Chapter 4:

Memory and Cognitive Learning

Memory . . .

. . . affects the exposure, attention, and comprehension stages

. . . allows consumers to anticipate the stimuli they might encounter

Multiple-Store Model of Memory Three different types of memory

storage: Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

Sensory memory- Preattention stage where a stimulus briefly analyzed to determine if it will receive additional processing.

Short-term memory-Information temporarily stored while people are actively processing it. E.g.RAM in a computer.

Long-term memory- Connected to short-term memory through encoding and retrieval processes.

E.g. disk drive in a computer. Memory works like parallel processors.

Encoding -Transfer of information from short-term to long-term for permanent storage.

Retrieval -Process of accessing information from long-term memory to be utilized in short-term memory.

Constructive process. Information in ads received after

product experience can change the perception.

Sensory Memory . . .

. . . consists of firing of nerve cells, short-term in duration, usually less than a second.

Short-Term Memory. . .

. . . is the site where information is temporarily stored while being processed. Is also called working memory. Rehearsal is silently repeating

information to encode it into long-term memory.

If information in short-term memory is not rehearsed it is lost within 30 seconds.

Involvement & Short-Term Capacity

High involvement -more arousal, attentive, expanding the short-term memory

capacity to full 7 +/-2 bits. Low involvement -low arousal

levels ,consumer focuses relatively little memory capacity on the stimulus.

capacity is at 5 +/1 bits.

Time Required to Transfer Information Is Influenced by . . .

. . . the consumer's goal to either recognize or recall a task. It requires more time to encode information sufficiently for a recall task.

Recognition and Recall Recognition tasks -information placed

before the consumer.Goal --to determine if the information has been seen before.

Recall tasks ---Consumer must retrieve the information from long-term memory without any prompting.

Requires greater depth of encoding. Recall impacts size of the consideration

set, (deemed satisfactory options)

Long-Term Memory

. . . has essentially unlimited capacity to store information permanently.

Stored information -- semantic or visual. Semantic --encoding & storage of words & meanings.

Visual --- images. Long term memory -Permanent.

Relative Superiority of Picture Versus Word Memory

Visuals- more memorable than verbal counterparts, especially for low-involvement

Words with high-imagery content easier to encode and retrieve than words low in imagery and concreteness.

Words and pictures should complement each other in ads.

Verbal material is better recalled in high involvement conditions.

Memory-Control Processes . . .

. . . are the methods of handling information which may operate consciously or unconsciously to influence the encoding, placement, and retrieval of information.

Retrieval and Response Generation

Response generation-Person develops a response by actively reconstructing the stimulus.

Information received after exposure to a stimulus (e.g., ads) impacts response generation of original stimulus.

Retrieval cues create a response by providing a means of assisting active reconstruction of stimulus.

Consumer Knowledge . . .

. . . is the amount of experience with and information a person has about particular products or services.

As knowledge increases, a consumer can think about a product across a greater number of dimensions and make finer distinctions between brands.

Three Types of Knowledge:

Objective -- correct information about a product class that a consumer has stored in long-term memory

Subjective--- consumer’s perception of what or how much he or she knows about a product class.

Knowledge of others --what information a consumer knows about another.

How Do Consumers Gain Knowledge?

Cognitive Learning: process of forming associations, solving problems, and gaining insights.

Learning Through Education. Learning Through

Experience. Actual contact/use of products.

Gestalt Theory of Cognitive Knowledge

Gestalt psychologists believe that biological and psychological events do not influence behavior

in isolation of each other. People perceive the inputs from the

environment as part of the total context. Focused on the active, creative nature of

learning and action. Key idea: whole is greater than sum of parts.

1 1 3

Associationist Approaches to Cognitive Knowledge

Serial learning concerns how people put into memory and recall information that is received in a sequential manner.

Serial-position effect occurs when the order of presentation of information in a list influences recall of the information in the list.

The S-P effect is the basis for the higher price paid for book-end ads—I.e., ads at the beginning and end of a commercial TV break.

Serial Position Effect

Position in series

early Late

TrialstoLearn

Few

Many

Law of Contiguity Stimuli that are experienced together become

associated in memory—e.g., Nike-Tiger Woods. Called paired associate learning.

Some findings: Make pairs (I.e. stimulus-response words) easily

pronounceable, familiar, meaningful. Use visual images to link stimulus-response words

together. Remember: negative associations can occur

between product and another stimulus—attack style political ads seek to create such associations for opposing candidates.

Semantic Memory Networks . . .

. . . refer to how people store the meanings of verbal material in long-term memory.

Semantic memory is organized into networks each of which is a series of memory nodes that represent the stored semantic concepts.

Information is recalled via spreading activation.

5 Types of Information Stored in Nodes Types of information

Brand names Brand’s characteristics/attributes Ads about brand Product category Evaluative (affective) reactions to the brand

and the ad. This information represents a consumer’s

brand knowledge—I.e., a brand node and the associations in memory connected to it.

Measuring Semantic Memory Networks Guided Associations

Think of OSU (or your university/college)

What are the first three words or images that come to mind. (e.g., cowboys, MBA program, sports)

Select one of words (e.g., MBA), now think of three words or images that you associate with MBA program, etc.

Semantic Memory Network:important for semiosis analysis.

OSU

Cowboys MBA Program Sports

Walt Garrison Football Jobs Academics B’ball Golf

Dallas Berry Sanders New job Best value Sutton Holder

Drugs Crime class money my daughter winning

Schemas . . .. . . are organized sets of expectations and associations about an objects. When new information is inconsistent

with a schema, consumers engage in more diligent processing and, consequently, have improved memory about the stimulus.

Can derive from network analysis. Try to influence with communications.

Forgetting

People forget because even though information has been placed in long-term memory, it may be extremely difficult to retrieve. This is called a “retrieval failure.”

Interference Processes Retroactive interference occurs

when later learned material interferes with the recall of information learned earlier.

Proactive interference occurs when earlier learned material interferes with learning and recall of information learned later.

Time and Forgetting The recall of verbal

information decreases over time.

Rapid forgetting that occurs immediately after learning has been shown to occur in advertising as well.

Affect and Memory

People are better able to recall information that has the same affective quality as their mood state. Affect refers to the feelings, emotions,

and moods that consumers may experience.

Mood is a transient feeling state that occurs in a specified situation or time.

Memory and PERMS

Positioning. The semantic network & schema associated with a brand provides its position.

Environ. Analysis. Usually not relevant, but can apply in the sense of examining what competitors are doing and the clutter of the environment.

Research. Measure semantic network, schema and expectations, aided/unaided recall.

Marketing mix. Use promotion to influence semantic network and

schema, consider recall & recognition issues in advertising. Consider paired associate learning in developing communications, etc. Consider von Restorff and Zeigarnik effects in advertising.

Develop product name with consideration of paired-associate learning. Consider information overload issues in product development.

Segmentation. Segment marketplace based upon knowledge of product category.