Chapter 6 Gillis & Jackson

8/13/2019 Chapter 6 Gillis & Jackson

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Chapter 6

Qualitative Research Designs

The World of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research designs

Scientific Adequacy Of Qualiative Research

Advantages & Limitations of qualitativeApproaches


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Defining Qualitative Research

use words rather than numbers to describe findings

assume a dynamic reality

emphasize seeing the world from the perspective of

the participants

goal is understanding rather than prediction

emphasize the subjective dimensions of human

experiences

holistic rather than reductionistic

associated with the interpretive approach which is

discovery oriented, explanatory, descriptive, and

inductive in nature


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Major Paradigms in Nursing

TOTALITY -reality existsindependent of the knower

humans are viewed as the

sum of their parts

cause & effect relationships

health is a continuum

quantitative research

approaches

positivist tradition

SIMULTANEITY- reality isa mutual process b/w human s &

the environment

humans are > & different from

the sum of their parts study is conducted not to control

the human being but to gain

insights into understanding the

personal meaning of experience researchers study the universal

lived experiences of health or

patterns of the whole

qualitative research approaches& the interpretive tradition


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Qualitative research is

complementary to quantitative

research.

Both processes produce different

kinds of knowledge that arevalued by the profession and both

are needed to promote excellencein practice


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Core Activities in Qualitative Research

Literature Review- a cursory review may be done

initially to focus the study, otherwise it is conducted

after the data has been collected and analyzed.

Rationale for delaying the L.R. is to avoid leading

the participants in the direction of what has already

been discovered.

Purpose of L.R. is to show how current findings fit

into what is already known


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Explicating Researchers Beliefs

Bracketing - setting aside ones biases and

personal views on a topic

Investigator keeps a diary of personal

thoughts and feelings about the topic

Purpose is to make known to the researcher

her/his beliefs about the topic so that the

researcher may approach the topic honestly


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Setting for Data Collection

Thefield is the natural world where participants live

Thefield requires reciprocity in terms of decision

making

The participant & researcher determine what datawill be shared

Participants must understand & be willing to share

their thoughts & feelings about the phenomenon

Contrast this with quantitative studies where data are

collected in controlled settings & the researcher is

removed from the subject


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Selection of Participants

Participant or informantrefers to theindividual who informs the research study

(vs subjects or respondents)

They are active participants & equalpartners

Must have 1st hand experience with

research phenomenon (vs random selection) They want to help others understand their

lives & the social contexts in which they

live & create meaning


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Purposive Sampling

Participants must have first hand experience with

the research experience and be able to talk about it

Researcher establishes clear criteria & rationale for

sample selection

Goal is not generalization of findings but rich

descriptions of phenomenon by those who have

experienced it


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Saturation

A situation in data collection in which

participants descriptions become repetitive

& confirm previously collected data

An indication that data collection is

complete

Similar to adequate sample size in

quantitative research


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Data Analysis

Researcher immerses self in data to bring order &meaning to vast narrative

Begins with 1st data collection episode

Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing,

synthesizing & reporting on data

Cyclical & recursive process that requires an

extensive amount of time


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Scientific Adequacy

RIGOR in qualitative research isless about the adherence to rules

and more about fidelity to the spirit

and standards of qualitative work(Sandelowski, 1993)


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Data Analysis (contd)

Data from interviews are continuously

reviewed to identify additional questions

Data from earlier interviews are routinely

returned to participants for

clarification/elaboration

Investigator must look for meaning in the

data as it is reviewed


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Data Analysis (Contd)

At conclusion of study a protracted period

of data immersion in which conclusions are

reviewed in the context of the whole study

Data similar in meaning are clustered

together into preliminary categories


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4 Criteria of Trustworthiness

Credibility Transferability

Dependability

Confirmability


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Credibility

Refers to the accuracy of the description

Is the description plausible & recognized by

those who experienced it.

Enhanced by prolonged time in the field

Repeatedly observing & interacting with

participants

Triangulation of data sources, methods, data

type, investigators, & theories

Member checks-participants involved with data

analysis


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Dependability

Refers to the stability & trackability of the

changes in data over time & conditions

Reflects the reality that peoples situationschange & reality differs for people

Want to determine the extent to which another

researcher with similar training & rapport withparticipants would make the same observations

This is determined by an audit trail


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Transferability

Concerned with generalizability or fittingness of

findings to other settings, populations, &

contexts

Report must provide sufficient detail so that

readers can assess this

Lack of transferability is often viewed as a

weakness of qualitative methods


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Confirmability

Basic issue here is one of neutrality Do conclusions depend upon the subjects &

conditions of inquiry rather than on the

researcher Would 2 independent researchers agree about

the meanings emerging from the data

An audit trail is used researcher must explicate how personal biases

may have come into play and consider

alternative explanations


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EXERCISE

Use the questions in Box 6.8 to assess the

qualitative rigor of an assigned researchstudy


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Contemporary Standards of Quality in

Qualitative Research

Fidelity to the spirit of qualitative work OR Did

we get it right?

positionality community

voice

critical subjectivity reciprocity

sacredness of relationship

sharing privileges


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Advantages & Limitations

Focus on the whole of the human experience &

the meanings ascribed to them by participants

they provide nurses with deep insights that

would not be possible using quantitative

methods exclusively

The major strength of qualitative work is the

validity of the data it produces

Participants true reality is likely to be reflected


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Advantages & Limitations (contd)

Major limitation is its perceived lack of

objectivity & generalizability

Researchers become the research tools and may

lack objectivity


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Phenomenology

Describes the meaning of the lived experience

from the perspective of the participant

Seeks to achieve a deep understanding of the

phenomenon by rigorous, systematic

examination of it

Its purpose is to describe the essences of lived

experiences


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ESSENCES

ELEMENTS RELATED TO THE TRUE

MEANING OF SOMETHING THATGIVES COMMON UNDERSTANDING

TO THE PHENOMENON UNDER

STUDY


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Philosophical Tenets

Whatever is known must appear in

consciousness

Consciousness provides access to the world

All phenomenologists believe in multiplerealities constructed by individuals within

the social context of their lives


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Developing the Question

Focus is to describe the meaning of the

lived experience from the perspective of the

participant

Broad question: What is the meaning of

ones lived experience?

Central overarching question &

subquestions


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Role of Researcher Is the instrument for data collection

Establishes good rapport with participants

Explicates beliefs through bracketing

The meaning of the lived experience is

interpreted from the participants stories


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Sample

Small purposive sample

Participants are able & willing to talk about

their experience and describe their feelings

Large enough to get a rich description of the

research phenomenon


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Data Collection

In-depth interviews

Written descriptions of experiences in

diaries & journals

Observations

Multiple interviews with same participants

to reflect the meaning of the lived

experience from the participants

perspective

A l i


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Data Analysis

Immersion with the data

Read, re-read transcripts, may return toparticipants for clarification or description

Comparative analysis to identify themes in data

Look for similarities & differences in data toidentify themes

Reduce data into smaller & smaller number of

categories to arrive at a consistent description ofthe meaning of the lived experience

Share description with participants for

verification


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Review of Literature

Conducted after data collection & analysis

are complete

Places findings within the context of what is

known about the phenomenon


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Findings

reports the essence of the experience

reader should get an understanding of what

it is like to experience the phenomenon


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Grounded Theory

Goal is to develop a theory about the

processes (social behaviour or scene) under

investigation in a natural setting

Useful in areas where little is known or

when a new perspective is needed

Tries to identify the core process and

subsidiary processes in the situation


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G.T. - Philosophy

Symbolic interactionism

humans react to things on the basis of

meanings that events have for them ineveryday life

meanings are derived from social situations

meanings are shaped by dealings with

others


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G.T. - Developing the Question

Question may not be explicitly stated but

can be implied from the purpose

Question is broad & may change severaltimes as data are analyzed

Basic social process

Gerund (noun ending ining )

What is the process of ...


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G.T. - Role of Researcher

Studies the behavior & the social setting

that influences the interaction

Is a participant & observer

No effort is made by researcher to put aside

assumptions.

On the contrary the researcher uses past

experiences and assumptions to better

understand the processes being observed.


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G.T. - Sample

Participants who are experiencing the social

process under study

Size determined by theoretical sampling

(collects, codes & analyzes data & then

decides what additional data are needed)

Saturation- inability of new data to add new

codes


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G.T. - Data Collection

Data collection & analysis are concurrent

Observation & audio-taped interviews

Field notes

Researcher participates in the social group,

observes & records data relevant to study purpose Broad open-ended questions

Ask participants to share stories of their

experiences


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G.T. _ Data Collection

Everything to the grounded theorist is data

Data are obtained through a combination of:

participant observation, interviews with

informants, reading the literature on the

study questions, and self-reflection


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Data Analysis

Data collection, coding & analysis occur

simultaneously

Constant comparative method

Early data are coded with words that describe the

action in the setting

Codes get revised & data recoded

Categories develop from the clustering of codes

Categories are then linked to develop a tentative

theory or conceptual framework


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G.T.-Literature

Review of the literature in the substantive

area of the study is reserved until after the

theory begins to emerge from the study data

Researcher integrates the literature with the

emerging theory during saturation, sortingmemos, & report writing


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ETHNOGRAPHY

Aims to understand human behavior in the

cultural context in which it is embedded

Aims to understand the way in which

people live from the emic(insiders)

perspective vs the etic (researchers oroutsiders) perspective


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Ethnography

The work of describing a culture (Spradley, 1980)

Culture includes a way of life (all the ways a group

of people solve problems, a pattern of living that

guides thoughts, actions, sentiments as reflected in

language, dress, food, traditions, customs, etc.

Purpose is to make explicit what is implicit within a

cultural group


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Ethnonursing

the study & analysis of the indigenous

peoples point of view, beliefs, & practices

about nursing care phenomena & processesof designated cultures

Provides a means to study culturalvariations in health& illness, & nurses &

their clients as subcultures of society


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Ethnonursing

Mini ethnography - a small scale

ethonography focusing on a narrow area of

inquiry, limited time period, published asan article

Maxi ethnography - comprehensive studyof a designated culture. Have a broad focus

of inquiry, extend over a long period of

time (years), & are published in book form


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Ethnography- Philosophy

Roots in cultural anthropology (study of the

origin of people, their past, & strategies for

surviving through time) Involves learning frompeople rather than

studyingthem. The researcher must become

a student & the participants of the culturethe teachers

Researcher adopts an attitude of conscious

ignorance about the culture


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Three Phases of Ethnographic Research

Prefield Work

Field Work

Postfield Work


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Developing the Question

Focuses on some pattern of behavior,

lifestyle, custom, or belief of the culture-

sharing group e.g.- the health beliefs of immigrant Hong

Kong women

Nurses may focus on an aspect of life in thecommunity that impacts the health

experience of its members

Role of Researcher


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Role of Researcher

Is the primary data collection tool

Enters the world for an extended period of time,asking questions, observing, participating, &

collecting whatever data are available

Observe behavior but go beyond it to inquire aboutthe meaning of it

researchers role is to make inferences from their

observations & then to test these inferences overtime with their population until they are confident

they have an adequate description of the culture

Must set aside biases & explicate beliefs


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Sample

A cultural group that has experience with

phenomenon of interest

Informant vs subject

Gatekeeper

Key Informants


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Data Collection

Participant observation

Formal & informal interviews

Focus groups

Collection of artifacts & documents

Field notes

Other sources (demographic data, maps,

genealogies, life histories)

E h h D A l i


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Ethnography Data Analysis

Follows a cyclical pattern Data collection, recording, analyzing, returning

tot he field to collect more data

Proceeds through 4 levels: domain analysis,

taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, &

theme analysis Goal is to discover cultural patterns in the data

people are using to make sense out of their

experiences


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Ethnographic Findings

A two-step process

1. A cultural inventory

2. A final descriptive report that may be a

book or monograph

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Chapter 6 Gillis & Jackson

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