DP AP). Similar to DP AP, a Desert Development Programme was started in 1977/8
which had its roots in the recommendations contained in the Interim Report (197 4) of
the National Commission on Agriculture. It was only during the mid 1970s, when an
Integrated Dry/and Development Project (IDDP) was introduced with the purpose of
transferring the benefits of research to the farmers. Almost at the same time (1983/4),
a Scheme namely "Pilot Project for Propagation of Water Conservation/Harvesting
for Rainfed Areas on Watershed Basis" was conceived. This project also known as
Model Watershed Programme was spread across 47 sites in 16 States. CRIDA
provided technical back stopping to 30 Model Watersheds. Encouraged by the gains
shown by the Model Watershed programme, Ministry of Agriculture conceived a
massive national effort on stabilizing and improving the quality of agriculture in
rainfed areas. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas
(NWDPRA) was launched in 1987/8. Apart from the internal support, a number of
watershed projects have received external funding from agencies such as World
Bank, DANIDA, EEC, ODA, FRO, etc (See Appendix 2, table 3).
3.5 Water Resources Development and Management
The National Water Policy 1987 emphasizes, for maximizing water resources
availability, transfer of water to water shortage areas as well as transfer from one
river basin to another. However, due to competing sectoral water demands,
particularly from energy and industrial sectors in next 5 decades, the share of
irrigation in total water'use would come down from 83.3% in the year 1990 to 72.8%
in 2025 and further to 64.7% by the year 2050 (Table 1).
100
Table 1
Water Use in the Year
1990 2000 2025 2050
Purpose BCM %of BCM %of BCM %of BCM %of ' Total Total Total Total
Domestic 25 4.5 44 6.6 77 6.2 93 5.6
Irrigation 460 83.3 520 78.5 909 72.8 1072 64.7
Energy 19 3.5 27 4.1 70 5.6 212 12.8
Industries 15 2.7 30 4.5 120 9.6 199 12.0
Others 33 6.0 41 6.2 72 5.8 80 4.8
Total 552 100.0 662 100.0 1248 100.0 1656 100.0
Source: Draft of Basic Document on the assessment of Availability and Requirement of water for Diverse users in the country: Ministry of Water Resources, GO!, New Delhi, I 997-Revised in Oct., I 998.
The National ·Perspective for Water Resources Development envisaging inter- basin
transfer of water assumes a great significance. Long distance inter-basin transfer of
water is not a new concept but has been in practice in India for over five centuries.
--·fheWestern Yamuna canal ancr-Agra canal buiTt in Mughaf-fimes are examples;
water was carried from the Himalayas to the Districts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The Kurnal-Cuddappah canal and the Periyar-Vaigai canal are other
examples of inter water transfers executed in India in the 19th century. In the present
century, Indira Gandhi Canal project is another example of inter- basin transfer of
water from the Himalayas to the desert of Rajasthan.
INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT (IWM)
Management of water in agriculture deals with how to use water efficiently under
ditterent soil and climatic conditions. IWM is a combined application of two or more
methods of managing irrigation water on a piece of agricultural land simultaneously.
It considers all possible methods of irrigation including surface, subsurface,
pressurized micro irrigation etc. depending on specific situation. Integrated Water
management is very much needed for enhancing agricultural productivity of India.
India has around 2/3rd of its net cultivable area under drylands where water
availability is minimum. Here is the greatest potential to increase agricultural crop
productivity provided effective and integrated water management is followed.
I 01
I WM in Indian scenario should also focus on the rainwater management. The annual
rainfall of India is 1200 mm, which is considered to be optimum for good crop
production. However due to uneven distribution of rainfall, crop production in India '
over ages has been suffering a lot. Hence efficient storage of this rainwater in
advanced tank structures should form the core component of IWM. Depletion of
available soil moisture (DASM) approach and critical stage approach are other
scheduling techniques of irrigation water. Critical stage approach is more practical in
application. For different crops, different crop growth stages are very much sensitive
to water application. Hence irrigation at these moisture sensitive stages is beneficial. 12
Methods of irrigation like surface methods (wild flooding, controlled flooding,
boarder-strip method, furrow method; check base in method), subsurface methods and
pressurized irrigation systems (drip and sprinkler methods) form the essence of IWM.
Depending on crop soil and climatic factors one has to adopt the suitable irrigation
method. The fact that drip and sprinkler systems have higher water use efficier1cy,
hence prove to be economical in long run inspite of their initial high investment.
Extensive research efforts are needed to evaluate the feasibility of drip irrigation for
all crops in 15 agro-climatic zones of India.
IWM in drylands include all methods for conserving available soil moisture like
mulching, anti transparent, windbreaks and vegetative binding. It also includes water
harvesting methods like in situ water harvesting and inter-plot water harvesting.
The challenge before us on other side is to ensure that people must have better access
to a potable water supply and to sanitation services. Sustainability of food production
depends on sound and efficient water use. More water is needed for energy
generation, for crucial i~dustrial activities and for maintaining environmental health
to ensure the sustainability of development. We should manage our surface and
groundwater resources in an integrated manner by creating social awareness, public
participation and ensuring dedication of implementing agencies.
102
PROBLEMS OF DRYLAND FARMING IN INDIA
To begin with, we should be clear about the meamng and scope of dryland
agriculture. About 74 per cent of our agriculture is rainfed or dryland agriculture and
even after the utilization of all our water resources for irrigation about half the
cultivated land will remain rainfed. But there is another implication of dryland
agriculture. It may apply only to such regions where the environment is really dry
with a limited amount of rainfall, an absence of irrigation, and where only such crops
are grown which are adapted to dry conditions. If this be the implication it would be
proper to set a climatic limit to such regions. The limit may be set by a particular
isohyet or a certain figure of water balance, etc.
Dry land agriculture is that of not only rainfed agriculture but also of an arid and semi
arid environment. Probably the isohyet of 1 ,000 mm. would be an approximate limit
to the arid and semi-arid zones of India. This isohyet would include south-western
~and-middl~western~~parts of U.P., Punjab-and Haryana, almos-t-~al-1 of ~ajasthan, -~
Gujarat, Malwa, Rayalaseema and the adjoining regions of Andhra Pradesh, a belt in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Western Ghats. According to the Indian Agricultural
Atlas (1971), the dry areas generally include the zones having an annual rainfall of _(
less than 750 mm.
In the non-irrigated parts of the zones mentioned above we have a characteristically
dryland agriculture with the typical problems, the typical dryland crops, and the
relatively low density of population. In Punjab and Haryana and other irrigated parts
of the above-noted zones, dryland agriculture has been overrun and invaded by
irrigated agriculture leading to a contraction of the dryland environment and dryland
cultivation.
If we go into the historical past, it appears that most of the agriculture in India has
been rainfed agriculture, although there existed considerable chunks of land in India
12 P. Srinivasa Brahmanand, H. N. Verma, G. P. Reddy and K. Kanan, Integrated water Management in Indian context, Yojana, Vol.44: No. 12, Dec. 2000, P.29-31 New Delhi
103
with elaborate native modes and means of irrigation. One such region was Magadh or
South Bihar Plain with an elaborate system of irrigation including embarked tanks
called aharas and short and narrow irrigation canals called pynes. The other such
region was in the south in the Cauvery delta where there was the Yamuna canal, a
prototype of the present Yamuna canal, during the late Moghul period. Then it is
certain that ordinary means of irrigation like wells, tanks, ponds and natural water
bodies including rivers, nalas, etc., must have been in vogue in a country of ancient
civilization like ours. But canal irrigation on a considerable scale and in extensive
areas is a feature of the British period, especially after the middle of the nineteenth
century.
The conversion of dryland agriculture into wet agriculture gradually took place in the
western U.P., the Punjab, Parts of Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
· Orissa, etc. but the main impact of canal and tube-well irrigation was in western U.P.
and the erstwhile Punjab. After Independence, the tempo of irrigation has increased
·ph-enomenatly, out as noted earlier ·thre·e=fourth~-of our-agriculture is-still rainfed
agriculture and even after the maximum utilization of our water resources about half
of our arable land will remain under "dryland" agriculture.
The large-scale crop replacement phenomenon has taken place in several areas with
regard to several crops. As for example in the levee regions of the major rivers
dominated by light soils in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, paddy was scarcely cultivated
because of limited soil moisture, marked percolation and a deep water table. With the
introduction of dependable irrigation, paddy is being grown in such fields which have
remained under dry farming, marked by the cultivation of maize, jawar, marua and
other millets. We know that considerable quantity of rice is being grown in Punjab,
Haryana and Gujarat where this crop was not regarded· as feasible before the
introduction of irrigation. The dryland farming area varies each year in extension,
intensity and productivity depending on the monsoon. It is also due to the lack of
104
scientific use of natural and cultural resources. However, B. L. Teli 13 has identified
following problems in dryland farming:
1. Risk due to erratic distribution of rainfall.
2. , Lack of technically proven and locational research recommendations,
which could generate confidence in the extension personnel.
3. Lack of confidence in the farmers to make higher investments in inputs.
4. Poor economic condition of farmers due to droughts.
5. Lack of infrastructural support to supply the required seeds, fertilizers, etc.
at a short notice to farmers.
6. Non-availability of credit support.
7. Lack of market support in order to obtain maximum profit during the years
of surplus etc.
3.6 Dryland Crops- Productivity Potential and Environmental Adaptability
The problems of crop production in the Indian arid zone are well documented by
Mann and Singh, 1977. It is res:_ogni~ed that an_ acute ecologi~al imbalance of the
components of productivity is primarily responsible for limiting the consistency of
remunerative crop production in the arid regions. Harsh and unfavourable climatic
conditions, wind erosion, poor soils with poor moisture retention capacity are some of
the important problems for poor yields.
With an aim to optimise land use for increased agricultural production on a
sustainable basis, the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research has divided the country into 20 agro
ecological regions (AERs) using physiography parameters such as soils, bio-climatic
parameters such as rainfall, temperature, vegetation, and potential evapotranspiration,
and length of growing period 14.
13 Teli, B. L., Dryland Fanning in India: A case study of UP; in J. L. Raina(ed.) Dryland Fanning in India- Constraints and challenges, Pointer Pub., Jaipur, 1994. 14 Sehgal, J. L., D. K. Mandai, C. Mandai, and S. Vadivelu (1992); 'Agro-Ecological Regions of India', National Bureau of soil survey and Land Use Planning (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Nagpur
105
India is divided into various Drylands Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT) zones. The SAT
includes tropical regions where rainfall exceeds potential evapotranspiration two to
seven months of the year 15• Mean annual rainfall in the SAT of India ranges from
about 400. to 1 ,200 mm. This roughly corresponds to AER2 (hot arid eco-region with
less than 90 days growing period) through AER 10 (hot, sub-humid eco-region with
150 - 180 days growing period). Dry land SAT typically refers to those SAT regions
where rainfed cropping,·i.e., areas without access to irrigation, accounts for 50 per
cent or more of the Gross Cropped Area (GCA).
A study conducted by T. G. Kelley, M. Jayawant, and P. Parthasarthy Rao, has
identified 23 crop zones 16• These zones are delineated in (appendices 2, table 4 & 4a).
Thus, crop zone No. 1, consisting of nine districts primarily in western Rajasthan is
dominated by two crops; pearl millet and 'other pulses'. The system is observed to be
relatively stable, i.e. pearl millet and 'other pulses' remain the dominant and
secondary crops, however, their relative importance has declined in the latter
triennium-(about60-per cent-of GCA-). A-s w-i-th most-0ther crop zones, irrigation has_
increased in Crop zone # 1, favouring crops such as wheat and rape/mustard at the
expense of the predominantly dryland crops, e.g. pearl millet, sorghum, chickpea, etc.
Other crop zones have seen rather dramatic shifts in cropping patterns and in the
relative. importance of some crops. Crop Zone #21, for example, underwent a
transition from a predominantly dry land crop zone ( 68 per cent rainfed cropping)
where dryland paddy predominated with chickpea a crop of secondary importance-to
a highly irrigated zone where irrigated wheat and irrigated paddy now occupy over 55
per cent of the GCA (compared to only 16 per cent in the early triennium.) The coarse
grain cereal crops, particularly sorghum and pearl millet, as well as some pulse crops
declined the most in relative importance across the zones. It is the rare case when a
dry land crop actually increased its share of GCA to any significant extent. Exceptions
include soybean in Crop Zones #6 and #7, pigeonpea in Crop Zone #9, rabi sorghum
15 Troll, C ( 1966); 'Seasonal climates of the Earth' in E. Roden Waldt and H. J. Jusatz (eds.), World Maps of Climatology, 2"d edn., Berlim, Springer- Verlag, pp 2-25. 16 Kelley, TG, Jayawant, M, Rao parthasarthy P. (1997). Rainfed Agriculture Typology in India, EPW, Vol. XXXII, No. 26, June 28-July 4. Mumbai.
106
in Crop· Zone # 12, and groundnut in Crop Zone # 15. Other exceptions not indicated
in the table because they are not yet crops of even secondary importance, include
sunflower and fruits and vegetables (as a group). These dryland crops appear to be
strengthening their competitiveness, largely because of strong price trends.
The dryland farming has come to stay as the most common land-use. The principal
dryland crops among cereals, are pearl millet, sorghum, maize, among pulses are
moong beans, cluster beans, moth beans, cow peas, and among oilseeds are ground
nut, sesamum and castor bean. In the post-rainy season, rape-seed, mustard,
chickpeas, barley and wheat are the principal crops grown on conserved soil moisture.
The principal dryland crops, their area, productivity, and major growing regions are
given in Table 2.
Table 2
Area, productivity and major growing regions of principal rainfed crops, 1989-
90
Crops Area Productivity Principal Growing Area . (m ha) . (k.2/har)
Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L) Monech] 14.95 864 Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P.,
A.P.
Pearl Millet (Pennisetum) americanum (L) 10.89 608 Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Lee bel) U.P.
Maize (Ziea Mays L.) 5.&6 1606 U.P., Rajasthan, M.P., Bihar
Pulses(Including Chickpea Cicer arietinum 23.22 543 M.P., Maharasthra, U.P., Rajasthan
and pigeonpea Cajanus Cajan Misssp]
Oilseeds [including groundnut (arachis sp) 22.97 729 M.P. Maharashtra, A.P., Gujarat,
rape seed (Brassica napus) and mustard Rajasthan, Karnataka, T.N., U.P.
(Brassica sp.)]
Cotton (Gossypium sp.) 7.33 265 Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab,
Kamataka
Source: Directorate ofEconom1cs and Statistics, Union Ministry of Agnculture.
The present area covered under irrigation of each of the principal dryland crops is
given in chart. 2, (See Appendix 2, table 5).
107
31 .4
~ ·. ~;'.ifi~~-
_.:·: ~-:~G;~J
Chart 2
Irrigated Area Under 1987-88
4.7 7.7 21 .3
53.7
Source of Data: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Union Ministry of Agriculture.
107 b
h Crop
.2
9.2
CJSorghum
rl Pearl Millet
EBMaize
Iilli Coarse cereals
l2'.l Chickpea
• Pigeon pea
~Pulses
DGroundnut
liD Rapeseed and mustard
53 Oil seeds (nine)
~Cotton
II Tobacco
The highest rainfed acreace under sorghum, pearl millet, maize, pulses, oil-seeds and
cotton is in Maharashtra (42%), Rajasthan(44.5%), U.P.(21.4%), Madhya
Pradesh(20.7%), and Maharashtra (36.3%) respectively. In Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh 9~% and 72% of the acreage under tobacco, respectively is rainfed.
Table 3
Guidelines for selection of suitable cropping systems based on rainfall and water availability period
Rainfall (mm) Soil type Water Potential cropping availability system
period (weeks)
350-600 Alfisols and shallow vertisols 20 Single kharif cropping
350-600 Ardisols and entisols 20 Single cropping in
either karif or rabi
350-600 Deep vertisols 20 Single rabi cropping
600-750 Alfisols, vertisols, entisols 20-30 Inter croppi-ng
750-900 Entisols, deep vertisols, More than 30 Double cropping with
alfisols, inceptisols monitoring
900 Entisols, deep vertisols, deep More than 30 Double cropping
alfisols, and inceptisols assured.
3.7 Traditional Dryland Farming Technology In arid and semi arid zones success lies in timely and early planting of crops so that
every drop of rainwater is utilized for crop growth. Experimentation has shown that
sowing of all the kharif crops with the break of monsoon has given highest yield and
there was continuous reduction in the yield as the sowing was delayed. Optimum time
has been found to be the 3rd and last week of June. Similarly during Rabi season also
early planting has got seyeral advantages.
Based on water availability periods for crop growth (Table 4), regions that are suited
for monocropping, inter cropping and double cropping has been identified. Potential
cropping systems in relation to rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity have been
108
identified. In Table 3 are given the general guidelines for selection of a suitable
cropping system, based on rainfall and water availability period.
Table 4
Water availability period at various locations
Soil Group Water availability period (in days in
parenthesis for each location)
I. Vertisols and related black soils Rajkot (134); Udaipur (164); Akola ( 196);
Indore (196); Rewa (196); Jhansi ( 196);
Solapur ( 168); Bijapur (1 05); Bellary (105);
Kovilpatti (135)
2. Alfisols and related Red soils Bangalore (217); Anantpur (120); Bhubneswar
(217); Ranchi (277)
3. Entisols (Alluvial soils) Varanasi (224); Agra (187)
4. Aridisols (Sierozemic soils) Jodhpur (74 ); Hissar (88); Dantiwada (120)
5. Inceptisols (sub-montane soils) Hoshiarpur (21 0); Rakh-Dhiansar (308)
Source: Singh, 1987.
3.7.1. Khadin system of Cultivation
The term Khadin means a low-lying area where the rainwater accumulates without
any artificial uplifting. With a little human effort, these natural short-lived ponds are
made into wider farm plots and are linked with suitable embankments and trenches to
the upper catchments in the immediate locality. With in this watertight system, even a
small amount of rainfall will inundate the Khadin and will saturate the clayey beds of
the fields. The rain water will not remain on the surface of the pond, but will
percolate deep into the soil of the entire farm. Evidences of similar runoff storage
farms linked with modified catchments are also found in the dryland areas of the
middle-east, the U.S.A., and Australia which could have been the remnants of anicuts
for water-harvesting.
Khadin cultivation exhibits a strange synthesis of dryland farming with a highly
specialized moisture conserving technique. The cultivation is carried out without any
flow channel irrigation. It is a sort of farming in conserved moisture zones known as
109
runoff farming. The sequence of farm operation starts after the complete drying of the
Khadin ponds. During July and September the soils are left to be saturated with
rainwater. Migratory cattles are stocked near the mud-beds, which add to the fertility
of the Khadin farms by frequent natural manuring. After the rains, the farmers start
ploughing and sowing the seeds of wheat and chickpeas, which grow without any
irrigation. Khadins are the only areas where winter crops are raised under rainfed
conditions.
The Khadin system of cultivation has witnessed a fluctuating fortune. Evidence of
Khadin type farms are not altogether absent in the lithic assemblage around the bases
of semi-upland zones of sand and rock outcrops of the Kalibangan and Rang Mahal
(Harappan) culture. But the actual Khadin farms were first constructed by Paliwal
Brahmins in the 15th century. They connected almost all the local catchments to a
well-knit system of farmland and were able to cultivate all possible crops even during
the worst year of drought. The other users of the desert land who developed an
occupational rivalry envied their rapid prosperity. The industrious Paliwals
considered themselves the full owners of good quality land and rainwater falling in
the command area of their khadins. Several wars were fought for the defence or
destruction of diversion channels.
The following are the major components.ofthe khadin system: (Fig.l) 17
(i) A low rocky catchment area: The rocky outcrops and gravel ridges
around the city of Jaisalmer serve as the catchment zones for the khadins. In
this part of the desert, the soils are quite heavy and the plains are almost dune
free.
(ii) Catchment channels: The rainwater is diverted along the foothills of
low, rocky ground through a mechanism of trenches and contoured bunding,
channelizing the entire runoff to the khadin farms .
. •;:
17 Tewari Ani! (I 987), k.hadins and Dryland Agriculture in Jaisalmer Desert, in Mohammad Shafi, Mehdi Raza (ed.), Dry/and Agriculture in India, Rawat publication, Jaipur.PP.l65-172.
110
Fig. I Major Components of Khadin System
.Reef\) .. ~, ·.-~ j
-; ------~~~----~--~ Ratio of Catchment a.nd /
Farm Area / --...._ -l~ __ ....-
1. Low rocky catchment area. 2. Contoured catchement channels. 3. Khadin farm with ponds. 4. Earthen bond, spill ways-sluice. 5. Seepage area. 6. Dug wells. 7. Paliwal aettlements.
111
(iii) The khadin farm: At the foothill zone of the command area, farms are
developed in the compacted plain of accumulation. The fertility and moisture status
of these plots is upgraded every year by a fresh replenishment of rainwater fully
saturated and dissolved with particles of clay, silt and sand. Even a short spell of
torrential rain can supply moisture for several months. The ratio of farmland and
command area is regulated to 1 : 11, so that a criticality of moisture supply is
uniformally maintained.
(iv) Earthen bunds, spillways and sluices: For intercepting rainwater and flash
floods, earth and stone bunds are constructed at suitable slopes. The diverted water is
allowed to percolate in the khadin farms and as soon as the pot-like basin is full, the
excess water flows away through spillways, sluices and seepage.
( v) Seepage area: After years of soil accumulation, the elevation of the khadin farm
increases and it is able to store the upper catchment rainwater from the surrounding
areas. When fully saturated, the khadin plain becomes a storehouse of ground water
with occasional ponds. The seepage from these farms sustains the dug wells and other
green vegetation in further lower areas. At these peripheral zones the Paliwal Villages
are located.
3.7.2 Haveli System
This system involves impounding of rainwater in fields that are rather flat and have
deep black soil. This triple mix of terrain, soil, and rainfall precludes drainage and
poses problems of working the soil when either dry or wet. The manifestation of Kans
(Saccharum spontaneum, a perennial weed) and the high cost of its eradication, pose
additional problems.
All traditional technologies are known to be low cost and low energy users. Keeping
the fields submerged under water avoided all the problems of kharif cropping of black
soils, including soil erosion and gully formation, and also ensured a fair rabi crop of
wheat/chickpea. As long as the pressure of population on land was low and the
distribution of land was fair.
112
3.7.3 Bandh Farming
This system is a variant of the tank system and is particularly suitable for undulating
lands. Under this system, a wide-based earth bandh is constructed at the appropriate
place in the catchment area to collect and impound rainwater. The fields down or
around the bandh are planted with fine, good-yielding, but generally late-maturing
varieties of paddy. Impounded water provides irrigation to paddy when rains fail.
There is often enough water in the bandh for pre- sowing of wheat in the rabi season.
The bandh is then drained to irrigate the standing wheat crop. As the bandh gradually
dries up from the sides, linseed, chickpea, and finally wheat are sown on the bandh
surface with nominal tillage. The advantages of this practice are that it: The greatest
problem with this system is the silting and leaching of bandhs. Silting is a problem
common with tanks and dams all over the country.
3.7.4 Barani Cultivation
Literally, barani means rainfed land. The term is used here to mean all upland farming
without irrigation. All flat or undulating lands, slopes, and otherwise shallow soils
belong to this category. It is these types of land that occupy the largest proportion of
cultivable land in the rainfed farming areas. In the low-rainfall areas, it is this land
that truly needs the ~ry-farming technology of moisture conservation for crop growth.
Mixed cropping is the principal traditional technology for these lands.
3.8 Modern Dryland Farming Technology
Dry Farming Technology refers to the crop pattern, rotations, varieties and agronomic
practices, adjusted and adapted to the moisture regime of an agro-climatically
homogenous area. As the Encyclopedia Britannica puts it, "Dryland farming consists
of making the best use of a limited water supply by storing in the soil as much of the
rain fall as is possible and by growing suitable crop plants by methods that make the
best use of this moisture".
113
3.8.1 Water Conservation Practices
A vast area of arid zone depends upon natural precipitation, which ranges from 1 00 to
150 mm in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) to 700 to 800 mm in Arappukottai (Tamil Nadu).
Average annual rainfall in the arid zone of Rajasthan is, however, very low and
makes fruit growing very difficult. Nevertheless, there is about 25 percent rainfalls to
runoff ratio even in light soils with high infiltration rate under 250-300 mm rainfall
zone. 18
The prominent water conservation practice is Water Harvesting. It is an age old
practice, which has been variously defined, "the practice of collecting water from an
area treated to increase runoff from rainfall and snowmelt:" Water harvesting is "the
process of collecting natural precipitation from prepared watersheds for beneficial
use." More recently, the terminology committee on the terms related to rainfed
farming defined water harvesting as 'the collection of runoff rain water from treated
or untreated land surfaces and storing it in open water reservoirs or in the soil itself.
The term, which is most commonly employed in crop production, i.e. runoff
agriculture was developed almost 4,000 years ago and the lands receiving as little as
1 00 mm. average annual rainfall were used for crop production. Ancient farmers of
the Middle East used to clear hillsides to increase runoff water and build rock walls
along the contours to collect it into ditches to convey it to lower lying fields.
3.8.2 Significance of Water Harvesting
In arid and semi-arid regions, uncertain, erratic and scanty rains, coupled with meager
irrigation resources, lead to low and unstable crop yields. Low and erratic rainfall,
high evaporation rate and limited water holding capacity of surface soils constitute
the principal natural resource constraints in agricultural production in these regions.
Therefore, success in dryland farming depends upon the efficient utilization of
available rainwater.
114
3.8.3 Techniques of Water Harvesting
Water harvesting may be broadly classified into two categories:
1. in situ water harvesting where water is stored in the soil profile itself.
2. Catchment water harvesting where the water is stored in a reservoir or pond
for recycling, when needed.
Scientists have tried several techniques to augment runoff water, both for in situ
conservation and for collection in farm ponds. Runoff agriculture in situ conservation
techniques, which have been tried at various places are as follows:
Inter-plot water harvesting:
In inter-plot water harvesting, the runoff water is contributed to cropped plots
by adjacent bare plots either on one side or both sides. These adjacent Plots
are provided with certain slop~s to augment the runoff water towards cropped
plot for increasing available moisture in the soil profile to saturate the root
zone. In this system, it is necessary to ascertain the ratios between cropped
area and catchment area, together with optimum slope, depending upon soils
characteristics and rainfall pattern of the region.
Inter-row water harvesting: -
In inter-row water harvesting system, planting is done in the furrows and each
furrow is alternated by micro-catchments on either side. This system appears
to be more practical, feasible and acceptable to farmers since no land is
sacrificed for harvesting water. The disadvantage with the system observed is
that if there is a rainfall with high intensity soon after sowing, the loose top
soil of the micro-catchment caves in, as a result of which the seeds are buried
deep under the soil and crusting problem occurs resulting in poor germination.
This inter-row water harvesting system has been modified at Central Arid
Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur and named as Modified Inter-row
water Harvesting system. In this system, each furrow is alternated by flat
catchment on one side and ridge with side slope on other side.
18 RamaKrishna, Y. S. and Singh, R. P. 1974. crop production strategy in the arid zone in relation to rainfall distribution models. Proc. Seminar on Desert Technology, CAZRl, Jodhpur.
115
Pit and trench method of water harvesting for vegetables and fruit crops:
One of the limitations of the in situ water harvesting approach is that a
sizeable proportion of the harvested runoff is lost in deep percolation to the
murrum sub-stratum due to low soil moisture storage capacity of the soil
profile. Most of this water is not available to field crops having normal root
system and the benefits of water harvesting are considerably reduced. In order
to overcome this limitation, a technique for the incorporation of bentonite
clay, a natural resource of this region, as sub-surface moisture barrier has been
developed at the CAZRI, Jodhpur. Under this technique, trenches are dug with
scrapper or manually up to 70-75cm. depths. These sides of trenches are cut
diagonally. Bentonite is applied @ 40 t/ha at the bottom of the trench, mixed
in 2.5 em of soil depth. Sides of the trenches are dusted with bentonite.
Trenches are then refilled. Micro-catchments with 5 per cent slope on both
sides of trenches (inverted 'V' shape) are prepared. Finally, the catchments
are compacted with a roller. Catchment cropped area ratio may be kept from
1: 1 to 1.5: 1. The technique is suitable for growing vegetable crops like ladies
finger and cucurbits on drylands. Bentonite, once incorporated, would remain
effective for a number of years.
Desert Strip Water Harvesting System
Desert strip cropping uses water harvested from a collector area to help in
supplying the moisture requirement of a cultivated crop on a smaller farmed
area . This system was tried in Arizona (USA). An advantage of leaving the
collector area in its natural state is that it can be used in its traditional manner
for livestock raising. If the crop is a failure, only a small amount of land is lost
to the livestock raising activity. If a crop is produced the collector area helps
in providing the moisture for the crop as well as feed, for the livestock. This
system is more suitable for the lands having regular and continuous gentle
slopes.
116
Bench Terrace Water Harvesting System
Zingg and Hanser developed this system. The system uses most of the
principles of runoff farming to conserve and utilize runoff for grain
production. The conservation bench terrace system uses level contour benches
with terrace ridges to control erosion and retain, spread and infiltrate storm
runoff from cultivated contributing areas that are not treated to mcrease
runoff. As a fourteen year's average with conservation bench terraces
receiving 7-cm/year runoff from watershed, the sorghum yield obtained was
80 per cent greater than those on sloping plots. This system is suitable for
sloping lands.
3.8.4 Catchment Water Harvesting:
The runoff water is collected from a treated or untreated catchment and stored in a
reservoir or farm pond. This stored water is utilized for supplemental irrigation during
long dry spells and critical stages of plant growth. The runoff from a catchment
depends upon several factors listed in Table 5.
Table 5
Factors affecting runoff from a catchment
Rainfall Topography_ Soils Land use Intensity Length of run Type (Texural class) Bare fallow or
vegetation Distribution Degree of slope Infiltration rate Cultivated or
uncultivated or partially cultivated or
_pasture/forest Rainstrom Period Size and shape of the Erodibility --
catchment characteristics Raifall events causing Depressions Antecedent moisture --runoff per year content
Farm Pond
The storage of runoff water is an integral part of any catchment water harvesting
system where the provision is for recycling of water for irrigation or for drinking
purposes of livestock and domestic use. Farm ponds are the bodies of water made
either by constructing a dam or an embankment across a water course or by
excavating a pit or dug out. The basic objective in selecting the site for a pond is to
117
irrigate certain fields below it by natural flow and the upland fields by forcing the
water by pumps. This necessitates the pond to be so located that it has maximum
runoff flowing into it.
The longer the rainwater stays on the soil surface, the greater are the chances for its
absorption into the soil profile. To achieve this, a number of land treatments on in situ
rainwater conservation have been suggested.Actual choice for a region depends upon
the total rainfall and its distribution and hydro-intake, -holding, -transmission and
slope characteristics of soils. A summary of the land configurations based upon the
soil type and mean annual rainfall are presented in Table 6.
Table 6 Suitability of interbund land tre~tments for different agro-climatic regions
Ranifall pattern Type of soil Recommended land treatment Yield advantage (mm)
Arid (<500) Ardisols Inter-plot water harvesting of I: I 50%, pearl millet cropped to uncropped land
Alfisols Dead furrows at 3.6 m intervals I 0%, groundnut (shallow)
Semi-arid Alfisols Sowing across the slope and ridging 10%, sorghum (500-1000) (shallow) later
Vertic Compartmental buns for raising 25%, rabi sorghum Inceptisols crops on conserved soil moisture Vertisols Contour farming (cultivation and 35%, rabi sorghum
sowing along contour)
Brad beds and furrows 26%, sorghum
Alfisols Graded border strips 42%, finger millet Sub-humid Inceptisols Inter-plot water harvesting 17%, maize, and 21% rice
(> 1000) Vertisols Raised bed and sunken system 34% soyabean and 54% rice
Source: Annual Reports of the AICRPDA Centres.
Even if appropriate in situ rainwater conservation measures are adopted, runoff
continues to be a typical feature of rainfed regions. Proportion of runoff from
cultivated catchments varies between 10% and 40% of the total precipitation. Range
in rainfall intensities and their distribution, soil characteristics (slope, water intake
rate and holding capacity) and density of vegetative cover primarily influence the
anticipated runoff at a given point of time. On an average, 24 million-hectare meters
118
(million ha m) of the 400 million ha m precipitation received annually in India has
been estimated to be available as harvestable runoff through field level water
harvesting structures (Table 7)
Table 7
Estimated potential volume of rainwater storage for small-scale water h f t t arves m~ s rue ures
Rainfall zone (mm) Geographical Area Rainfall for effective Harvestable runoff in (million ha) surface storage(%) water harvesting
structures (million ha m)
100-500 52.07 5 0.78 500-750 40.26 6 1.51 750-1000 65.86 7 4.03 1000-2500 137.24 6 14.61 >2500 32.57 4 3.26
Total 23.99
Hybrids excelled high yielding varieties and led to more stability because they tended
to perform superior even during aberrant rainfall years. Moderate application of
fertilizers containing particularly N and P improved yields (Table 8) and water use
efficiency. A fertilized crop was found to withstand drought more ably. It also
recovered faster once relieved of the moisture stress.
Table 8
Response of different dry land crops to N application under variable agroclimatic conditions·
Crop Soil order Annual average rainfall No. of N applied Response (mm) seasons (kg/ha) (kg
grain/kg N) Rainy Post-rainy season season
Rice Vertisols 987 118 6 40 19 Oxisols 1178 218 5 40 21
Sorghum Vertisols 687 80 3 40 38 Alfisols 602 128 3 40 25
Pearl Millet Aridisols 334 19 4 40 16 Vertisols 568 133 3 25 20 Alfisols 602 128 3 40 25
Rabi- Vertisols 568 133 4 30 17 Sorghum Vertisols 284 164 4 30 12 Wheat Vertisols 987 118 6 40 14
Inceptisols 564 151 5 40 28 Entisols 934 131 2 40 13
Safflower Vertisols 568 133 3 25 16
119
Vertisols 868 67 2 40 8 Entisols 633 66 2 60 14
Mustard lnceptisols 564 51 2 50 7 Entisols 633 66 2 30 4 Entisols 934 II 2 30 12
Source: Annual Reports of the AICRPDA Centres.
Effective agronomic strategy for improving crop yield in drylands includes selection
of drought resistant crop varieties, optimum time of sowing, and fertilizer
management and in situ water harvesting and moisture conservation techniques like
stubble mulching. This has tremendous potential to meet the demand of foodgrains
production of India. Integrated watershed management has been accepted as the most
rational approach in preventing deterioration of eco system, restoration of degraded
lands and improving the overall productivity of the dry areas for sustained use and
conservation.
3.9 Technology for Crop Management in Drylands
Suitable Tillage and Seeding Practices
a. Deep ploughing in alternate years
b. Seedbed preparation with a sweep cultivator.
c. Seeding with a seed drill, preferably having a fluted roller-metering
device.
Efficient crops and varieties matching the Rainfal'l Pattern
Cereals:
Grain Legumes:
Oil Seeds
Bajra BJ 104, BK 560
Jowar- CSH -1, CHS 5, SPY 96
Moong - S-8, S-9, K-851
Mothjaid- T-2, T-18, JMM-259
Cowpea- FS-68, K-11, Charodi-1, and
Guar: Durgapura
Saffed- 2470112, HG -75, FS- 277
Til- T-13, TC-25, Pratap
Castor- Aruna, Bhagya, GAUCH -1
Mustard- T-59, Pusabold
120
Fodder crops
Cropping Systems
Jowar- JS-20
Bajra- FS generation of hybrid cowpea HFC 42-1
Moth- T-3
Guar- 24 70112
lntercropping systems
Moong + Bajra
Guar + Bajra
Til + Guar/Moth!Moong
Desert gress cenchrus ciliaris, Lasiurus Sindicus intercropped/strip cropped with
grain legumes moong, guar, moth and cowpea.
Double Crop System in Good and Extended Monsoon Seasons
Bajra- Mustard T- 59
Moong -Mustard T- 59
Soil Fertility Management
Rotation-
Bajra-
Grain legumes-
Oil seeds-
Kharif to Kharif rotation of cereals with legumes.
Application of 40 kg N/ha or only top dress. 20 kg N/ha in Moong, Bajra rotation supplemented by top dressing 10 kg N/ha withhold N to be top dressed in the event of drought.
Application of 30-40 kg P20 5 /ha or as per soil test.
Application of 30-40 kg N/ha in normal and 60 kg N/ha in good rainfall years to til.
Apply 40 kg N/ha to rainfed caster and, 30-40 kg N/ha to mustard under limited irrigations.
121
Improved Grass Strains/Species
(a) Cenchrus ciliaris- 357, 358, Molo-277, 352 and 362. (b) Cenchrus setigerus- 412,415, 157, 76 and 413. (c) Panicum antidotale- 331, 333 and 379.
' (d) Lasiurus sindicus- 318 and 319. (e) Dicanthium annul a tum- 490 and 491.
3.10 Irrigation Scenario in India
Irrigation as the main catalyst of agricultural development in India, accounts for the
largest share in total investment in the agricultural sector. In the five-year plans,
investment in irrigation has accounted for 8% to 10% of total public investment. Till
1990 more than Rs. 60,000 crore (at 1988-89 prices) have been spent on major and
medium irrigation projects and irrigation potential during this period increased by
22.14 million hectares. Consequently", the irrigated area which constituted 17.40% of
gross cropped area (GCA) in 1951-52 rose to 33.30% of GCA in 1990-91. 19
The various aspects of the development of irrigation infrastructure are examined
under the two heads. In the .first part an attempt is made to examine how far growth in
the irrigation infrastructure has remained equitable in Indian agriculture. It deals with
availability of irrigation facility at state level, the extent of irrigation potential
development in each state, development of irrigation in relation to rainfall,
distribution of net cropped area as net irrigated area. The second part deals with water
use efficiency, under utilization of potential created, waste of water, water logging,
operation and maintenance, water service charges, the problem of water conservation,
the problems of run off, land water management and deforestation.
Normally the development of irrigation facilities is measured in terms of Gross
Irrigation Ratio (GIR). At all India level, GIR increased from 17.40 percent in 1951-
52 to 33.30 percent in 1990-91 20. The progress is moderate and by no means
unsatisfactory. The development of irrigation potential and two factors: one, the
extent of availability of irrigation potential and two, the nature of efforts made to
develop this potential.
1 ~ Dr. Rego P.A., Irrigation Scenario: Some comments, Yojana 43: No.7, July 1999, P.IO, New Delhi.
122
Besides irrigation projects the efficiency of water use is very much affected on
account of the problem of maximum run-off. According to an estimate, the total
precipitation all over our country is about 400 mil1ion-h~ctare metres (mhms)
annually. Roughly 70 mhms of the total receipt is lost through evaporation
immediately after the precipitation. About 150 mhms enters the soil and 180 mhms
disappears as run of water. Of the 150 mhms which soaks the soil, about 11 0 mhms
remains as soil moisture and the rest 40 mhms percolates down to charge the aquifers.
Of the 180 mhms run of, major and medium irrigation projects intercept only 17
mhms and the rest 163 mhms flow into the sea. Hence, there is a big loss in the form
of run off of water into the sea, which affects total availability itself.
The problems of dry land farming have been compounding with water deficit for crop
production on the one hand and continuing land degradation on the other. India's 400
m.ha, 74% precipitation is received primarily through southwest Monsoon and North
East Monsoon?'
Irrigation Methods
There are several surface and micro-irrigation methods to apply water to the crop.
Surface irrigation methods though cheap .are inefficient, less uniform with more
seepage, evaporation, percolation lossess and labour intensive. Micro-irrigation
methods are mainly of two types - sprinkler and drip irrigation system. Micro
irrigation system offers mo~~_uniform water application in the field and are more
suitable for sandy soils and undulating topography. Micro-irrigation covers a large
number of irrigation practices whose common characteristics are relatively a small
cross-section of the supply and distribution lines, low water application rates as well
as localized delivery of water to a limited area. These systems have a wide scope of
adoption in water scarce areas of the country.
20 Ibid. 21 Bhatia P.C., Singh, H.P., Rainfed Agriculture: Research and Developmet Perspective, Yojana, Yol.45: No.I, January, 2001, New Delhi, p.57.
123
Furrow irrigation system
The furrow irrigation system can be used to irrigate all cultivated crops plated in
rows, including orchards and vegetables with distinct advantages over other methods
of flood irrigation. Water in the furrows contacts only half to one fifth of the land
surface, thereby reduces evaporation losses. In the soils where lateral movement of
water is fast, alternate or skip furrow irrigation method can be adopted.
Sprinkler irrigation system
This method is becoming increasingly popular in India. It is most suited to sandy
soils, which have high infiltration rates. The advantages of this system are:.
1. With the same quantity of water, more area can be irrigated compared to
flood system.
2. Soils too, shallow to be leveled properly for other methods, can be
irrigated safely by sprinklers.
3. Due to controlled supply of water, deep percolation and runoff losses are
completely checked.
4. The method is adaptable to most topographic conditions without extensive
land preparation. It is ideally suited to steep slopes or irregular topography
and the cost of leveling is reduced.
In sprinkler system, water is conveyed through a network of pipes and distributed
uniformly to the entire area by spraying it over the fields. The cost of the system
is roughly distributed as shown in the chart 3.22(See Appendix 2, table 6).
Sivanappan while preparing a status paper on Sprinkler System of Irrigation in
India for INCID suggested the cost for installing the sprinkler irrigation system
for different sizes of holdings, which is presented in Table 9. 23 The estimated cost
for 0.4 hectares is about Rs. 7000/- and for 4.0 hectare it goes upto 30,000/- or Rs.
7,500/- per hectares. Since the sprinkler system can be shifted 2 to 4 times in a
22 Paul J.C., Sharma, S.D., Micro-Irrigation for water scare Areas of Orissa, Krukshetra, Vol. 47, No.9, June 1999, New Delhi. 23 Sivanappan, R.K. 1994, status report on Sprinkler irrigation in India, INCID, New Delhi.
124
Chart 3
The Cost of Irrigation Systems
50%
I flll Pumping Unit
I filii Tubing's (mains, submains, and ! lateral pipe lines)
i Efl Couplers
I !Ill Sprinklers
I! ~ Other fittings (valves, bends, plugs . and risers) ~--------~------------------
Source: Paul J.C., Sharma, S.D., Micro-Irrigation for water scare Areas of Orissa, Krukshetra, Vol. 47. No.9, June 1999, New Delhi.
124 b
day, the cost tends to be comparatively less when the area is large. However, the
main advantages by adopting sprinkler system is saving of water and saving in
fertilizer/chemicals. Problems like persistent weed, water logging, and salinity
will be eliminated.
Table 9
Cost of Sprinkler Unit for Various Sizes of Holdings
S.No. For 0.4 ha For 2.00 ha For 4.00 ha (1 acre) {5 acres) (10 acres)
I. Sprinkler system cost (Rs.) 6500 20500 28500 2. Cost/acre (Rs.) 6500 4100 2850 3. Irrigation cycle Once in 5-6 days Once in 5-6 days Once in 5-6 days 4. Operating hours 6 hours 6 hours 6 hours 5. No. ofnozzles 2 nos. 6 nos. 8 nos. Source: S1vanappan, 1994.
Increase in yield and water saving· by sprinkler method over conventional
methods are shown in TablelO. Use of sprinkler helps in increasing the cropping
intensity 210-270 per cent.
Table 10
Benefits of Sprinkler as compared to Conventional Method of Irrigation for Major Crops
Crops Yield (Q/ha) Water use (em)
Control Sprinkler Increase Control Sprinkler Savings(%)
(%)
Bajra 6.97 8.333 20 17.78 7.82 56
Jowar 4.92 6.62 35 25.40 11.27 56
Cotton 6.99 7.04 I 40.64 29.65 29
Wheat 26.61 28.24 6 33.02 14.52 56
Gram 6.55 9.91 51 17.78 7.82 56
Barley 24.09 28.51 17 17.78 7.82 56
Groundnut 8.33 9.34 12 60.00 30.00 50
Garlic 69.99 73.99 6 84.00 60.00 29
Chilly 17.41 21.52 24 36.00 24.00 33
Source: S1vanappan, 1994.
There are many areas in the country where water scarcity prevails and in some other
parts the soil is so porous that surface irrigation is not possible and hence sprinkler
125
can be used in these places. To conserve and to economize the use of water, central
government provides subsidy and incentives to farmers who adopt sprinkler system of
irrigation. The farmers are being induced to go for the introduction of sprinkler
irrigation method in their farms for different crops. The crops that can be grown
under the methods are groundnut, millet, pulses, wheat, cotton, all plantation crops in
the hills and undulated areas.
Drip Irrigation System
Drip irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation. In arid lands a large amount
of water is lost when applied by other methods of irrigation due to extended areas of
wetted soil which greatly encourage evaporation. The system applies water in the
form of small drops to keep the soil moisture with in the desired range for plant
growth. The drip irrigation is a useful ·method where:
(I) Water is scare or expensive.
(2) The soil is too porous for flood irrigation.
(3) Land leveling is very costly.
(4) Water quality is poor, and,
(5) Wind speeds are higher for sprinkler irrigation. t:.: ·),·
Drip irrigation system is most effective for permanent trees, orchards and row crops.
This system has proved to be a success in terms of water saving and increased yield in
a wide range of horticulture, commercial and vegetable crops. A Study conducted by
the Department of soil and water conservation engineering, college of Agricultural
Engineering of Technology, OUAT, Bhubaneswar shows an over view of the cost
benefit of drip irrigations for Mango, Sapota and Coconut (Table 11 ). The increase in
yield obtained ranges from 19% to 33%. The irrigation water saving compared to
conventional method ranges from 25% to 50%. This water saved could be used for
covering additional area under drip. In addition to increase in yield and saving in
water, the quality of produce is also better.
126
Table 11
An over view of the cost -benefit of drip irrigations
Coconut Man2:o Sapota Drip Tradi- Drip Tradi- Drip Tradi-
' tiona I tiona I tiona I Yield(nos.) 9212 7520 2850 1900 780 540 Per cent increase in yield 19% 33% 31% Additional income due to drip (Rs.) 32272 13392 2213 Water saving(%) 48 25 25 Source: S1vanappan, 1994.
Large areas are irrigated under various major and medium irrigation projects by the
surface method, which not only draw more water but also tum the land saline,
alkaline and waterlogged. Most of the areas except paddy can be brought under
micro-irrigation to solve the associated problems. The extraction of ground water has
been very rapid in the last decade du·e to construction of a number of open and tube
wells. These wells can be bored in water scarce areas where surface water is not
available. So, then micro-irrigation systems can be fitted to these wells with pumpsets
which can command a sizeable command area and the farmers can derive maximum
benefit as the lift points can be scattered over any point in the crop field. Due to
population growth and the increase in production to feed the growing population
more areas are to be brought under irrigation. Hence there is an urgency and need to
switch over to advanced methods or irrigation to save water and to increase the
production.
3.11 Innovations
(I) Tractor-drawn spiked clod crusher:
A tracror-drawn spiked clod crusher developed at Govind Ballabh Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, for breaking clods during
seedbed preparation after rice harvest, saves 2-3 tractor hrlha. A manually pulled,
pre-germinatedrice seeder was developed at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. A tractor-drawn multi-crop planter was designed and I '.
developed at the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pune, incorporating
salient features of animal-drawn Jyoti multi-crop planter, for sowing of
groundnut, sunflower, chickpea, soybean, sorghum and wheat. A high-capacity
127
multi-crop thresher costing Rs 55,000 developed at the Central institute of
Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, which can thresh wheat, maize, chickpea,
soyabean, pigeonpea and sunflower. A groundnut thresher was designed and
developed at the TNAU, Coimbatore, and an electric-motor-driven sunflower
thresher at the Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad.
(2) Seed extractor for chillies:
A seed extractor for chillies was developed at the Punjabrao Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya (PKV), Akola. At the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur, a chickpea stripping-cum-shelling machine was
developed, with stripping, separating, shelling and cleaning efficiency of 97,
94,95 and 95 per cent respectively. A handy 9 V DC battery-operated smoker was
designed and fabricated at the PAU, Ludhiana, to subdue honeybees.
(3) Biomass gasifier-based thermal back-up for solar dryer
A biomass gasifier-based thermal back-up for solar dryer was developed at
SPRERJ, Vallabh Vidyanagar,Gujarat, for extending the use of solar dryers
beyond sunshine hours and during cloudy weather. To suit shallow soil depth and
lower ambient temperature, a 1m3 capacity modified Deenbandhu biogas plant
was developed at the Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur.
( 4) Indigenous device for forlac-insect pest management
An efficient and indigenous device forlac-insect pest management was developed
at the Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi. Drip irrigation was found beneficial
for cotton cultivation because of 50 per cent saving of water. An improved model
of power ribboner and diversified jute products Gute-based non-wovens for
geotextiles and consumer products and ratine yarns) were developed at the
NIRJAFT, Calcutta. At the Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR),
Lucknow, a digital thermometer with a clamp on its probe was developed.
(5) New variety to improve protein quality of maize24
Dr. Surinder K. Vasal, an Indian biochemist, along with Dr. Villegas of Mexico
have jointly won the World Food Prize for the Year 2000, for their
24 Hindustan Times, sept.l2, 2000.
128
breakthrough in developing Quality Protein Maize (QPM), a new variety of
protein-rich maize through traditional breeding methods.
Dr V a~al pointed out that conventional maize lacked two. essential amino acids
"lysine" and "tryptithan".
Thus a large number of people across the world, particularly children, dependent on
maize as their staple diet suffered from malnutrition. Nearly 10 million deaths take
place annually due to malnourishment, he added.
(6) Hybrid Rice For Food security: Potentials and Options
India contributes about 28 and 22 percent of global rice area and output respectively
(F AO, 1995). India is the second largest rice exporter next to Thailand with 15%
share in world rice trade. Like in other Asian countries, Indian rice sector faced
sundry problems in recent years with slower yield growth in irrigated rice lands. The
supply constraints can be observed from the fact that the out put growth during the
current decade (1985-86 to 1994-95) is 2.84 percent annually which is lower than the
out put growth experienced during post-1966 period (2.94) as a whole and 1980-81 to
1990-91 (4.36%).25
India was the foremost country to initiate rice hybridization programme. However,
systematic research efforts on hybrid rice were initially started in the early 1980s in
collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila. The
research centers involved in this programme were Agricultural Research station,
Aduthurai (Tamil Nadu); central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (Orissa); Punjab
Agricultural University, Kapurthala Centre' India Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi' Agricultural Research Station; Mithapur (Bihar); Agricultural Research
Station, Maruteru (Andhara Pradesh); and University of Agricultural Sciences
(Bangalore). Later on, a goal oriented Programme on promotion of research and
development efforts in hybrid rice was launched by the Indian Council of Agriculture
Research during December1989.
25 Reddy G.P., Anand PSB,Kannan K., Yojana Vol. 43:No.l2, Dec. 1999, New Delhi, P.21.
129
(7) Promising sugarcane hybrid for peninsular zone26
The scientists at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI), Coimbatore, have developed
a High -yielding sugarcane hybrid with good field characteristics and ratoonability.
The hybrid named "Co83 71" has proved to be promising sugarcane for peninsular
zone, according to the scientists. Its performance in the zonal varietal trials conducted
at various sugarcane Research Stations under the All India coordinated Research
project on sugarcane has been found excellent.
CO 83 71 is a hybrid derived by the crossing of two cultivated varieties of peninsular
zone, CO 740 and Co 6806. It is evolved through bi-parental mating method. It has
good field habits and it was spotted because of its thick stalks and good early vigour.
It remained without late tillers and flowering was observed only in a few locations. It
has an average yield potential of 117.7 tonnes per hectare, and it has recorded as high
as 185.30 tonnes per hectore in trials conducted in southern Kamataka.
The hybrid is resistant to drought and it can also stand waterlogging. The hybrid
showed higher nutrient uptake and recorded 11.83 percent fibre, according to the
scientists.
(8) Early maturing groundnut for rainfed tracts27
Scientists at the department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, College of Agriculture,
V ellayani, Kerala, have developed an early-maturing groundnut variety suited for
rainfed cutivation. Christened Snigdha, the high-yielding groundnut variety has a
duration of 87 days, and it yields medium-sized pod~ with prominent beak. The pods
are mostly two-seeded.
The new variety has recorded an average output of 2458 kg pods per hectare. It has
recorded a high yield of 4311 kg pods per hectare. A resultant of combination
breeding of Dh (E) 32 and JL24, the improved variety has high yield coupled with
26 The Hindu, July 8, 1999, P. 24. 27 The Hindu, July 22, 1999, P.24
130
early maturity. A fertilizer dose of 10 kg nitrogen, and 75 kg each of phosphorus and
potash is recommended per hectare.
(9) High-yielding, bold-seeded groundnue8
A bold-se~ded groundnut hybrid derivative that is ideal for Hand Picked Selection
(HPS) for export has been developed by scientists at the Department of Oilseeds,
Center for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
(TNAU), Coimbatore.
The high yielding hybrid derivative is a resultant of a cross between VRI 3(VG55)
and JL 24, and this bunch type hybrid comes to harvest in 105 days. It is suited for
both kharif(rainfed) and rabi/summer (irrigated) seasons. Under rainfed conditions it
has recorded an average yield of I750 kg per hectare, which is I7 per cent higher than
VRI2 and C02. In the irrigated fields, it has registered an average output of 2I50 kg
per hectare, which is 24 per cent more than that of VRI 2 and 20 per cent more than
C02, according to the scientists.
The new hybrid responds well to improved management practices. Seed treatment is
absolutely essential to get a good stand of crop in the field. Application of liberal
quantities of organic manure and the right types of biofertilisers will prove highly
beneficial. A nutrient dose of I 7 kg nitrogen, 34 kg Phosphorus and 54 kg Potash per
hectare has been recommended for the irrigated crop, and I 0 kg each of nitrogen and
Phosphorus and 45 kg Potash per hectare is prescribed for the rainfed/dryland crop.
(10) Early-maturing sesame for summer rice follows29
High-yielding sesame that is suited for summer rice fallows of Onattukara, Kerala has
been developed by scientists at the Rice Research Station (RRS) at Kayamkulam. The
early-maturing variety has been released for commercial cultivation by the Kerala
Agricultural University (KAU). Christened 'Thilathara', it is a hybrid derivative of
the cross between CST 78 and B-I4. The tall plants of this variety have less branches,
and they come to harvest in 78 days. The seeds have an oil content of 51.5 per cent. A
28 The Hindu, August 12, 1999, p. 24 29 The Hindu, August 19, 1999, p. 24
131
very good dose of nutrients is needed, ideally 10 kg nitrogen, 75 kg each of
Phosphorus and Potash per hectare.
(11) Short-duration, high-yielding green gram30
A sort-duration green gram, with built-in resistance to yellow mosaic disease, has
been developed by scientists at the Department of Pulses, Center for Plant Breeding
and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore. The farmers
by TNAU early 1999 have released the high yielding variety as "C0-6 green gram"
for commercial cultivation. It is developed by through hybridization followed by
pedigree method selection.
A hybrid derivative of a cross betvyeen WGG 37 and COS, the improved variety
comes to harvest in 60-65 days and it has recorded an average yield of 1006 kg per
hectare under normal conditions. It is suited for both kharif and rabi seasons in all the
green gram growing tracts of Tamil Nadu. It has been found to do well when sown in
June~July, September-October and February-March seasons throughout the state,
according to the scientists. It is moderately resistant to stemfly infestation both in the
field and laboratory conditions.
(12) Split Nitrogen application to boost hybrid cotton yield31
Cotton is the most important fibre crop of our country, supporting a large industry
and labour force. Though India ranks first in terms of area in cotton cultivation, its
productivity is very low compared to global scenario. The recent trend in maximizing
the cotton yield is through the efficient use of fertilizers with the introduction of
hybrids with high fertilizer response. Optimum dose of N and its application at the
appropriate growth stages of cotton has been the new strategy to improve yield.
Therefore an attempt has been made to determine the optimum dose and time of
application ofN in winter irrigated hybrid cotton (TCHB 213)
30 The Hindu, September 23, 1999, p. 24 31 The Hindu, October 14, 1999, p. 24
132
The results of the study conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore revealed that among the levels of N (0, 80, 120, 160 kg/ha), higher dose
of N (160 kg/ha) recorded higher growth attributes like plant height, leaf area index,
dry matter production and yield parameters like number of symbodial branches,
fruiting points, bolls and boll weight.
(13) Early-Maturing Coriander32
Coriander is an important spice crop, which is much sought after for its tender
aromatic green leaves and spicy seeds. It is grown widely in the southern states,
particularly in the rainfed regions and low fertility soils. Farmers raise coriander in
small strips along other major crops to trap the insect pests of the major crop. Thus its
usefulness in biological management of insect pests is also well appreciated by
ecological farmers in the country.
Recently, the University of Agricultural Science (UAS), Dhawad, and Karnataka
have released a dual-purpose coriander, with early-maturity and good leaf and seed
quality. "The new coriander, DWD-3, has higher green leaf yield with broad leaves
with good aroma and golden yellow, bold seeds," said Dr. Mahadevappa, Vice
Chancellor, UAS, Dharwad.
DWD-3 is a selection from local collection, and it was selected after screening the
material for over six years. It is found to be well adapted for rainfed and irrigated
conditions. Endowed with earliness and dwarf-stature, this new variety has attractive
plant type, and it matures uniformly. It is suited well for both leaf and seed purposes
Flowering starts from the 45th day after sowing. The crop is harvested in 75 to 90
days, and the average )ri~Id :is put at 7 to 1 0 quintals per hectare. This variety has been
found to be particularly suited for rainfed irrigated conditions in North Karnataka.
133
(14) Super Ponni for sustainable rice farming33
A super fine-grained rice with long-duration is grown widely by many farmers in
Kancheepuram and adjoining districts of Tamil Nadu in the recent years. The natural
farmer-to..:farmer spread of this variety is attributed its sterling performance with the
application of organic manure and its non-lodging and non-shattering traits, according
to agricultural experts. Popularly known as super ponni, the rice variety was
developed at the J farm near Chennai a few years ago. It was released and J-18 for
commercial cultivation by farmers. J-18 is a selection from super-fine rice variety
wag wag from the Philippines. Wag Wag is superior quality rice, which commanded
a premium prices in the Philippines markets. The seedlings will be ready for
transplanting when they are 75 days old, according to a scientist.
(15) Promising Crop Technology for wheae4
Scientists at the Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal (Haryana) and the
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, have developed a new technology of
sowing of wheat crop on raised beds through a specially designed machine for the
purpose leading to economy in the usage of seed, fertilizer and water. Called, Furrow
Irrigated Ridge - till ,•Bed · - Planting system (FERBS), it is a method where
cultivation of crops is done on raised bed. This system is very suitable for the wheat
crop. In the crop sequences where wheat follows soyabean, maize or cotton, a system
of reduced tillage can also be followed where by preparation.
If wheat follows rice then it requires a fine seedbed preparation followed by sowing
of wheat on raised beds. The sowing on raised beds is done with the help of a
specially designed machine. In this system first irrigation is required a bit early i.e.
15-16 days after seeding, followed by the normal irrigation schedule. The machine
has adjustable blades for making raised beds of different width and height that can be
adjusted by the manipulation of lbades on the frame. and roller on the back. It has
seed-cum-fertiliser drill capable of sowing one, two or three rows on each bed.
32 The Hindu, November 25, 1999, p. 24 3
' The Hindu, October 2, 1999, p.23
134
(16) New Short-duration Chickpea35
Scientists at the International Crops Research Institute have successfully developed
an ultra short-duration chickpea ( channa) for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISA T),
Hyderabad. This is the shortest duration chickpea maturing in about 75 days. A desi
type chickpea, it is transgressive segregant of a cross between two early-maturing
varieties, ICCV2 and ICCV 93929. Known as ICCV-96029, this flowers in about 23
days, and is ready for harvest atleast a week unlike the ultra-short duration variety
ICCV2, which was considered the shortest duration chickpea in the world until
recently. Being a legume it can enrich the soil through its nitrogen-fixing abilities,
and prevent soil erosion by providing a good green cover in the rice fallows.
(17) High-yielding, disease- resist~nt hybrid maize36
A high-yielding, disease-resistant, full-season hybrid maize (Zea mays) has been
developed by scientists at the Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Arabhavi in
northern Kamataka. It has been released for commercial cultivation by farmers of the
University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad in 1999. According to the
scientists, it is a full season single cross hybrid with high potential. Maturing in 110-
115 days, it is recommended for growing under irrigated conditions for an entire full
season crop. It has recorded a grain yield of 5400-5600 kg per hectare, and a dry
fodder yield of 7000-7500 kg per hectare.
(18) A high yielding, disease-resistant blackgram37
Scientists at the National Pulses Research Centre (NPRC), Vamban in Pudukkotai
district have developed a high yielding blackgram variety with build-in resistance to
yellow mosaic disease. Farmers at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU),
Coimbatore, have released the variety for commercial cultivation recently. It matures
in 65-70 days. It has recorded an average yield of 775 kg per hectare in rainfed ' l
3~ The Hindu, December 23, 1999, p. 24 35 The Hindu, January 6, 2000, p. 24 36 The Hindu, January 13, 2000, p. 24
135
conditions, and 826 kg per hectare irrigated conditions. It has been recommended for
cultivation in all seasons (June-July, September-October, and February-March)
throughout Tamil Nadu.
The performance has been consistently higher both in rainfed and irrigated
conditions. It has built-in resistance to yellow mosaic disease, and moderate
resistance to powdery mildew. A nutrient dose of 25 kg nitrogen and 50 kg
Phosphorus per hectare is recommended for the irrigated crop, and the rainfed crop
would need half the dose only.
(19) A high yielding hybrid sorghum for rabi38
A high yielding sorghum hybrid that. will do well in rabi season has been developed
by the scientists at the All India Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project in the
University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad. The hybrid has been released
for commercial cultivation by farmers recently by UAS as 'DSH4". A resultant of a
cross between SB 401 A and SPV 570, the new hybrid grows to an average height of
220 em, and has a yield potential of 3.0 tonnes of grain and 6.0 tonnes of fodder per
hectare. With a duration of 115 to 120 days, the hybrid produces semi-compact,
cylindrical panicles with tapering tip, bearing bold, cream coloured grains.
The new hybrid is less susceptible to shoot fly and' foliar diseases and charcoal rot
than other hybrids. The · hybrid does well under drought conditions, and its
performance is found to;be superior to that of M 35-1. The ideal time for sowing the
hybrid is September 1 to October 15. A blanket dose of 60 kg nitrogen and 30 kg
phosphorus is advocated for getting a good yield from this hybrid.
3.12 Precision Agriculture- An Emerging Concept
The primitive know-how of crop cultivation has been transformed into modem
agriculture through the ages and it is still changing and evolving according to the
economic, social and environmental needs In the post green-revolution era,
37 The Hindu, April 20, 2000, p. 24
136
imbalanced fertilization, excessive irrigation and indiscriminate use of pesticides have
undermined the sustainability.
To alleviate the ill effects of excess and under-application of inputs a new form of '
farming called 'precision Agriculture' is on the way. It is that form of agriculture
where site-specific management practices are adopted giving due considerations to
the spatial variability of land in order to maximize crop production and minimize the
environmental damage39.
3.12.1 Advantages
Conventional agriculture with blanket application of inputs may not be able to meet
the food requirements of the burgeoning population. Precision agriculture is the need
of the hour to achieve food security and sustainability. This results in :
(i) Enhanced Productivity: Precision agriculture envisages precise packages of crop
cultivation at micro level, which enable to increase the productivity.
(ii) Better utilization of resources: Need based approach makes judicious utilization
of resources.
(iii) Eco-friendly: Precision agriculture minimizes the environmental damage.
3.12.2 Limitations: Precision agriculture has some limitations from the practical
point of view. They are :
(i) High initial investment: Precision agriculture needs high initial investment for
layout, and the establishment of assessing and monitoring systems.
(ii) Sampling: Collection of large number of samples is cumbersome as well as
costly.
38 The Hindu, May 11, 2000, p. 23 39 B. Chinmay, Rao Subba A.V.M., Precision Agriculture- An· Emerging Concept, Yojana, vol. 44: No. 6, June 2000, New Delhi. Pp 24-25
137
(iii) Hi-tech nature: Precision agriculture is highly dependent on sophisticated
technologies.
(iv) Expertise- a need: Because of its hi-tech and knowledge based nature precision '
agriculture needs sufficient expertise.
Precision agriculture is a direction of research rather than a destination. The highly
technology-oriented imported version of precision agriculture may apparently be
found unsuitable in Indian agriculture, be much research is needed in this direction to
ascertain the feasibility of precision agriculture in Indian context and if possible to
indianise the package through amalgamation with low cost technologies considering
the scope and limitations of Indian farming situation.
3.13 Alternate land use systems for Dryland Development
Dryland agriculture constitutes nearly about 70% of arable land in the country,
contributing 42% to the national food basket. Crop production in dryland areas is
mainly dependent on rainfall, which is seasonal, erratic and highly variable with
space and time. The evaporation in dryland areas is high, leading to water scarce
situation called the drought. Thus, the occurrence of drought is inevitable in dryland
areas. Because of it, crop production under the traditional land use systems (TLUS)
in dry land areas suffers a lot. The traditional pattern of land use is the basic cause for
the poor economic condition of the farmers in dry land regions.
The disastrous effects of drought cannot be eliminated, but the m1senes can be
minimized to a reasonable extent by appliation of s9~entific methods of management.
But these management options are short lived and are not a permanent solution. The
only solution lies in judicious management of limited resources in an integrated
manner to ensure the adequate supply of food, fodder and fuel. Therefore Alternate
Land Use Systems (ALUS) will suit to the above situation as a drought proofing
measure and offer a great scope to stabilize and increase the productivity of the farm
as a whole.
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What is alternate land use system?
"Often the arable crop production in dryland regions under the TLUS suffers much
due to one or the other reason. This might be due to mismatching of the land use
pattern. If may be appropriate to follow some other alternate land use pattern in
dryland regions instead of following the risky arable crop production to improve and
stabilize the productivity of the dry lands. This alternate planning of land use pattern is
called "Alternate Land use System"40.
Advantages of alternate land use systems
Some of the advantages of ALUS over the TLUS are as follows:
These systems utilize the off-season tainfall for productive purpose, which otherwise
go waste. They help in reducing the pressure on forest cover by supplying timber,
fruits, fuel, fodder etc. and help in conservation and development. The top-feed tree
species grown, as a component of the system will provide much needed fodder and
serve as fodder bank, particularly in the lean months when fodder shortage looms
large. These systems are helpful in sustaining, restoring and conserving the land
productivity. Many leguminous tree species fix free nitrogen from atmosphere and the
same will return to the soil in the form of fallen leaves or green leaf manure, thus help
the farmer in improving the soil fertility as well as the physical properties of the soil
viz., bulk density, water holding capacity etc. These systems can also be adopted in . ,I
extreme soil conditions of soil acidity and alkalinity to reduce the effects and restore
the soil productivity.
These ALUS were also helpful to reduce the losses due to erosion and run-off and
conserving the soil as well as nutrients, thereby preventing the occurrence of floods.
The trees and shrubs can withstand drought better because of their capability for
tapping nutrients present in the lower layers of the soil, which are beyond the reach of
arable crops. These systems are capable of meeting the demands of raw materials of
40 Srinivasulu K., (2000),Sarndarshi S. B., 'Alternate Land use systems for Dry land Developmetn, Kurukshetra, vol.48, No. 5, Feb. 2000, Pp. 32-35, New Delhi.
139 .
several agricultural and forest based industries like paper mills, wood industries, sport
goods etc. They also increase employment opportunities for the rural poor and the
landless especially during the off-season, as most of the activities here are labour
intensive.
Classification of alternate land use systems
The alternate land use systems are classified according to the components involved.
Combe (1982)41 classified alternate land use system into 24 systems whereas, Debroy
( 1989)42 into 6 systems. However, there are three major systems mentioned as
below:43
(a) Agro-horticltural System: This system is essentially consists of a tree
component, which should be a fruit tree and a field crop. This system mainly
focuses on higher income per unit area and is more suited to better soils. The
hard fruit trees like Ber, Guava and Pomegranate suit well into this system as
tree component. By judicious management of trees and under storey crops
lime cereals and pulses, the intervening years up to fruit stage could be
profitable and helpful to the farmer to meet the working expenses, before the
fruit bearing time.
(b) Agri-silviculture system: Alley croppmg IS a typical example of Agri
silviculture in which crops are grown in alleys formed by the hed~ rows of
trees or shrubs. The main objective of alley cropping is to get green and
palatable fodder from hedge rows in the dry season and produce reasonable
quantum of grain and stover from the alleys during the cropping season.
Leucaena species is the best suitable hedge row component where as field
crops like sorghum, bajra, gram can be grown as field crops in the alleys
formed by hedge rows.
41 Combe, J. 1982, 'Agroforesrry techniques in tropical countries: Potential and limitations', Agroforestry systems, I, pp. 13-28. 41 Debroy, 1989, "basic research needs in Agroforestry- Indian context', National Sympasium, Agroforestry systems in India, CRIDA, Hyderabad, Jan. 11-13. 4
' Opcit Srinivasulu, 2000.
140
(c) Silvi-Pastoral system: This system is suited to marginal degraded lands and
most preferable where the fodder shortage looms large. This system
essentially consists of a top-feed tree species carrying grasses or legumes as
under storey crops (Nimbole 1992)44. Farmers having large dry land holdings
and keeping a part of their farm land vacant for longer period for one reason
or the other, can go in for this system which could provide both fodder an
fuel. The trees like Subabul, Shisham, Gum Arabic, Khejri, Babul etc. can be
grown as tree component, where as grasses like, Buffet grass, Rhodes grass,
Sudan grass, Guinea grass, Dinanath grass, and Legues like stylo, cowpea, can
be grown as pasture component.
There are several other systems with many other multiple combinations, involving
two or more components of any of the above three major systems, viz., Silvi
horticultural system (growing of horticultural crops in the inter space, between the
trees), Agri-horti-Silvicultural system (growing of field crops, horticultural crops and
tree species together in the same field), Silvi- horti- pastoral system (combination of
tree species, horticultural crops and grasses are grown in this system), Agri-silvi
pastoral system (this system is the result of the union between silvi-pastoral and Agri
silvi cultural systems. Under this system, the same unit of land used for getting
agricultural and forest crops where farmers can also rear animal etc.).
The selection of alternate land use system assumes very important place as the
success of the system depends on the selection of the proper system for the given
situation/region. There are four major factors, whic~ determine the suitability of the
system. They are, Land capability, Environmental conditions, and Home needs of the
farmer, Market accept~bili,ty and demand. Since these systems are based on
sustainable land management practices, no doubt that they will go a long way to
enhance and stabilize the productivity of the farm as a whole.
H Nimbole, N. N. 1992, Perfonnance of multipurpose tree species with or without pruning and under
141
3.14 Conclusion
In conclusion it could be added that the dryland farming in India is looking for new
horizons because the traditional methods of production are inadequate to meet the
new situations. A new awareness is necessary to encourage the farmers to fully
exploit all the advantages of the new strategy. By selecting the right crop and the
latest improved varieties, by timely sowing (timely preparation, tillage to control
weeds and save moisture), by using fertilizers and controlling weeds and by adjusting
crop plans to suit the season, drylands can grow more food than their 42 per cent
contribution. It will be much more difficult to further increase food production from
the irrigated lands, while it will be relatively easy to step-up production from
dry lands. While intensive irrigated farming is imperative for 'survival', dry land
agriculture is necessary for 'equity' .. The growing gap in incomes between farmers
blessed with irrigation resources and those dependent on rainfed agriculture has to be
considerably narrowed, and that too soon. Adopting available improved dryland
technology is the only way to achieve this goal.
storey pasture stylosanthese hamata, Indian J. Dry/and Agri. R & D. 7(2), p.p. I 08- I I I.
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