CHAPTER-6
CROP MANAGEMENT IN PLANTATIONS
6.1. Introduction The most important management aspect in the
plantations is crop mariagement. The entire activities connected
with the crops such as production, export, productivity, human
resource aspects, financial aspects of plantations, marketing
management etc. entirely depend on the crop management.
Because of these great importance, a great care is necessary in
managing the crop. This chapter deals with total production of
each crop, productivity, various activities relating to crops such as
processing, cropping, new planting and replanting, fertilizer usage,
various diseases and its management, planting methods, water
management system etc. in plantations,
6.2. Rubber
6.2.1. Propagation
In South [ndia, seeds of Hevea normally ripes in
JulyISeptember and during these months they are collected and
seedlings are raised. All the earlier plantations in South and South
East Asia were raised fiom unselected seeds. The yield potential
of these trees being low, the production was very poor in these
plantations. Selection w x k on Heavea with a view to improved
the plantation material and the introduction of vegetative
propagation by budding led in course of time to the establishment
of numerous valuable clones. Seeds are picked up every day
during the seed fall season. Seeds can also collected by harvesting
h i t s at the yellow brown colour stage and breaking them.'
' Rubber and its cultivation, Rubber Board,(2000),pp3-14
6.2.2.Bud raft in^' It consists of replacing a strip of bark of the stock
with strip of bark, containing a dormant bud taken from the scion
pant and bandaging the same. Transparent polythene tapes are
commonly used for anadaging. The bandage should be firm
enough to prevent rain water from reacting the bud. The tissue of
the bud patch and the seedling become firmly united within three
or four weeks after grafi ing. Subsequently, when the seedling stem
is sawn off above the grafted portion, the grafted bud sprouts and
grows out to form the nzw shoot with the characters of the mother
plant. This gives rise tc a two-part tree. Depending on the colour
and age of buds two types of budding are recognized brown
budding and green budding.
Brown Budding
Grafting buds taken from bud wood of about one
year's growth on to stock lants of 10 months or more growth
carries it out. Vigourou;lyhealthy stock seedling having a girth of
about 7.5 cm at the base is ideal for budding. Bud wood is
collected from plants maintained in bud wood nurseries. Buds
found in the axils of fallen leaves are generally used. Normally 1-
2 meters of bud wood (:an be obtained from a bud wood shoot of
one year's growth. From one meter of bud wood about 20 buds
can be obtained. Budding can be done at any time if the bark of
the stock seedling and bud wood has good peeling quality.
Green Budding
Both the stock plant and bud wood used for green
budding are young. Vigorous seedlings of two to eight month's
age with a girth of about 2.5cm having brown bark up to a height
of about 15 cm. from the base are used as stocks. Green buds are
taken from bud shoots of 6- 8 weeks growth harvested from
specially raised source bushes. Generally green budded stumps are
raised in polythene bag in nurseries and transplanted to the main
field with the shoot anti root system undisturbed to get the best
results.
6.2.3. Tissue Culture:
Rubber clones can be propagated by tissue culture
also. Tissue culture propagation of plants relatively a new
development in science, which has rapidly evolved into one of the
major research tools in agriculture.
6.2.4. Land preparation3
In South India, JuneIJuly is the best season for
planting and so all preparation should be adopted before that
period.
a) Clearing
The clearing operation should begin sufficiently early
to avoid delay in planting. A light bum after felling and drying
may be done to ensure the destruction light brushwood and
branches of trees.
b). Lining
In flat 01. slightly undulating areas, square or
rectangular planting can be adopted. In the case of rectangular
planting, the lines should be taken east west to get the maximum
sunlight. Counter lining is done on undulating and hilly lands by
marking out the planting points in level lines across the slopes.
c. Terracing
In hilly areas the cutting of planting terrace is
advisable to aid soil conservation. It is expensive at initial stage
but latter these form the best protection against erosion. For these,
planting hillsides may sometimes be done on square platforms
about 120c. square along the contours. These platforms are joined
later to make complete terraces or with narrow hedge of about
60cms width to facilitate movement from trees to tree.
d. Drainage
Proper dra~nage is essential especially on low-lying.
There may be, as system of natural waterways available in the
area which when cleared and disengaged would give adequate
drainage. If drains are tt3 be uniform depth should be maintained
throughout.
e. Planting distance
The planting density recommended is 420-445
plantsfhectares (170-18(llacre) in the case of budding or plants
proposed to be field budded and 445-520 plant pointslhectare in
the case of seedlings. At the initial stage of planting density is
high, vacancy filling during subsequent years may be carried out
very judiciously. Durint; the second year of planting, vacancies
occurring in large patches only may be filled up leaving out
isolated plant points. I'rom the 3rd year onwards no general
vacancy filling may be aitempted unless warranted by very special
circumstances.
6.2.5. Cover Crop
Cover crop are established and maintained in rubber
plantations for the purpose of conserving the soil, improving or
maintaining the soil the norning structure and fertility.
6.2.6. Tapping
Latex is obtained from the bark of the rubber tree by
tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during
which thin shavings of hark removed. The aim of tapping is to cut
open the latex vessels ir the case of trees tapped for the first time
or to remove the coagulilm which blocks the cut ends of the latex
vessels in the case of trel:s under regular tapping.4
6.2.7. Weed Control
It is an important cultural practice in rubber
plantation as the weeds compete with rubber for light, moisture
and plant nutrient particularly during its initial period of growth.
The weeds commonly found in the rubber plantation in South
India are chromalaena oliorate, Borraria sp, Lantana aculeatea etc.
Four to five of hands weeding are required the first two years. At
the end of the second year of planting the cover crops established
will smoothen the weeds in the interrows till they get shaded out.
6.3. Tea
6.3.1. Nature and Speciality of Tea pants5.
Tea bushes are planted 1 meter to 1.5 meters apart to
follow the natural contous of the landscape. Some times they are
growth on specially pn:pared terraces to help irrigation and to
lbid p26. Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute, ~ 1 5 0 .
prevent erosion. Fifty years ago tea plants were raised from seeds
and they were known as seedlings.
Each plantation grew its own seed bearers in tea trees
that grew to a height of approximately 25 meters. New young
plants are raised form tile cuttings obtained from strong and rich
bush. They are carefully tendered special nursery beds until 12-1 5
months old and then planted in tea gardens.
6.3.2. Shade
Trees are often planted in between the tea plants to
protect them against intense heat and light. The trees also provide
microclimatic and soil improvements. Geometric spacing is used,
often in quite wide spacing. This again ensures uniform treatment
(shade) and ease in mechanized operations. Common shade trees
are Erythrina, Gliricidia and Silver oak.
6.3.3. Tea plucking
When the tea plant is allowed to grow wild and
unfettered it becomes lOcm height. To simply cultivation and
stimulate the productior~ of leaf buds, they are regularly pruned
and shade into flat-topped bushes of about one meter in height.
When the plant develops to a height of about half meter above the
ground, it is cut back-pnmed to within few inches of the ground to
set its on course to devc:lop into a flat-topped bush. Generally, a
tea bush is 1 to 1.5 metcrs in height. Regular 2 to 3 year pruning
cycles encourage the supply of shoot, the flush that is plucked
every week to ten days depending on where it is cultivated.
6.3.4. Method of Leaf Plucking.
The leaves %re mostly hand plucked. The tea plant is
plucked every 5-10 day depending on where it grows. The length
of time needed for the plucked shoot to redevelop a new shoot
ready for plucking varie:; according to the plucking system and the
climatic conditions. Intervals between seventy and ninety days are
common.
When the tea plant is plucked two leaves and bud are
cut. An experienced pl~cker can pluck upto 30kg leaves per day.
To make one kg.black tea, approximately 4 kg tealeaves are
needed. Once tea plant ~roduces about 70kg black tea a year. In a
warm climate the plant is plucked for the first time after four-year
and it will produce tea for at least 50 years.
6.3.5. Seed Collection and Selection
More preservation is necessary in tea plants that are
used for seed purpose. The leaves of this plant don't pluck and
cut. Seed can be collected during the month of September.
6.3.6. Planting Distance
Normally the tea plants must have 10x10 distance
or 15x15 cm distance. This is necessary for the growth of the
plant.
6.3.7. Mulching
The entir? plantation or the plant bases are to be kept
under mulch. It is very essential to keep the plant base adequately
mulched during summer months to reduce the ill effects of
draught for reducing evaporation loss and maintain and to bring
down soil temperature
6.3.8. rash in^^ It consists of removing old fillers and dry leaves and
sheaths. This operation is carried out once in a year with the
commencement of the rqonsoon season. These materials can also
be used as mulch.
6.4. Cardamom
6.4.1. Propagation7
Cardamom can be propagated vegetatively and by
seedlings. For vegetative propagation, rhizomes with not less than
3 shoots are used. Plant:, propagated vegetatively come to bearing
on year earlier than seedlings propagations. But this method has
the disadvantages of spreading "Kattee" disease, which is of
Kerala origin. This disease is not transmitted through seeds. Hence
in areas where the disease is widespread it would be safer to use
seedlings for propagations.
6.4.2. Planting Management
Before going to the planting operation, field should be
made ready. For planting in new area, ground should be cleared or
if it is replanting area old plants should be removed. Shade
regulation, terracing and pits preparation should be done during
summer months.
6.4.2. I. Shade Regulation
Shade regulation is one of the important practices. It
should be attended during March-April in the nealy planting area
in the existing plantations in the months of May-June after the
receipt of summer showers. If the area is open due to tree fall,
panting of tree species like Chandana, Vaiabu, Naval tree etc.
should be taken up imniediately to protect the plants from dired
sunlight.
' Cardamom-Package of Practices, Spices Board (1992), p8
6.4.2.2. Field Preparation
Area having medium and steep slopes, soil
preparation will be different from that of gently slopes. In sloppy
area soil should be prott:cted from soil loss (erosion) due to rains
for which planting should be taken up terraces. Terraces should be
made across the slop at required distances depending upon the
spacing adopted. Almost 8-15cm depth of top sol should be
removed before making terraces and kept aside which can be used
for pit filing. Width of the terrace should be 1.5 to 1.8,pits of
90x90x45cm.can be prepared and before commencement of
monsoon, about 1/31d of the pit should be filed with top soil and
113 should be filed wit11 1:3mixture of organic manure and top
soil.
6.4.3. Planting
Planting material of high yielding variety, suitable
for the area may be selected for planting. These plantlets may be
planted in the already prcpared pits and plants should be protected
from wind by staking. Plant to plant distance can be 3x3cm or 2.4
m in high rainfall or irrigation conditions. Immediately after
planting, the plant base should be mulched well with available
dried leaves to protect scil erosion and conservation of moisture.
6.4.4. Weed Control
Weeds are potential competitors in the consumption of
water and nutrients which will depress the cardamom growth. At
the initial stage, if cardamom clump development is no enough
weed growth will be mtjre. Hand weeding at the plant base and
slash weeding in other areas area advisable.
Judicious irrigation during summer months ensures
increase in yield by at least 50%. Irrigation is required generally
from February to April but at times from January to May. Water
may be stored during rainy season wherever possible by
constructing check dam. Irrigation can be done through different
methods as such as pot irrigation, hose irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation and drip irrigation depending on the facilities available
in the plantations.
6.4.6. Trashing
It consists of removing old tillers and dry leaves and
sheaths. This operation is carried out once in a year, with the
commencement of monsoon season.
6.5. Analysis
6.5.1. Production and productivity
6.5.1.a Rubber
The production and productivity of rubber depend on
the climatic and geographical conditions. The table 6.1 shows the
details of production ant1 productivity of rubber estates in Kerala.
Table No.6.1Annual production of Rubber estates
Productivity (tonlhectare)
1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.99
S1.No Area under cultivation
hectares U to 50 hectitres
50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250
Above 25C (Primary data)
Annual production (in
tones) 9.85-98.5 98.5-197 197-295.5 295.5-394 394-497.5
More than 497.5
From the teble it is seen that upto 50 hectares, the
annual production varie!, from 9.8 tones to 98.5 ton. In the case of
estates having the area between 50ha. -100ha. have production of
98.5 to 197 tone. If th': area lying between 100&150 ha, their
annual production is from 197 tonne-295.5 tone. In the case of
estates having the area between 150ha. &200ha, the production
varies from 295.5 tonc: to 394 tonne. Upto this 200 ha, the
production effieicincy is stagnant but if the area under cultivation
is increased to 250 hectares or more, the production capacity is
increased, here the production is 497.5tone or more, here the
productivity is also increased. In the case of former the
productivity is 1.97ha.but in the latter case, the productivity is
1.99 tonelha. From the analysis, it is clear that compared to
smaller estates, the production and productivity is higher in larger
plantations.
6.5.1.b. Tea
The annual production and productivity of tea
plantations depend on the height of the cultivated area, climatic
conditions, plucking system in the estates etc. In Kerala, Idukki
district occupy the firs1 place in the cultivation. In Idukki, the
eastern parts such Murmur, Devikolam etc.produces more than
other part of the districts such as Eealappara, Kattappana e t ~ . ~
Upasi planting directory 21" edition,1992,pp2-5
The table 5.2 shows the details of production trend of
tea in Kerala. It contains the area under cultivation and annual
production.
Table No.6.2.Annual production and productivity of Tea estates
From the able it is observed that up to 50 hectares,
the annual production is 92.5tone and the productivity is 1.85
toneha. and upto 100 hcctares the production and productivity are
185 tone and 1.85 tonelhectares respectively. In the case of the
estates having the ares comes between 100 hectares and 150
hectares, the productio~i is 277.5 tones and productivity is the
same in the former case.
But the are3 between 150 hectares and 200 hectares,
in this case the productice and productivity are increased. Here the
production is 384 tone:; and productivity is 1.92 tonehectares.
There is a slight increase in productivity. This change is again
increased in the next category (estates having the area between
200 hectares and 250 hectare). Here the annual production and
productivity is 487.5tonr1e and 1.95 tonelhectare respectively.
From the analysis, it is observed that in large
plantation the productiot~ and productivity are higher compared to
smaller one this is because of the cultivation specialities in large
cultivation
5 200-250
(Primary data)
Annual production
(tone) 92.5
185
277.5
3 84
487.5
Productivity (Tonlha.)
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.92 -
1.95
plantations. In large plantations, the method and techniques of
cultivation are modem while in most of the smallholdings,
traditional approach is continued. So the productivity is also
changed.
6.5.1.c. Cardamom
The production and productivity of cardamom in
Kerala is mainly depend on the geographical conditions and
climate of the area. 11: the case of production, Idukki district
occupy the first place lollowed by Wayanad and ~a1~hat . I ' The
annual productivity of Cardamom/ hecatare in small estates is ,127
tonel hectare. While in large estates, it is increased to .14 to .17
tonelhectare.
The table 6.3 shows the annual production and
productivity of cardamom in Kerala.
the production becomes increased from 12.7 tone to 19.05 tone.
and productivity of Cardamom plantations
Between 150 hectares .ind 200 hectares, the production varies
Upto 50
50-100
150-200
200-250
"Ealem, C.Kannan, Kerala Bhasha Institute, p12
(Primary data)
From the table, it is seen that up to 50 hectares, the
annual production is 6.35 tone and upto 100 hectares, it is 12.7
tones. The estates having tea area between 100ha.-150 hectares,
Annual production
(tone) 6.35
12.7
19.05
34
47.5
Productivity (tonlhectare)
,127
,127
,127
.17
.17
from 19.05 tones to 34 tsnes. In the case of estates having the area
between 200 hectare 2nd 250 hectare, the annual production
increased from 34 tones to 47.5 tone.
In the case of estates having the area 200 hectares, the
productivity is .17 toneAiectares and all the estates having the area
below 200 hectares, the productivity is ,127 tonelhectares. It is
noticed that in large plantation, the productivity becomes high.
6.5.1.d. Comparison.
The productivity and production pattern of the three
plantations (rubber, tea and cardamom) are different. The Table
6.4 shows the annual prclduction and productivity of these crops.
Table No.6.4 Production and productivity of Rubber, Tea and Cardamom
(Primary data)
From the tab,e it is observed that the production and
productivity is more in lubber plantations than others. In all these
three plantations, the prc~ductivity is gradually increased according
to the area under cultivar-ion. If the area is large, the productivity is
also high. Upto the area 200ha, the productivity of rubber is same
(1.97tonha) and the productivity of tea is also same upto that area
200 ha.(l.92ton/ha.),but in the case of Cardamom, the productivity
is same only upto the area 150 ha.and after that, it is increased. 4
Area under cultivation (hectares)
Annual Production (in tones) Pmductivity (tonelhsctare)
6.5.2. Nurseries in Plantations
6.5.2. a.Rubber
As far as possible level land should be selected for
raising nursery. In slopping areas buds should be made along the
contours. Proximity tcl perennial water source will facilitate
watering. The water table should be at least 60 cm below to allow
good taproot development. To avoid shading, an unplanted area of
20 cm or more from the nearby stand of rubber or natural
vegetation may be allowed. Well-drained fertile soil is desirable
for raising nurseries.
The first step in preparation of the nursery is digging the
soil to a depth of 75 can and removing all slumps in stones. Beds
should be prepared wit? 60 to 120 cm width and of convenient
length with pathways laid in between to facilitate manuring,
watering, weeding etc."
Nurseries are laid for raising seedling budded pants
and bud wood. The planting distances vary according to the type
of planting material to be raised in the nursery. Common spacing
adopted for raising seedlings stumps are 23x23cm, 30x30 and
34x20cm. Those for budded stumps are 30 x 30 or staggered pairs
f rows 60cm apart and 23cm between plants. For stumped budding
the common spacing i; 6Ox60cm and for bud wood nurseries
60x90 or 60x120 cm.
Nursery management aims at the most rapid
production of standard healthy planting materials. More intensive
care can be exercised in nursery than in field. Regular weeding
should be carried out.
I / Rubber and its Cultivation, Rubber Board,(2000),pp3- 14.
In all pl,mtations, both large and small plantations
have its own nursery. 111 large estates there is a vast and wide area
of rubber nursery but in smallholdings. they provided small area
for nursery. The table 6 5 shows the details of the nursery.
Table 6.5. Nurseries in Rubber plantations
estates nurse nursery Large 1 1 % 1 50(100%)
Total No I Sl.No 1 Type of
I I I I
From the table, it is seen that 99% of the large estate
have its own nursery. In the case of small estates, 95% have its
own nursery; only certain old estates have at present no nursery.
A Chi-Square test is conducted with Ho= there is no
difference in the nursely system in both large and small rubber
estates. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the
null hypothesis is acceded and it is concluded that there is no
difference in the nurse0 system in large and small rubber estates.
6.5.2.b. Tea.
In tea esta.es, the seeds can be raised in bed and
polybag nursery. The seeds can be raised directly from the estates
(primary nursery) and from the primary nursery; beds can be
transplanted in the secondary nursery at a distance of lOx10cm.
115xl5cm.The same process in the rubber nursery are also adopted
in tea estates. Both in large estates and small estates, the nursery
facilities are found. The nurseries are the bases of the plantations.
The table 6.6 shows percentages of nurseries in large and small
plantations.
Own
2 1 -
Small 1 47(95%) / 3(5%) 1 50(100%)
4 100
(primary data)(C.V=l.04;T.V-~3.84;Degrees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)
Table No.6.6.Nurseries in Tea plantations
estates nurse nurse I+ Large 1 16(92; 1 4(8%7 1 50(100%)
I SI.No 1 Type of
(primary data)(C.V=l9.82; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=5%)
It is observc:d from the table that 92% of the large
estates have their ow11 nursery. While in the case of small
plantations, only 52% h,we their own nursery. This is because the
land areas for nursery are more in large plantations. A Chi-square
test is conducted with Ho= there is no difference in the nursery
system in large and small tea estates. Since the calculated value is
greater than the table vrdue, the null hypothesis rejected and it is
concluded that nursery system in large and small estates are
different.
6.5.2. c. Cardamom
Ripe Capsules of the desired cultivation are
collected ftom yielding plants during September-October. The
seeds are extracted by g2ntly pressing the capsules. The extracted
seeds are washed din cold water four times to remove the
mucilaginour coating on them. The washed seeds are drained and
mixed with ash and allo~ned to dry in shade after 2 or 3 days. The
seeds a should be sown in the nursery within a fortnight.''
In Kerala and Tamilnadu, 18 months old seedlings
are used for planting. The seeds are sown in primary nursery from
Own No Total
where the young seedlings are transplanted to a secondary nursery
and maintained for one year before planting to the main field.
Primary Nursery in Cardamom Plantations
Select nursc:ry site on gentle sloppy and preferably
near to a perennial water source. Clean the area from all existing
vegetation stumps, root:,, stones etc. In the cleared area beds can
be prepared with one-rneter width, 20 cm height and required
length, generally six meter. Jungle top soil can be spread to a
thickness of 2 to 3 cm.on the beds.
Fully ripenzd bold capsules from high yielding and
disease free clumps of known source can be collected form second
and third harvests for seed extraction. Seeds after extraction
should be washed using water to remove the mucilage, it is then
mixed with wood ash and dried in shade.
Sowing c;m be done in rows at a distance of 10 cm.
Seed rate s 30 to 50 cm.per 6x1 cm size bed. After sowing cover
the seeds with a thin layer of fine soil. Then cover the bed with
mulch material, either with pothagrtass or paddy straw.
Germination commence:; 20 to 25 days after sowing and continues
for further 30 to 40 days. 13
Secondary Nursery in Cardamom
There are two methods of raising seedlings in
secondary nursery:- Bed and Polybag
1) Bed nursery
Prepare beds as in primary nursery. A layer of cattle
manure and wood ash may be spread on the bed and mixed with
soil. Seedlings 5 to 6-lei6 stage from the primary nursery beds can
I 3 Cardomom-Package and Practices, Spices Board (1992), pp3-15
be transplanted tin the secondary nursery at a distance of 20 to 25
cm.(9x9).
2) Polybag nursery
Black bags of 20x20 cm size and thickness of 100
gauge or polythene bag:$ 3 to 4 equal strength holds at the bottom
can be used for this pu~pose. Fill the bag with potting mixture in
the ration of 3: 1: 1 of' jungle top soil, cow dung and sand.
Adequate space in between the bags may be provided for better
tillerting. 14
In Cardamom plantations, most of the estates-both
large and small have its own nursery. It strengthens the production
and productivity of the estates. The details of the nursery system
in cardamom plantations. are shown in table No.6.7.
Table No.6.7.Nurseries in Cardamom Plantations SI.No I Type of I Own I No nursery I Total 1
I I
3 1 Total 1 8 8 12 100 I LL I J
(Primary Data)(C.V=9.387; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=5%)
From the table, it is observed that in large
cardamom estates, 96% have its own nursery and in small estates
80% have its own nursc:ry. A Chi-square test is conducted with
Ho=there is no difference in the nursery system in both large and
small cardamom estates. Since the calculated value is greater than
the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded
that the nursery syster in large and small cardamom estates are
different.
6.5.2. d. Comparison
Compared to other plantations, most of the rubber
estates have its own nursery followed by cardamom and tea. Table
6.8 shows the details of the nursery system in plantations.
From the table it is observed that, compared to tea
Table No.6.8.Nursery System in Plantations
plantations system
28 100
and cardamoms, a good system of nursery exist in rubber
plantations (96%) followed by cardamom (88%) and tea
(72%).This is because the rubber estates have more facilities for
nursery. A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho= there is no
3
4
difference in the nurserq system followed by different plantations
(Primary Data)(C.V=23.472,T.V=5.991;Degrees of freedom=Z;Significancee
level=5%).
12
44
Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null
100
300
Cardamom
Total
hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the nursery system
followed by different plantations are different.
6.5.3. Replanting Duration (Life of the plant)
' 88
256
The replanting duration of rubber plants depends
upon the geographical conditions, fertilizer usage, tapping
methods etc. The study reveals that in large plantations the
replanting duration is 1E, years to 24 years, but in the case of small
plantation it is 15 years to 20 years. Table 6.9 shows the details of
replanting duration of rubber.
1 I (Primq Data)
Table No.6.9.Life span of Rubber Plantations
6.5.3.b. Tea
Minimum
estates Duration
Large 18
15
Out of the various olantations crops, tea plants possess large-
Maximum
Duration
24
20
living- duration. The te:i-plants have more than 50 years life span
in general. The table 6 10 exhibits the replanting duration of tea
varies from 45 years to 80 years according to the area and quality
of the plants. In large sector estates, the replanting duration is
higher compared to small one because of their infrastructure
plants.
Table No.6.10.Life span of Tea plants
facilities. In large plantations, the minimum duration is 48 years
and maximum is 80 years (in general case). In the case of
smallholdings, the minimum duration is 45 years and maximum is
75 years.
S1.No
1
2
(Primary data)
From thc: table it is seen that replanting duration
Minimum
duration
48 years
45 years
Type of
estates
Large
Small
Maximum
duration
80 years
75 years
6.5.3.c. Cardamom
Normally cardamom plants planted for 14 to 19 years.'5
It is depend on the crop management system in the plantations and
the area under cultivation. In large plantation, the replanting
duration is high comparcd to small estates. In large plantation the
replanting duration varies from 16 years to 20 years while in the
case of small plantations, it varies from 9 years to 15 years.
Table 6.11 shows the replanting duration of
cardamom.
6.5.3.d. Comparison
Table No.6.11.Life span of Cardamom
Out of the vai.ious plantation crops, the living life of tea
Estates
Large
plant is very high. The :able 6.12 shows the details of replanting
duration of various crop::.
Table No.6.12.Life span of Plantations
(Primary Data)
Minimum
Duration
16
9
'Type of Minimum Maximum estates plantations duration duration
(years) (years) Rubber 18 24
Tea 48 80 Cirdamom 16 20
Maximum
Duration
20
15
(Primary data)
From the tilble it is observed that the tea plants have
long duration of life. (48- 80 years). In the case of large rubber
plantations and cardamom plantations, the replanting maximum
duration range varies from 16 years to 24 years and minimum
duration varies from 9 to 15 years.
6.5.4. New Planting
6.5.4. a. Rubber
New plantin,g is necessary for all plantations for their
smooth running. It strengthens the physical growth of the
plantations.
Table 6.12 shows the details of new planting rubber
estates.
Table No.6.13.New planting Rubber estates
S1.No / Type of 1 New planting / Others 1 Total I / estates 1 estates 1 I I I I I I
1 / Large I I I
I I 1 (Primary data)(C.V=2.596; T.V=3.841;Degrees of freedom=l;Siginificance
26(52%) / 24(48%) 1 50(100%)
2 1 Small I I I I
From the table, it is observed that 52% of the
(64%) 1 50(100%)
3 / Total
large estates have new planting areas and in case of small estates,
only 36% have new plantating area. This is because large
44
plantations have more ir~fra structure facilities for new planting. . A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho=there is no difference in
56
the new planting area in large and small estates. Since the
100
calculated value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is
accepted and it is concluded that there is no difference in the new
planting area in large anc small estates.
6.5.4.6. Tea
There is less new planting area in tea plantations,
compared to other crops. For new planting of tea, an important
considerable element is geographical structure of land and climatic
conditions.
The table 6.14 shows the number of tea estates having
new planting area.
In large tea estates, 22% have new plantations and in
Table No.6.14.New planting Tea estates
the case of small estates only 8% have new planting area. A Chi-
SI.No New planting
estates
Small 4(8%)
Total 15
square test is conducted wi1.h Ho= there is no difference in the new
planting area in large and small estates.
(primary data)(C.V= 3.84Z;T.V=3,!<4;Degrees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)
Others
39(78%)
46(92%)
85
Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null
Total
50(100%)
50(100%)
100
hypohothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the new planting
area in both large and small estates are different.
6.5.4.c. Cardamom
Most of the cardamom plantations have new planting
area. In small estates they wish to cultivate more cardamom that they
have more new planting areii while in the case of large plantations, it
is less.
The table 6.15 exhibits the details of new plantations in
cardamom plantations.
Table No.6.15.New plantations in Cardamom
I / estates I plantations 1 I I S1.No of
I I I I 1 I Large 1 15(30%) 1 35(70%) / 50(100%)
I I 1 Small 1 28(55%)
New
I
(Primary data)(C.V=6.88;T.V=3.84 (;Degrees of freedom; Significance level=5%)
Others
I I I 1
In large plantations 30% have new plantations and in
Total 1
3
smallholdings 55% have n<:w planting area. . A Chi-square test is
conducted with Ho- there is no difference in the new planting area in
Total
both large and small estates .Since the calculated value is greater than
the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that
43
the new planting area are different in large and small cardamom
estates.
57
6.5.4. d. Comparison
100
The tables 6.16 show the details of new plantations.
in Rubber, Tea and Cardamom Others Total
Total 198 3 00
(primary data)(C.V=24.15 1 ; T.V=5.991; Degrees of freedom=2; Significance
New plantations are more found in large rubber estates
followed by cardamom plantations. Out of the three crops, tea
plantations have less new planting area.. A Chi-square test is
conducted with HHhere is no difference in the new planting area in
rubber, tea and cardamom plantations Since the calculated value is
greater than the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is
concluded that the new planting area in different plantations are
different.
6.5.5. Fertiliser Requirements
6.5.5.a. Rubber
The following general fertiliser recommendations are
made for manuring mature rubber from the time of commencement
of tapping to the age clf economic production. No fertilizer
applications are recommencled for mature trees that are expected to
be replanted within a period of three years because of economic
considerations.
Applications of 10-10-10NPK mixtures at the rate of
900kgltree (300kglhectares) every year during April-May or in two
split doses during April-May, September-October. The composition
of mixture is 15:15:15 or 17:17:17 or 19:19:19 NPK may also be
used. The rubber plantations are generally used this type of fertilizer
(NPK).' The quantity varies ftom 300kglha to 450kglha. This is same
for large and small estates.
6.5.5. b. Tea
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and
Potassium are the major nutrients required by tea plants. In addition
I Rubber, Kerala Bhasha Institute, pp76-77
secondary nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and sulpher are also
required for plant growth. A third category of nutrient known as
micronutrients such as zinc, aluminium, Iron etc.are also necessary
for plant.
An important element in tea fertilizer is nitrogen.
Between 40%&50% of the protoplasm is made up of nitrogenous
compounds and 18 to 20% of dry protein is in the form of nitrogen.
Because of this, nitrogen is of considerable importance in the eligible
growth of the tea plant. NPK is the approved fertilizer in tea
plantations.2 The fertilizer requisition in tea estates varies from
350kg/herctare NPK to 490kglhectare NPK.This is based on the
climatic and geographical cc~nditions.
6.5.5.c. Cardamom
Ten kilogram of cattle manure or compost per plant year
may be applied once in a year during the monsoon season in May-
June in cardamom plantations. Present recommended dose of
chemical fertilizer is 15 k g . Nitrogen, 125 kg. Phosphorus and
250kg.Potassium/hectare for irrigated plantation and 75kg Nitrogen,
75kg.phosphorous and 15Okg potassium for rained plantations.
Recommended dose for irrigated area may be applied in three split
doses in May, Septmber and December. Recommended dose for
rained areas may be applied in two split doses at the beginning of
September after completior of southwest monsoon. The approved
quantity of fertilizer for cardamom cultivation in Kerala for both
large and small estates is 75:75: 150kg/hectares NPK.~
2 Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute, ppl3-17 ' Ealem,C,Kannan,p23.
6.5.6. Major Diseases
6.5.6. a. ~ u b b e r ~
Crop losses resulting from ravages of disease causing
agencies in rubber plantetions are considerable. Timely plant
protection operations ensure healthy growth and economic
production. The important d seases are given below.
1. Shoot root
This is found in the plantation during the period of
South West Monsoon. The tender green shoots root damaging the
nursery seedlings and the young plants in the field.
The shoot root (:an be managed by spraying 6.2 liters of
40% oil based copper ox chloride paste in 37 liters of diluents oil or
8kg.oil dispersible copper oxiychloride powder 56% in 40 litters of
oil is usedlhectare. For youlig plants in the nursery as well as in the
field spraying with copper fi~ngicides before the onset of South West
Monsoon.
2. Abnormal leaf fall
This is occurrc:d annually during Monsoon period.
Prolonged wet weather coupled with humid atmospheric conditions
favour the disease. First the fruits rot, after infected leaves fall in
large numbers, prematurely, either green or after turning copper red.
This disease can be managed by spraying of the foliage prior to the
onset of Monsoon period with Bordeaux mixture using high volume
sprayers and oil based copper ox chloride dispersed in diluents spray
oil employing either low volume air blast sprayers from the ground.
4 Rubber and its cultivation, Rubber Board (2000) p47
The table 6.17 shows the influence of diseases in rubber
estates.
Table No. 6.17.Disease influence in Rubber estates
Abnormal leaf Shoot root
Large 47(95%) 45(90%)
(Primary data)
In rubber estates (both large and small), 95% are affected
by abnormal leaf fall and 90% are affected by short root.
6.5.6.6. ~ e a '
The following ace the major diseases that are found in tea
plantations in Kerala.
1) Black Root disease
This disease is sharacterized by black woolly mycelia
growth on the bark of the ilfected root and also of the solar region
and the presences of radiating stars of white mycelium between the
bark and the wood. The spread of the disease is very rapid in dry
weather.
Control
Mulch and oth:r organic materials should be removed
around lometers of the focal center. Soil should be drenched with
Dithane M45/capton-50kg/lOlitres of water. Soil rehabilitation
should be avoided.
2 I Small
5 Tea, Tea Board, p34
47(95%) 45(90%)
2) Brown Root
This disease is prevalent in low elevation tea growing
area. The important distinguishing character of this disease is the
presence of the typical tawny brown mycelium. Diseased roots are
encrusted in soil, sand and stone particles, which are so firmly
attached to the roots as to make them very difficulty to remove.
Control
There are less control measures for these diseases. A
mixture of cuprous oxide and copper oxicloryd with water are used
for controlling this disease.
The table 6.18 shows the details of diseases influence in
tea plantations in Kerala.
Table No.6.18.Disease influence in Tea estates
S1.No 1 T Y P ~ of
From the table, it is noticed that 90% of the estates (both
large and small) are affected by black root and 70% by brown root
and 40% by other such as primary root, leaf fall etc. In Keala, brown
root is the main disease of tea plants.
6.5.6.c. Cardamom plants6
The following are the major diseases found in cardamom
plantations in Kerala.
estates root
35(70%)
6 Cardamom-Package and Practices, Spices Board (1992),p8
Black
20(40%)
20(40%)
(Primary data)
Brown root Others
1) Katte (Mosaic disease)
Kattee disease affects plants of all ages. The first
visible symptoms appear on the youngest leaf of affected filler as
spindle shaped chlorotocic flecks. Later, these flecks develop into
slender discontinuous stripes of pale green and dark green areas
running parallel to the veins from the midrib to leaf margin. As the
disease advances, subsequent leaves show characteristic mosaic
symptoms. The leaf sheat~s and pseudostems also show mosaic
pattern. Mature leaves do lot develop symptoms. The infection is
systematic in nature and gradually spreads to all tillers of affected
plant. Immediately after injection, there is no growth reduction but
within one to two yeas aftt:r infection there is gradual reduction in
clump size. In advanced sages, the affected plants produce shorter
and slender tillers with few shorter panicles. Katte affected plants do
not die but the plants give only poor yield. The yield reduction has
been found to be 70% within 3 years after infection. Virus causes this
disease and insect vectors transmit it.
This disease can be managed by adopt the following
measures.
1. Keep a constant surveillance on the occurrence of Katte
disease.
2. Use only healthy seedlings raised from Katte free plants.
3. Avoid rhizome planting using materials taken from disease-
affected gardens
4. Practice regular gouging.
5. Repeat tracing of affected plants and rouging at weekly
intervals for at least 3 months.
6. Replant the rouged aeeas with healthy disease free materials.
7. Destroy wild planls like Amomum, Alpinia, Curcuma,
Collocation etc.if they are affect with Katte.
2) Azhuckal or Capsule Rot disease.
Azhuckal disease is mostly prevalent in Idukki and
Wayanad district of Kerala.Azhucka1 (rotting) is caused by the
fungus phytophhthrora meadi. This disease starts with the onset of
Monsoon in June and becomes severe during July-August months.
Symptoms of decay appear on all plant parts, first
symptoms appear on the young leaves or on capsules in the form of
water socked lesions. In leilves these areas enlarge become necrotic
and gradually the leaves shrivel and begin to share. Finally the
affected leaves break at the base of the petiole and remain hanging.
Affected immature capsule soon decay and fall off within 3 to 5 days
and mature capsules get shriveled on drying. In severe cases,
infection spreads over to the rhizomes and filers also. However
Malabar variety is more affected due to this disuse.
The Azhucakal disease can be managed by the
following methods.
1. Trashing and cleaning the plant basins are to be followed
+ monsoon. during May before th-
2. Thick shade may regulate by gently loping of tree branches.
3 . Provide drainage low lying and marshy areas.
4. Destroy the azhuckal-affected portions.
After completii~g this, the plants may be sprayed with
any one of the following fimgicides.
a. Boardeaux mixture 1%
b. Aliette 80wp.3%
3) Chenthal Disease
This disease is seen almost all areas of Cardamom
cultivation. Initial symptoms appear as water soaked lesions on the
young leaves. Later these become yellowish to reddish brown with a
pale yellow halo. In severe cases, it leads to the withering of eave and
withering of psuedo stems. It is caused by corynebacteerium. This
disease can be managed by providing adequate shade in the
plantations. Compared to the other disease, Chenthal disease is found
very few.
Table 6.19 shows the disease influence in cardamom
plantations.
Table No 6.19.Disease influence in Cardamom plantations
It is observec from the table that 95% of the estates
Azhuckal
45(90%)
45(90%)
(both large and small) are affected by Kattee disease and 90% by
Others (Chenthal, Clumprot)
20(40%)
20(40%)
Azhuckal disease. Chenthal and other disease affect only few estates
(primary data)
6.5.7. Soil and Climatic Conditions
6.5.7. a.Rubber
The rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall, it
grows on many types of soils provided the soils are deep and well
drained. A warm humid equable climate (21' to 35') and a fairly
distributed annual rainfall of not less than 200 cm are necessary for
the optimum growth of this plant. The Ph index suited for rubber
cultivation is 5-6.5'
6.5.7. b. ~ e a '
Tea soils must b: acid; tea cannot be grown in alkaline
soils. Red-clay soil is most suited for tea cultivation. The acid content
of the soil is (PH) 4-5.8. This is the favourable ph value fort tea plant.
The physical structure of the soil suited for tea cultivation
is given below
Light sand- 17.8%
Rough sand 3 1.5%
Silt 13.7%
Light silt 14.7%
Clay 15.7%
A suitable climate for cultivation has a minimum annual
rainfall of 1140 to 1270 millimeters. If the rainfall is very high, but it
not affect the tea plants, while long-dry climate conditions adversely
affect the plants. The average hot condition in the tea plantation is
13 .0~ to 29.0~. The minimum height required for tea cultivation is
8700mtr-2000metre.
' Rubber, Kerala Bhasha Institute,p33 Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute,p38
6.5.7. c. cardamomg
Cardamom thrives at elevations from 600 to 1500m, but
the most productive range of elevation is from 1000 to 1500m.
Humus-rich soils holdings s good growth of evergreen forest is ideal
for this crop. Cardamom itdhors disturbance of soil, it required an
evenly distributed annual rainfall of not less than. l50cm with warm
humid atmosphere. The sails have PH2 ranging from 4.5-5.5 is
considered optimum. Som~: of the best cardamom areas receive a
rainfall of not less than 500 to 625cm a year. But in areas with low
rainfall, by a carefil selection of site like the moist valleys, in jungles
or canopy of evergreen forests, where ground water supplies
guarantee moisture, cardamom cultivation can be made a success.
Suitable areas
Malabar type: from 600- 1200m
Mysore type: from 900-1200m
Vazhukka: from-1200m
6.5.8. Planting Methods
6.5.8.a. ~ubber."
It is essential that planting should be carried out during
favourable weather. The following are the various types of planting
adopted in Rubber plantatiorks.
1. Stump planting
Seedling stumps and budged stumps are used for
planting. A stump with plenl y of food reserve gives a vigorous shoot
P Spices,Henhy.N(1912) pp320-335.
l o Rubber and Its cultivation, Rubber Bcrard(2000)p8
with healthy initial whorl of leaves, which is above to withstand
adverse conditions that may arise subsequent to planting.
It is always advisable to plant the stumps soon after
pulling out from nursery beds. While planting budded stumps, the
bud patch should be just above the ground level. If a considerable
part of the stock below the union is left above the ground level.
About 5 cm of surface soil is first removed from an adequate area
around the planting points to accommodate the whorl of lateral roots.
A planting cavity is them made with an alavango to a depth equal to
the length of the pruned t;aproot. After thrusting the alavango the
required depth its top end is moved around and the cavity widened
sufficiently for the whorl of' lateral roots to be in position in the area
dug. Loose soil is put in the cavity around the taproot and pressed
firmly. This is best done by pushing the alavango into the edge of the
planting hold as deep as the tap roots it, in a slanting manner so that
the top part of their alavan5;o is away from the stump and the lower
end near the ti of the tap root and then pulling it strongly towards the
stump which is firmly held in position. This is repeated on all sides
without causing any damage to the bud.
2. Polybag planting
The top storey of leaves should be fully mature at the
time of planting. The soil around the bag is removed and the bag
taken out of the trench. Dressing of the lateral roots and tap root if
growth out of the bags may be necessary. Then they are carried to the
planting points. A planting hole bigger than the size of the bag is
made. The bottom of the bag is completely cut and then the bag
along with the plant is inseded in to the planting hole.
A vertical cut is madder at the bottom half of the
plastic sleeve and the space around the bag are gradually filled, with
cylinder of soil without t)eing broken at the same time of his
operation. When the hole i:; thus partially filled the bag is slit along
its full length and carefully removed. The gap around the upper part
of the soil core is also filled with soil without causing any damanger
to the soil core.
3. Seed at stake planting
The system of planting seeds in situ is called seed-at -
stake planting. Field budding follows it.
Out of the various planting method, Polybag planting
is more popular and this type is more suited for the climatic
conditions of Kerala and stump planting follows it. The third
category planting-seed-at-stake planting have less importance in
India Rubber field because of country's climatic conditions. The
table 6.20 shows the planting methods adopted in rubber estates in
Kerala.
Table No.6.20.Methods of planting in Rubber plantations
1 1 estates 1 planting 1 planting 1 stake I I
It is observed from the table that most of the rubber
Seed-at- SI.No
1
2
3
estates adopt polybag planting (both large and small). 85% if the
Total Poly bag Type of Stump
(Primary data)
Large
Small
Total
42(853/0)
45(90%)
87
7(14%)
5(9%)
12
planting
1(1%)
l(l%)
2
50(100%)
50(100%)
100
large estates and 90% of the small estates adopt polybag planting and
14% of the large estates and 9% of the small estates adopt stump
planting and 1% of each adopt seed-at-stake planting.
6.5.8.6. Tea
Polybag planting is the main method of planting in tea
plantations." Both large and small plantations are entirely depending
on this type of planting.
6.5.8.c. Cardamom
In large cartlamom plantations poly bag planting is
most commonly used. In small plantations, seed-at-stake planting is
more popu~ar.'2
The table 6.21 shows the details of planting methods of
cardamom plantations.
Table No.6.21.Planting methods in Cardamom plantations
I I estatei / I I 1 stake 1 SI.No.
I I I I I
1 / Large 1 46(920/;,) 1 3(6%) / 1(2%) 1 50(100%) I I I I I
2 1 Small 1 4(8%) 1 45(90%) 1 1(2%) 1 50(100%)
Type of
(primary data)
In large cardamom plantations, 92% of the estates adopt
polybag planting, 4% seed-st-stake planting and 2% adopt other
traditional methods. In the case of small estates, only 8% adopt
polybag method and 2% adopt other normal methods.90% of the
small estates adopt seed-st-stake methods.
Others
I I I I I
Total
2 48 3 100 Total 50
6.5.8.d. Comparison
In most of the rubber and tea plantations (both large
and small estates) adopt polybag method. But in Cardamom
plantations, large estates are more adopt polybag planting and small
estates adopt seed-st-stake planting.
6.5.9. Water Management System Plantations
6.5.9.a. Rubber
Proper water management and irrigtion facilities are
necessary for rubber cultivation. In most of the estates, there have a
good systematic water management system exist. In large
plantations, modern technique and equipment are used for proper
water management system such as motor-pumping, modern irrigation
facilities etc. while in small estates, traditional system such as ponds,
wells in the estates itself are used.13 Table 6.22 reveals the water
management system in rubber plantations.
Table No.6.22.Water Management System in Rubber estates
S1.No
mr3%3-pq5y\ (Primary data)(C.V= 8.98;T.V=3.84 !;Degreesof freedom=l ;Significance level=5%)
estates syslem
32(64%)
In large rubber estates 64% have a good and
Type of
systematic water management system .In the case of small estates;
Water management
18(36%)
only 34% have such systeni. A Chi-square test is conducted with
50(100%)
13 Rubber News,January(l999)pl4.
Ho= there is no difference in the water management system followed
in both large and small estal es.
Since the calculated value is greater than the table value,
the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the water
management system in both large and small estates are different.
6.5.9.6. Tea
A good and systematic water management system exists
in both large and small plantations. The table 6.23 shows the details
of water management systern in tea plantations.
Table No.6.23.Water Management System in Tea plantations
From the table it is observed that 92% of the large
plantations have a good system of water management and 8% of
them have not. While in the case of smallholdings, 90% have
systematic water management system and 10% have not. A Chi-
square test is conducted with Ho=there is no difference in water
management system in both large and small tea estates. Since the
calculated value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is
accepted and it is conclud?d that the size of the estates have no
influence in the water management system in tea plantations.
Water No
4(8%) Small 5(10%)
9
Total
50(100%) 50(100%) 100
(Primary data)(C.V=. 12; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=I; Significance level=S%)
6.5.9.c. Cardamom
It is noticed that in most of the large plantations, there
should be sufficient water management system. In small estates their
number is low. The table 6.24 reveals the details.
I I estates I management / I I
(Prirnruy data)(C.V=25.68; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=S%)
From the table, it is viewed that 94% of the large
1 2 3
plantations have a good and systematic water management system.
Large Small Total
But in the case of small estates only 49% have such system. A Chi-
square test is conducted with Ho= there is no difference in the water
management system followed in large and small cardamom estates.
Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the water management
system followed in both large and small are different.
6.5.9.d. Comparison
The details of water management system in different
plantations crops (comparison) are given in the table 6.25
Table No.6.25.Water Management System in Plantations
SI.No I Type of Water / No system / Total I plantations I management I I I
Rubber
Cardamom 7 1 4 Total 21 1
(Primary data)(C.V=42.24;T.V=5.991;Degrees of freedom=2;Siginificance level=S%)
5 1 9
29 89
100 100 100 300
A good and systematic water management system exists
in tea plantations than rubber and cardamom estates. A Chi-square
test is conducted with I-Io= there is no difference in water
management system fo1low1:d by different plantations.
Since the calculated value is greater than the table value,
the null hyphtotieseis rejected and it is concluded that the water
management system fol1owc:d by different plantations are different.
6.5.10. Disease Management System in Plantations
6.5.1O.a. Rubber
Abnormal leaf fall and shoot root are the main diseases
of rubber plantations found in Kerala. Most of the estates have
facilities for managing these diseases. The table 6.26 shows the
details of disease management system in rubber plantations.
Table No.6.26.Disease management system in Rubber plantations. Disease No Total
estates Management system system -
5(10%) 50(100%) I I
2 I Small I I I I 1 3 I Total 85 15 100
It is observed from table that 90% of the large estates
and 80% of the small estat2s have a scientific disease management
system. A Chi-square tesi. is conducted with Ho= there is no
difference in the disease management system followed in both large
and small rubber estates. Since the calculated value is less than the
table value, the null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that
there is no difference in the disease management system followed in
both large and small estates.
6.5.10.6. Tea
A good and systematic disease management system
exists in both large and sma 1 estates. Table 6.27 reveals the details.
(Primary data)(C.V=.795;T.V= 3.841;Degees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)
Table No.6.27.Disease management system in Tea plantations
From the table, it is seen that 90% of the large estates
and 85% of the small estates have its own disease managements
Total
50(100%)
50(100%)
100
Disease estates management
system
Small
Total 87
system. A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho=there is no
No system
5(10%)
8(15%)
13
difference in the disease management system followed in large and
small estates. Since the calculated value is less than the table value,
the null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that there is no
difference in the disease management system followed in large and
small tea estates.
6.5.1O.c. Cardamom
It is observed that 96% of the large estates and 53% of
the small estates have a systematic and good disease management
The details of the disease management system are shown in
table 6.28.
Table No.6.28.Disease manage~nent system in Cardamom plantations I S1.No I Type of I Disease management I No system I Total
(primary data)(C.V=23.52; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=S%)
system 48(96%)
Small 27(53%)
75
A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho= there is no
difference in the disease m.~nagement system followed in large and
2(4%)
23(47%)
25
small cardamom estates.
50(100%)
50(100%)
100
Since the calculiited value is greater than the table value,
the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the disease
management system followed in large and small cardamom estates
are different.
6.5.10.d. Comparison
It is analysed that 87% of the tea estates have a good
disease management system followed by rubber (85%) and
cardamom (75%).
The details are shown in table 6.29.
Table No 6.29.Disease Management System in plantations
Type of Disease
System Rubber 85
87 Cardamom 75
Total 247 (primary Data)(C.V=S.700; T.V=5.99; Degrees of freedom=2; Significance level=S%).
No System
15 13 25 53
Total
100 100 100 300
From the table, it is observed that most of the tea estates
have its own disease management system followed by rubber and
cardamom Chi-square tesl. is conducted with Ho=there is no
difference in disease management system followed by rubber, tea and
cardamom. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the
null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that there is no
difference in the disease management system followed in rubber, tea
and cardamom estates.
6.5.11. Scientific crop management in plantations.
The scientific crop management in plantations is measured
by conducting a correlatio~i test by taking three variables-nursery
management systems, disease management system and water
management system. If all these variables are possessed by estates, it
is assigned three points, if any one or two of them are possessed, then
it is given two points and il' none of them are possessed, it is given
one point.
The detail of the scientific crop management system is
given below.
6.5.11.a. Rubber The correlatiori test conducted under rubber plantations
are given in table 6.30. Table No.6.3O.Scientific crop management and productivity in rubber estate
(Primary data)
The value obts~ined from the correlation test is .730and
it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the
productivity in rubber estates are positively correlated.
The scientific crop management system and the productivity
in tea plantations are given in table 6.3 1.
Table N0.6.31 Scientific crop management and the productivity in tea estates
(Primary Data)
The value obtained from the correlation test is .606 and
it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the
productivity in tea estates are positively correlated.
6.5.11. c. Cardamom
The scientific crop management system and the productivity in cardamom estates are given in table 6.32. Table No.6.32.Scientific crop management and the productivity in cardamom estates.
Primary Data
From the table, it is observed that 35% of the rubber
estates have full scientific management practices in respect of crop,
50% have partial scientific management and 15% have not. In the
case of tea, 36% have full scientific management, 48% have partial
and 16% have not. In the case of cardamom 30% have full scientific
crop management, 40% have partial and 30 have not. From the
analysis, it is clear that tea estates have more scientific crop
management followed by rubber. A chi-square test is conducted with
Ho= there is no differeno: in the scientific crop management
The value obtained from the correlation test is .704 and
it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the
productivity in cardamom piantations are positively correlated.
6.5.12. Scientific crop management in Plantations
The scientific crop management practices in
plantations are measured by considering three variables-nursery
management systems, disease management system and water
management system. If all these variables are possessed by an estate,
then three points are assigned to such estates, if any two or one of
them is possessed, two points are assigned such estates and if none of
them is possessed, one point is assigned. The table 6.33 shows the
details of scientific management practices in plantations.
Table No.6.33 Scientific crop management in plantations.
Scientific llubber mana ement
k T t 3 5
Partial 50 15
4 Total 100 (Primary data)(C.V=8.758; T.V=9.488, DF=4; sg=5%)
Tea
36 48 16 100
Cardamom
3 0 40 3 0 100
Total
101 138 61 300
practices followed in rubber, tea and cardamom. Since the calculated
value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is accepted and
it is concluded that there is no difference in the scientific crop
management practices followed in rubber, tea and cardamom.
Inorder to tezt the effectiveness of scientific crop
management practices and the productivity of each crop, multiple
regression test is conducted. From the results it is observed that the
crop management in rubber plantations has more significance with
productivity than tea and cardamom. (The details of the multiple
regression test are shown in Appendix-3)