CHAPTER – III SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS IN KANDAPURANAM ...

CHAPTER – III

SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS IN KANDAPURANAM

Since Literature of any language will be an expression of the native life

in some form of other Kachchiyappar’s Kandapurnam is not exception. It has

exposed the Tamil literary tradition and Tamil culture by accepting the native

tradition and by leaving some aspects available in the original Sanskrit work

Skandan Kachchiyappar has promoted the Murugan cult. In this regard the

Tamil author has unhesitatingly expressed the way of life of the Tamils of the

contemporary period and has referred to the food habits, beliefs, wisdom etc., of

the Tamils along with the facts about the politics of that period.

For estimating the social and cultural aspects of the Tamils one is

compelled to have an analytical approach of the facts as depicted by

Kandapurnam. Since Kachchiyappar has endeavoured to revitalize the worship

of Murugan it becomes a must to understand the different conditions of the

contemporary Tamil country in which he undertook his efforts. Further as a

poet, hailed from Kanchipuram, a prominent Sanskritic centre and the

renowned capital of the Pallavas and released his work at Kumarakottam of that

place one will have an opportunity to notice the social life of the Tamils as

described by him here and there in his work. That will also assist one to have a

picture of the Tamil country as narrated by a devotional work. As no details

about the narration of any other religions are available in Kandapuranam one Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

can understand that it should have been the period of the imperial Cholas and

Pandyas of the later period ruled from Thanjavur and Madurai respectively the

concept of religious toleration adopted by those monarchs should have

influenced Kachchiyappar. This fact also stresses the need for noticing the

social behaviours of the Tamils and the political aspects of the Tamil rulers

contemporary period. Various social aspects analyzed, under different sub-

headings, will assist to have an analysis of the social life of the Tamils128.

As “literature is the most considerable and fruitful source of historical

data”129 it will also apt to analyse Kandapurnam on that line. The development

of Tamil literature during the Imperial Chola period were mostly political and

religious literature blended with the concepts of northern traditions130.

In this regard an analysis of Kandapurnam of Kachchiyappar becomes a

must to notice of the social life and political ideas of the Tamils as revealed by

Kandapurnam.

128. N.Ramalingam, Kandapurana Araichi, Madurai, 1988, p.61. 129. N.Subramanian, Sangam Polity, Madurai , 1980, p.19. 130. A.M.Paramasivanandam, Tamilaga Varalaru, Madras, 1972, p.289.

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Philosophy of Life

Since birth, growth, old age and death are the common features of the life

of all the living beings, Kachchiyappar has undisputably agreed upon that131. As

pointed out by Tirukkural one should consider both the virtues and vices along

with the good qualities and faults and the qualities of an individual132.

Kachchiyappar without deviating from that noble saying scrupulously has

mentioned that one should set aside those who are always finding fault with

others133. Those who stand upon the way of fate, certainly have to meet multiple

happiness and the bundle of sorrows134. Being a believer in Karma

135 as

Kachchiyappar to has approved that the world comprises of the qualities of

good and bad as well as virtues and vices one has to accept that the world is

inhabited by people who are known for their contracting qualities. All the lives

which born in this world should aim at the attainment of Moksha by involving

in noble activities and deeds of appreciable life136. He was aware of the fact that

a man who is fond of sexual appetite has to faces the sorrows and distress and

according to him it was the irony of fate137. He has mentioned that hearing

unfair words will leads to despair138. Those who born due to their fate should

131. Kandapuranam, Tirunattuppadalam, 5:28:1- 2 132. G.U. Pope (Tr), Tirukkural; 504, Madras, 1973.p.135 133. Kandapuranam, Thakkan Kayilai Sel Padalam; 9:5:1-2 134. Ibid., Thakkan Mahapperu Padalam, 3:15:3-4 135. Ibid., Thiru Avathara Padalam, 11:3:2. 136. Ibid., 11:34:3 - 4 137.Ibid., Markkandeyappadalam, 5:23:1-2 138. Ibid., 5:248:1-2


never lead an ordinary life except having sleep, old age and death because that

will not offer nay thing which are just139. Hence every one was expected to be

always brisk. According to him murder, theft, lust and such unlawful deeds are

not stable and they will make one to suffer140. In this world nothing is

permanent and one who goes down will automatically riseup141. At one time the

powerful will lose his power and the weak will become strong and this

contradictory deviation is the philosophy of life142. An unfair and unjust, king

will never be an enlightened and benovalent monarch and he had to give up all

his wealth. From his words it is revealed that the unfair activities will never

allow any opportunity to enjoy the wealth in a peaceful way.143 For possessing a

huge wealth, flawless ruler, joy, happiness, fame and long life without rebirth

one should be always in the lovable company144.

Kachchiyappar, giving importance to the principled way of life, reiterates

that it will be the real wealth to be in the company of the learned scholars, who

are known for their sound wisdom and knowledge145. It not only reminds us of

the sayings of Tirukkural but also stresses the values of life as described in that

139 .Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:9:1-4 140. Ibid., Sukkiran Upadesa Padalam, 10:50:1-2 141. Ibid., Asurar yagappadalam, 8:20:1-2 142. Ibid., Asurandiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:59:3-4 143. Ibid., Mayai Ningu Padalam, 7:4:1-4 144. Ibid., Takkan Mahapperu Padalam :1-4 145.Ibid., 8:5:1-4


work146. Those who are uneducated and ignorant will bow down before others

and will never be benefited by their knowledge and they will indulge in acts

which are unjust and unfair147. Thus Kachchiyappar has stressed the importance

of wisdom and knowledge as an essential quality required for a successful life.

Those who aim at the joy and happiness in the other world will never find

any disparity between joy and sorrow and will treat both equally because they

are the common qualities of all the human beings148. As Kachchiyappar was

aware of the fact that even the people of high calibre will never be able to give

up the desires of women, he has reiterated one should endeavour to avoid the

desires of women and wealth which will never be beneficial in the other

world149. One should attempt to know the principles of the realities of life by

setting aside all the barriers and sorrows and miseries of life150. The elders as

models for others should lead the honest life and should allow the youngsters to

be free all vices and should not be like the birds which could not express the

miseries151. As the evil are boundless

152, the evils in life should be avoided at

any cause. In the same way he pin points that they will have no relief in life153.

146.The 10 couplets under the heading ‘Hearing’ (Kelvi) in Tirukkural stresses that the

wealth gained by hearing through the ear will be permanent (Vide. G.U.Pope (Tr)

Tirukkural, p.111-113. 147. Kandapuranam, Mayai Upadesa Padalam, 6:9:2-4 148.Ibid., Indiran Karandurai Padalam, 21:32:1-4. 149. Ibid., Maharatha Padalam, 32:11:3-4. 150. Ibid., Kayamugan Vadai Padalam, 7:49:3-4 151. Ibid., Virapaku Kandamadam Sel Padalam, 1:23:3-4 152. Ibid., Tirukkurrala Padalam, 3:1-4 153. Ibid., Kama Thahana Padalam , 51:1-4.


Like the protectors of the eight directions one should set aside the evils by

adopting genuine and honest ways154.

Those who work for others and the one who abstains from doing any

harm to others will be always happy and will never suffer and they will be like

by all155. Here also one can understand the impact and influence of Tiruvallvuar

over Kachchiyappar. Among the 1330 songs 10 songs of Tirukkural point out

the facts relating to the avoidance of the evil doing and practices156. While

speaking of the order and customary practice of the world, Kachchiyappar

mentions that the sons born to parents in proper way should be worthy of

maintaining of the prestige of the family and they alone will bring happiness to

others157. To give stress to the values of the mother, Kandapuranam mentions

that those who have mother will never be degraded158. While insisting the

values of the parents the author Kachchiyappar has informed that those who

prostrate before their parents will keep them always away from any kind of

catastrophic fall159. As rightly stated by Avvayar, as the parents are the

pioneering Gods to all, Kachchiyappar too has followed the footsteps of the

earlier moral ideas as propounded by the scholars of the past. So Kandapuranam

points out that the society should learn so many lessons from the occurances of

154. Ibid., Suran Arasirukkai Padalam, 39:2:3 155. Ibid., Indirani Marutalai Padalam, 35:5:1-2 156. G.U.Pope (Tr) op,cit., Chapter 32:1-10 157. Kandapuranam, Asamukhi Pulamburu Padalam, 41:31:1-2 158. Ibid., Sukkiran Upadesa Padalam, 10:5:4 159. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:261:3-4


the past of a society for its own elevated nature. The importance assigned to the

part will be lesson for the future.

It is pointed out beyond doubt that the atheistic idea prevails in a society

will set aside sacredness, add up the sins and entoganise the yield of penance

along with the disappearance of benefactory acts160. Only because of the irony

of fate the atheists hold the view that there is no Siva or any other God. By

leaving the relatives when a wandering life of animals is led by an individual

along with the lonely life in the forest one can gain the grace and benefactions

of god161. One should have a long life, sustenance and attraction because they

are good signs of life162. The lives which born in this world are like water fire,

air and atmosphere and this common factor is applicable to all the living

beings163. Every being, which is tied up by three kinds of ties faith over earth,

wealth and women of the world, will suddenly meets its end due to execution of

good and bad performances164. By the grace of God alone all human beings,

animals, birds, grass etc., are brought out165. Here it must be remembered that

Manicakavasagar, in his Sivapuranam has expressed the same view166 (Pullai,

Pudai, Puluvai, Palmirugami, paravayai, pambai, kanangalai, manitharai

priantha ithavara sanganathul) and that has its own echo over Kachchiyappar.

160. Ibid., Sayandan Pulambuur Padalam, 9:33:1-4 161. Ibid., Avai Puhu Padalam, 12:86:1-4 162. Ibid., Dadisi uddhara Padalam, 13:129:3-4 163. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:7:1-4 164. Ibid., 4:6:1-4 165. Ibid., 4:8:1-4 166. Sidhbavananda (Ed), Tiruvasagam, Tirupparaythurai 1975, p.121.


Only because of the analysis and knowledge of the earlier devotional works

Kachchiyappar also had gained a sound knowledge of the realities of the

evolution of all the living beings.

While the noble qualities such as chastity, capability, fame, capacity,

efficiency etc., are the wonders of the creator imbibed on the living beings167,

the human beings should be ever prepared to maintain them in tact. The people

suffer and fall to attain the bliss of heaven mainly due to their unlawful acts

such as murder, theft and misdeeds. They forget that such evil deeds in turn

pave the way for rebirth168. So one should never indulge in any unlawful

activities and should always be friendly with all learned scholars and should

have the mind to assist all to be happy at all time169. Those who are not just and

fail to render any help to others will find and they will have no wealth for their

prosperity170. Even kings and others should follow the footsteps of their

ancestors for the sake of relieving themselves from the distresses and sorrows

of rebirth and to set aside all the unwanted things which are the normal causes

for miseries171. United action in achieving the same thing will be the principle

of life172. Thus Kachchiyappar by giving importance to the individual action

stresses the need for a principled way of life without any deviation and wrong

167. Kandapuranam, Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:11:1-3 168. Ibid., 4:24:1-4 169. Ibid., 2:31:1-4 170. Ibid., Kasipan Pulamburu Padalam, 2:21:1-4 171. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:41:1-4 172. Ibid., 5:99:3-4


approaches. In this regard Kachchiyappar’s Kandapuranam enables one to lead

a pragmatic and practical life without any problems for others in this world.

As Tirukkural insists on the possession and maintenance of decorum and

morality for gaining prosperity and maintaining status173, Kandapurnam to

specifies the significance of the life having status and decorum174. The Vedic

idea contain a lot of facts, which can be analyzed by learned scholars175. As the

Vedas comprise a lot of things it is the duty of the Andhanars to interpret and

maintain them176. In the light of the above facts it is obvious that all the things

required to everybody and requested by them should all be offered for a

successful life in this world177. So that Kachchiyappar has stressed the fact that

all the people should adhere to the sayings of the scholarly poets of the past178.

Kachchiyappar was particular in encouraging the mind of everybody do adopt

the appreciable principles in life for their own individual uplift. In this regard he

has unhesitatingly pointed out Murugan as the first among the Gods who

showered his blessings through the Vedas. This is a technique available in

Kandapuranam. By connecting Tamil Murugan with the Vedas, the sacred work

in Sanskrit, Kachchiyappar had paved the way for a syncriticism of cultures.

173. G.U.Pope, op.cit., p.36-38. 174. Kandapuranam, Mayay Padalam, 1:52:3 175. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:3:1-3 176. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:12:1-4 177. Ibid., Upadesa Padalam, 1:17:1 178. Ibid., Avaipuku Padalam, 12:92:2-3


In addition to the preachings of various principles of the Kachchiyappar

had prompted the specific noble qualities required for the attainment of the

goal. For avoiding the miseries of rebirth and to gain the blessings of the

divinities in this world one should practice concentration of mind and also

should conduct penance by being aloof for achieving the attainment of the

realities of truth179. To inculcate the spirit of the conduct of penance he has

encouraged people by saying that every one should make sincere attempts to

enhance their position in this world itself to that of the position of celestials of

the other world180. The arrival of sage with Kundigai and a pole due to his old

age too will suggest the importance assigned to sagehood181. This too attests the

importance assigned to the Sanyasa stage of life in this world.

179. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:21:1-4 180. Ibid., 4:19:1- 4 181. Ibid., Daisi Uttara Padalam, 13:253:1-4


Penance

Penance is a powerful media followed in a peaceful way without speech

and sleep. The concentration of a common mind with all loneliness should be

the motive of all those who indulge in penance182. For the sake of getting relief

from the worldly effects of Karma one should give up the miserable family life

and should engage in the execution of penance183. Because of penance one can

have an integrated mind and that will widen the scope of achieving the heaven

with all happened. Even this could be achieved not by all but only by a few who

have a strong mind and will power184. In this regard too Kachchiyappar has

adopted the Sanskrit oriented four stages of life called Brahmmacharya,

Grihastha, Vanaprasta and Sanyasa. Kachchiyappar was well aware of the fact

that such attainments will be possible only with the blessings of God185. He has

pointed out that the conduct of penance in a forest by a single individual in a

lonely way will be more beneficial than the wealth acquired after strenuous

activities in this world of materialism.186 The penance will relieve the distress of

rebirth and will offer opportunities for seeking a permanent place for one in the

paradise187.

182. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:4:1-2 183. Ibid., 5:10:1-2 184. Ibid., Kandan Upadesa Padalam, 4:16:1-2 185. Ibid., 4:17:1-4 186. Ibid., Ayirani Soka Padalam, 31:12:2-3 187. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:16:1-2


Carrying out penance is not an easy task188. The great sages and saints,

who had achieved that level alone gained fame and name in this world and

obtained a place in Heaven in the next world189. All the above facts are the

outcomes of the deep wisdom and knowledge of Kachchiyappar about the four

stages of life i.e., Brahmacharyam, Grihastam, Vanaprastam and Sanyasam,

which are available in the Vedic scriptures. Such facts stand to prove the

Sanskrit knowledge of Kachchiyappar. The same facts are revealed by

Tirukkural in chapter 27 under the caption Thavam (penance). As most of the

above mentioned facts are available in Tirukkural in 10 couplets that too

stresses his wide knowledge of Tamil and the impact and reflections of the

ideas of Kural190 in Kandapurnam. Kachchiyappar was so specific that the life

of every individual human being should be a successful one in this earth. Again

the time gap between Tirukkural and Kandapurnam and the period of the

Bhakthi Movement in Tamil Nadu compels one to approve and acknowledge

that concentration of mind was considered as a divine quality based on religious

pursuits and that was practicable by all human beings. For achieving success in

the job taken up by him, Kachchiyappar took a stern measure as a preparation

ground on par with the existing traditions in Tamil Nadu, which was a tradition

oriented one.

188. Ibid., Taragan Vattai Padalam, 20:102:1 189. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:232:1 190. G.U.Pope, op.cit., p.70-72.


Devotion

Being a religionist, because of the consequences of the Bhakthi

Movement, Kachchiyappar offered a renowned and a foremost place to

devotion. He has pointed out that the common people of the earlier periods of

Tamil Nadu had gained mukthi by the constant adoption of devotion191. In this

regard it is worth to note that Kachchiyappar keeping the Saiva and Vaishnava

saints in mind has spoken about devotion and surrender. In support his

viewpoints Kachchiyappar has reiterated that even incendiaries and vandals will

be able to gain the grace of God by their own personal pursuits and devotion192.

Those, who had crossed the age of ten or attained puberty had no fear, due to

their regular conduct of discourses and chantings etc. He believed that by

showing devotion to God one could attain prosperity and the others who avoid

it will be inert and lifeless193. One who considered himself as a God will be

prosperous and will be benefited by joy and happiness and others will float in

the sea of sorrows194. Thus the enthusiastic and religious minded

Kachchiyappar through his work ventured hard to spread to devotion and the

cult of Murugan among people and by that he endeavoured not only to elevate

the status of the Tamil deity Murugan but also has tried to enhance the value of

191. Kandapuranam, Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:20:1-2 192. Ibid., Padaielu Padalam, 19:7:4 193. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:67:1-4 194. Ibid., Upadesappadalam, 1:29:1:4


the people with devotion. In general devotion was a stepping stone for success

in this world.

Dharma

As it was a period of monarchial form of government and as the kings

were all the upholders of Dharma Kachchiyappar too has given importance to

Dharma. Without beginning or end or midway, with or without form, and with

or without happiness or sufferings one should lead a life accordingly and that

will lead one in the real path of life195. As per the above view points of

Kachchiyappar one should approve and acknowledge that one should render all

possible helps to others in redressing their sorrows and miseries and should

satisfy the needs of the needy, should be healthy, saintly and valorous and

should possess no fascination towards the wealth of others196. God will set aside

the sins of his devotees and those who carry out unlawful and treacherous acts

against the Vedic principles should have to face the ordeals of sins. Thus

Kachchiyappar had venerated and offered importance to Dharma.197. Those who

hail Dharma will be possessors of love, grace and children198. As he had rightly

pointed out the above mentioned facts it is evident that they should be way of

life. Dharma will offer happiness in this world and will set aside the horrors of

195. Ibid., Tiru Avathara Padalam, 11:42:1-2 196. Ibid., 11:9:1-4 197. Ibid., Dadisi Upparappadalam, 13:309:1-4 198. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:13:1-2


hell. So, everyone is directed to be beware of his own actions.199 As an act of

Dharma, one who has renounced the worldly pleasures should be protected and

the funeral rites to the dead and gone should also be executed properly without

any deviation.200 One’s major aim of life in this would for achieving an

enhanced status should be to carry out the acts of love and affection201.

Thus by attaching importance to the values of life, Kachchiyappar has

revealed that attitude of the people of the then society and has offered the ways

for the proper functioning of it. While estimating the realities of life proper

attention and importance should be attached to the different attitude of the

public. The aspects such as morality, maintenance of the status of women,

wisdom and knowledge, fine arts, beliefs, customs, food habits, caste divisions,

ornaments, town planning are all narrated by him. That too helps us to have an

idea of the contemporary Tamil society and such facts demand an analysis. So

an attempt on that line will be made in the ensuing pages.

Women, Chastity and Marriage

Though Kachchiyappar has not depicted the actual condition of women

of the contemporary period in a detailed way, through the women characters

portrayed in his work Kandapuranam, he has highlighted few facts relating to

199. Ibid., 4:12:1-4 200. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:49:1-4. 201. Ibid., 5:263:1-2


women. They assist one in estimating the social setup of that period. During the

ancient and medieval Tamilnadu the status of women was one of the

subordination to men and the wives had to treat their husbands as their gods and

marriage was a sacrament and not a contract202. As Suyamvara and divorce

were not in practice in Tamil Nadu203, Kachchiyappar too has made no such

mentions.

A principal man in life will never aspire or seek the other women except

his wife. As they were aware of the fact that they have to die one day or other

they adhered to principles of monogamy204. Polyandry was absolutely

unknown. There prevailed no polygamy at the time. Either knowingly or

unknowingly men did not touch the hands of other women and even if it is done

the lady was capable of knowing that as the touch of other man’s unknowing

touch.205 There were women to while away their time peeped through

windows206. The women who lived in the palatial buildings had the opportunity

to clasp the celestials wantonly and left them as if they are not interested in

them207. The women were accustomed to adorn their children with Kinkini and

Tugil208. The women who slept in the upstairs with the husband were involved

202. N.Subramanian , op.cit., p.277. 203. R.Rajalakshmi, Tamil Polity, Madurai, 1983, p.183. 204. Kandapuranam, Nagar pugu Padalam, 8:67:1-3. 205. Ibid., Ilangai Vil Padalam, 4:20:1-4. 206. Ibid., Nagarpuhu Padalam, 8:34:1-2s. 207. Ibid., 8:46:1-4. 208. Ibid., 8:38:1-4


in love acts without knowing the day or night209. They had both the qualities of

loving and aversion210. They were fond of decoration

211. So it is evident that the

women of that age were having freedom with little restrictions within their

houses. They were always aware of the virtues and vices in life.

Married family life was treated as approved and accepted moral order212.

Leading a married life and giving birth to children were treated as the primary

duties in primary life213. It is mentioned that women and others were much

inclined to lead a happy married life.214 Instead of committing a sin of having

illegal contact with women215 it was agreed that leading a family life will be a

joyous one216. As it was a happy augury to hail the sons, the family life was also

treated as a rejoicing one and that was also treated as an appreciable tenet217.

For the sake of getting a son after married life, the people avoided things

objectionable218. The traditional custom of giving importance to male children

continued to survive. In the male dominated, patriarchy family system male

children seemed to have enjoyed freedom and a higher and venerable status was

209. Ibid., 8:76:1-4. 210. Ibid., 8:30:1-4 211. Ibid., 8:45:1-5. 212. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:33:2-3. 213. Ibid., 5:34:1-4. 214. Ibid., 5:241:1-3. 215. Ibid., 5:26:1-3 216. Ibid., 5:94:3-4. 217. Ibid., 5:36:1-4. 218. Ibid., 5:38:2-4, 5:32:1-2.


given to male219. The female child was not at all despised. The venerable and

esteemed family life stress that the same kind of should be assigned lovable

acts. This trend continued to survive because even the celestials are also treated

on par with the organic custom of family life220. The grahasta or the father

followed the next stage of Vanaprastha and “the asetic provided wisdom to the

grahastha who fed him221. As it was a society which had faith and belief over

hierarchy of castes and social status Kachchiyappar has not deviated from the

traditional approach. He has informed that in the life after undergoing a married

life one should go to forest forth adherence to ascetic life because it was

justice222. The continuation of the traditional approach in life was a common

feature and Kachchiyappar had substantiated it.

The value of chastity and morality was remarkable. By controlling the

activities of the five limbs of the body and by setting aside the inclination to be

with women one can be elated to feel that he had overcame the demonish

activities223. While giving importance to the principles of life Kachchiyappar

was the opinion that men should keep away from the unjust acts in life. As

reiterated by him men who mix with other women will have to face death after

suffering out of unwanted ailments.224 There were prostitutes who were

219. R.Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.181. 220. Kandapuranam, Markkandeya Padalam, 5:40:1-3. 221. N.Subramanian, op.cit., p.281. 222. Kandapuranam, Markandeya Padalam, 5:131:4 223. Ibid., 5:21:1-4. 224. Ibid., 5:56:1-4


interested in earning money and they bothered even if no one comes to attend to

them225. The wife was much worried to part with her husband

226. The women

were always precarious and were particularly afraid of the comments of the

public. To avoid such mishaps they were devoted and pious towards gods227.

For the sake of elevating their position the women sought to undergo

fastings228. There were no equals to women because reverence was given to

husband and wife for maintaining their chastity229. Here too one can notice the

views of Valluvar230 borrowed by Kachchiyappar. The women were prepared to

give up their life for maintaining their chastity and morality231. Even men were

compelled to protect chastity and in their failure they were prepared to give up

their life232. The chaste women was treated as supreme among the goddesses

233.

By giving up all their faiths over various unwanted things they maintained their

chastity234. The women were always duty conscious and executed their

household duties effectively. It was felt that it was the duty of the wife to keep

their husband under control without deviating from routine family life235. The

poet has condemned even those ladies who involved in living, theft, bodily

225 .Ibid., Nagarpuhu Padalam, 8:42:1-2. 226. Ibid., Ilangai Vil Padalam, 4:25:1-2. 227. Ibid., Mahasatha Padalam, 5:47:1-4. 228. Ibid., Asamuhi Padalam, 34:23:3. 229. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:47:1-4 230. G.U.Pope op.cit., Chapter p.15-17. 231. Kandapuranam, Markkandeya Padalam, 5:102:2-4. 232. Ibid., 5:31:3-4. 233. Ibid., 5:30:1-2. 234. Ibid., 5:28:1-4. 235. Ibid., 5:27:1-4.


weakness, murder, adultery etc236. Women were expected to have slow and

measured steps237. They should preserve chastity

238 and avoid unlawful lust

239.

The women, other than wife, were treated as illusion240. Acts based on chastity

were always hailed and never be degraded241. The words of chaste women were

treated as sincere and flawless till the end242. It was the belief that even the birds

will appreciate the quality of chastity243. Arntadi is equated with chaste

women244. One who abducts with a chaste wife of others will have to bear the

anger aversion of others245. The chaste women will never have any kind of

faith over others at any cost246. The unchaste lady was graceless, intolerant and

was having obscene appearance and she treated this world as a prison247.

Chaste lady will have many sympathisers and supporter by her side248. On these

lines Kachchiyappar too has attached importance to the traditional and

customary practice of the Tamils in venerating women of notable traits and

qualities. The period of Kachchiyappar was significant in paying regard and

recognition to women and to their noble virtue called chastity. This was also a

continuous tradition prevalent in Tamil Nadu even from the days of the Sangam 236. Ibid., Asanambi Padalam, 34:7:7:1-4. 237. Ibid., Mayay Padalam, 1:61:2-4 238

. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:78:2 239. Ibid., 13:47:3 240. Ibid., Kasipan Pulamburu Padalam, 2:50:1-2. 241. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:96:3 242. Ibid., 13:94:3 243. Ibid., 13:82:2 244. Ibid., Thakkan Mahapperu Padalam, 3:1:1 and Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:289:1-2. 245. Ibid., 13:291:3-4. 246. Ibid., Indirani Marutalai Padalam, 35:9:1-2. 247. Ibid., Asanuhi Padalam, 34:5:1-4. 248. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:272:1


age. So the Tamils without any change and modification were so consistent in

maintaining veneration and status of women. The status of women was

centering on chastity and morality, the noble, virtuous qualities mentioned in

the literature of the periods. So the treatment of women through the ages

including that of Kandapuranam continued to survive unchanged and

unmeddled.

Wisdom and Knowledge

As the Chola period was known for the development of Tamil language

and literary eminence under kings like Raja Raja, the great (985 A.D. to 1014

A.D) it had it own impact over the Tamil society. Even during and after Raja

Raja many Tamil works came up during the period of the Chalukya Cholas

which commenced with Kulothunga I (1070-1120 A.D). Kachchiyappar

belonging to the 12th century has contributed his mite not only to development

of Murugan Cult was but also to the Tamil language. Being a Tamils scholar,

known for his sound knowledge of various aspects of the Tamil society

Kachchiyappar promoted knowledge and wisdom along with religion by his

own merit. He has hailed Kumaraval i.e., Murugan as the leader of the

Muttamil.249 Further he was much captivated by his own mother tongue Tamil.

He has gone even to the extent of appreciating that language as a remarkable

249 .Ibid., Avaipuhu Padalam, 12:52:1-3.


and sweet Tamil250. Tamil is described as a language having many works

known for their poetic diction251. Without giving the name, he has described

Murugan as the just kind of the Tamils252. By calling the peninsular India as

Dakkina Deyam he has used the adjective to denote that it is country having

chaste Tamil253. The dwarf sage Agattiya is described as the sage of the three

cool Tamil254, powerful Tamil

255. The sage is hailed as the one who had the

knowledge of Tamil which had ancient sayings256. Such narration about the

appreciation of Tamil suggest the value rendered by Kachchiyappar to Tamil.

As he was specific in bringing out an epic in Tamil on the model of a Sanskritic

epic, he has proved the superior virtues to Tamil.

The above facts reveal the attachment of Kachchiyappar towards Tamil

and the importance assigned to wisdom and knowledge through his work

Kandapurnam. The very sight of the learned scholar enabled the noble people

and women to serve under him257. The learned and aged scholars of Vedas will

be known for their wisdom258. The comprehended ideas encouraged

Kachchiyappar it exhibits his knowledge of different forms. Kahchchiyappar

has gone even to the extent of describing the distinctive methods of learning. It

250. Ibid., Kaveri Ningu Padalam, 27:10:1. 251. Ibid., Agattiya Padalam, 23:15:4. 252. bid., Tirukkurala Padalam, 28:3:4 253. Ibid., Devar Pulamburu Padalam, 30:2:1. 254. Ibid., Kaveri Ningu Padalam, 27:54:1 255. Ibid., Agattiya Padalam, 23:9:3. 256. Ibid., 23:13:2 257. Ibid., Kamadhakana Padalam, 4:16:2-4. 258. Ibid., Thavam kan Padalam, 6:2:4.


is told that the students was expected to control the activities of the different

parts of his body. By leaving the playful acts, was to proceed with the aim of

the preceptor with bowed head, while learning the initial steps of lessons from

the teachers259. After learning the primary lessons and preliminary grammar and

other arts, one was to devote attention towards the study of Vedas and their

essence260. Due to the significance attributed to knowledge, prominence too is

allotted to knowledgeable sons261. As a result factor, Kachchiyappar has

narrated, that all those learned who had gained wisdom should be placed in the

company of scholars who hailed from different parts of the world262. Thus

importance was assigned to leaning by Kachchiyappar. It is also revealed that

the learned will attain fame at all places.

On par with the statements regarding learning (Kalvi) available in

Tirukkural263, Kachchiyappar, by way of suggesting the superiority of learning,

points out that the wealth gained by knowledge and pride and will be a

permanent asset264. Those who gained the knowledge of Vedas and other arts

will be venerated as saints and sages who have attained reputation in their

respective fields which were laborious and strenuous265. The learned people,

259. Ibid., Kayamuhan Urppathi Padalam,14:72:1-2. 260. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:191:1-4. 261. Ibid., 5:180: 3-4. 262. Ibid., Mayay Upadesa Padalam, 6:11:1-4. 263. G.U.Pope, op.cit., Chapter 40, p.105-108ss 264. Kandapuranam, Mayay Upadesa Padalam, 6;10:1-4. 265. Ibid., 7:9:1-2


known for their sound knowledge could never be destroyed or degenerated266.

The term Pararignan267 insinuates that there were grades among scholars due to

their quantum of learning.

There were separate written works on fine arts for specifying various

aspects of life such as dance and music. Those who produced a work on dance,

those who were experts in dance, singing, experts in specific fields of fine arts

and those who produced other astronomical works have all been honoured and

they gained rewards such as precious stone, embroidered cloth, wealth etc. for

their personal pursuits individual calibre268. There were moral works

269. Works

on Vedas magic and others related to them were also available then270. There

were specific mantras and magical spells with set of rules and regulations271.

Thus there were many works relating to different subjects in addition to the

devotional works. Kachchiyappar, due to the popularity of the works and due to

his wisdom left them without any mention. From his general references about

works pertaining to specific areas prove the promoted and enhanced knowledge

and wisdom of that period.

His knowledge of geography offers an idea of the geographical factors of

that period. The mentioning of the river Kambai running near the ancient city 266. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 12:105:3. 267. Ibid., Adhiviran Vadai Padalam. 268. Ibid., Suran Arasirukkai Padalam, 39:76:1-4. 269. Ibid., Nagarbuhu Padalam, 8:64:1-4. 270. Ibid., Andakosa Padalam, 11:66:1 271. Ibid., Amarar Siraibuhu Padalam, 43:61:3-4.


Kanchi, the renowned center of Sanskrit and capital of the Pallavas, suggests

the geographical knowledge of Kachchiyappar. Like that river Kaveri was one

of worshipful nature272. It is also mentioned that the inundated flood in Kaveri

was treated as a holy one273. Such facts could be compared with the hailing of

Kaveri in Cilappatikaram274 by Elangovadigal. It is significant to note that the

descriptions of the Kambai and Kaveri rivers by Kachchiyappar expose his

geographical knowledge. Much importance is assigned to his native place first

i.e., Tondainadu and then to Kaveri of Nadunadu, i.e., the Chola country. The

references about ‘Dekkina Deyam’275 Courtalam

276 and the mentioning about

the cities of eight directions277 indicate that Kachchiyappar of Kandapuranam

had a wide horizon of knowledge of the geographical setup. The calling of India

as part of Jambhu devipa and the details about Meru i.e., Himalayas278 will

attest the above fact. The Indian sub continent is called Navalam Divu because

of the availability of Naval trees. The rivers flowing from the Himalayas made

the northern country prosperous and the availability of gold called

Sambunatham offered the name to the country279. This Kumari Kandam was

known for its true virtues280. Ganga, Gauthmi, Yamuna, Gowri, Kaveri,

272. Ibid., 23;19:3 273. Ibid., 23:18:3 274. S. Jeyaprakasa,(Ed) Silappathikaram, Kanalvari, Madurai, 1977, 9.109-110. 275. Kandapuranam, Indiran Karandurai Padalam, 21:39:2 276. Ibid., Tirukkurrala Padalam, 28:1-4. 277. Ibid., Nagerbuhu Padalam, 8:13:2 278. Ibid., Andakosa Padalam, 11:29:1 279. Ibid., Andakosa Padalam, 11:33:1-4. 280. Ibid., 11:47:4


Narmadah, Kambai, Pambai, Tungabhadra, Gomathi, Babakarai, Sangavahini,

Saruvari, Chandrabhagai, Bingalai, Kundalai, Muhali, Porunai, Perunai etc.,

were the rivers in Kandapuranam by Kachchiyappar281. They suggest not only

his geographical knowledge and the rivers which were familiar during his

period. He has mentioned Kanchi as the last among the eight cities and has

praised Bharatha Kandam for its noble qualities282. Further king Bharath, Indra,

Peran, Kaserukan were the rulers of this country having nine divisions from

Kumari to Meru. Though this historical knowledge of Kachchiyappar has no

corroborative evidence, it cannot be denied that during the early period before

Christ such unidentifiable divisions, should have been available. They too

suggest that due to political divisions such demarcations emerged.

The faith and belief over planatory movements was also common then.

The transitory nature of the planets during every day was counted then283.

Among the nine grahas (Planets), the name of Rahu and Kethu too occur in this

work284. The glittering Jupiter in the western direction is also described

285.

There were astrologers who were capable of referring to the auspicious days

and planatory effects286. On the basis of the asterisms auspicious days were

fixed. Panguni Uddiram day was treated as a suitable one for the celebration of

281. Ibid., 11:47:2 282. Ibid., 11:45:1-4 283. Ibid., Aramuki Soka Padalam, 37:13:3-4. 284. Ibid., Maharatha Padalam, 32:26:1-2. 285. Ibid., Veerabhaddira Padalam, 19:2:2 286. Ibid., Salai sei Padalam,11:33:4


marriages287. Even Gods has been associated with planets. For instance Sevvay

is associated with Murugan288. These observations enable one to think about the

prominence granted to planets, asterisms and astrology by the then Tamils

along with Kachchiyappar’s knowledge about such astronomical factors.

Offering importance to astronomy and astrology was not a new aspect of the

Tamils of any age.

Kachchiyappar had the knowledge of the Eighteen minor works of probably the

post Sangam Age. He has mentioned about Eladhi and Tirikadugam289 and the

indicate that the Tamils of his period showed importance to medicine. Separate

works on medicine were there and they contained facts and details about the

body and anatomy.290 Offering relief to the bodily ailments and suggesting

medicines for curing diseases291 were treated as noble and commendable deeds.

Applying a specific kind of paste to cure the wounds was also in practice292.

Though Kandapurnam is a devotional work, the author being a

multidimensional personality due to his wide knowledge of various things has

referred even about the medical science.

287. Ibid., Varaipunai Padalam, 8:35:2-4 288. Ibid., Gayamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:55:1 289. Ibid., Asurar Yaga Padalam, 8:26:2-4. 290. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:71:1. 291. Ibid., Mayay Padalam, 1:34:1-4. 292. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 14:7:1-4.


The knowledge about metals or metallurgy is another thing which

requires concentration. The reference about iron, Copper and gold293 suggest

that the Tamil society comprised of workers in various metals and they had

their own names such as Kollar, Tachar etc. are the terms which are repeatedly

mentioned in Kandapuranam. They testify to the traditional way of life of the

Tamils294. There were idol makers who used the compound of various metals

for the making of icons and idols.295 The metallic compound utilised was

prepared in a specific way.296 Lead, Silver, the white metal and the gold from

Bengal were of common use297. Such aspects disclose not only the knowledge

of the metals of the Tamils but also the economic prosperity as well as the

important assigned to metallic crafts. They even testify to the skill of the

artisans and the economic standard of the Tamil society.

Food Habits

Various Tamils works from Sangam Age to that of Kachchiyappar

contain lot of references about food materials and habits. For instance from

Cilappatikaram one can obtain details about nolai, to fried ball of gingelly

mixed with flour and sweet pongal298 along with other items of rice and millet.

Further from the same work one can get the fact that the then Tamils used both 293. Ibid., Marrkkandeya Padalam, 5:124:1- 4 294. Ibid., 5:132:1-4. 295. Ibid., 5:132:1-4. 296. Idem. 297. Ibid., 5:123:1-2. 298 Silappatikaram, V.68;69


Vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets and they adopted different practices and

habits associated with food299. In the same way the Alvars’ references about

food about and food habits throw light on the fact that they have employed the

similes based on food to express the qualities of God300. They stress the

essential need to devote attention to the food habits as revealed in

Kandapurnam.

The people were accustomed to eat snacks which could be broken into

pieces301. The snacks and food items were known for their quality of making

and they were taken according to the needs of the individual302. It was a

customary practice to provide with five varieties of food stuffs at a time303, food

was cooked with side dishes made of vegetables304. They used fresh and good

food305. The food relishable alone was eaten

306. Food was taken mainly to avoid

hunger307. There are no references about the missing of any meal. Milk and

ghee formed the major items of food308. Modhakam, the boiled cake was made

299. G.Maris Kumar, ‘Cilappatikaram in its Historical Setting’ (an approved

unpublished Ph.D. Thesis of the Madurai Kamaraj University, 1992), p.60-63. 300. V.A. Vasantha, ‘The Socio Political ideas as revealed in the Nalayira Divya

Prabandam’ An approved but unpublished Ph.D. Thesis of the Madurai Kamaraj

University, 1988)p.136-138. 301. Ibid., Kandapuranam, Arruppadalam, 4:27:1. 302. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:77:1-2 303. Ibid., Villavan Vatavil Vadai Padalam, 26:21:1 304. Ibid., 26:27:1. 305. Ibid., Ethirkol Padalam, 13:2:3. 306. Ibid., Vilavan Vatavi Vadai Padalam, 26:10:3 307. Ibid., Asurar Sorru Padalam, 3;9:1 308. Ibid., Yaga Angara Padalam, 20:68:1-2.


of ghee309. The tiffin comprised of items prepared with the use of milk and

ghee310. Gingelly oil was in vogue

311. Teral or today was also consumed

312.

Cooked rice was served in plantain leaf313. White coloured gruel was also

consumed314. Tasty food was prepared with the use of vegetables and boiled

rice. Things required for cooking were powdered, crushed, fried and used for

the preparation of food315. Tamarind was included for preparing vegetarian

items316. These facts indicate that culinary practices were familiar among the

Tamils even during the time of Kachchiyapar.. Traditional culinary practices

survived continuously.

Tender coconut was used317. Various food materials were cooked at the

adisil mandapam318 i.e., kitchen. The eyinar were accustomed to give fruits

honey and flour in the vessel made of leaves319. Panniyam

320 modhakam

321 and

variety rice322 were common items of food. The guests were provided with

309. Ibid., Kanda Viratha Padalam,23:22:1-2. 310. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:69:2-3 311. Ibid., Upadesa Padalam, 1:12:1. 312. Ibid., Nagarbuhu Padalam, 13:69:2-3. 313. Ibid., Arruppadalam, 4:18:1 314. Ibid., Dhanappadalam, 16:31:1-2. 315. Ibid., Vallalan Vathabi Vadai Padalam, 26:17:1-4. 316. Ibid., 6:19:1-4. 317. Ibid., Asanmuki Soga Padalam, 37:16:1-2 318. Ibid., Nagersel Padalam, 15:15:1-3. 319. Ibid., Valliammai Tirumanappadalam , 24:208:1-4 320. Ibid., Anandam Sabai ningu Padalam, 15:3:3. 321. Ibid., Kajarmugan Urppathi Padalam, 14:207:3 322. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam , 13:66:1.


different items of good pakidam, pickles, adai, gruel etc323. They too

substantiate the importance assigned to cooking.

In addition to the use of customary food items both vegetarian and non-

vegetarian diets were common324. Powder of various varieties were mixed with

food and served325. Fish was a common item of good and the fish was cooked

with honey326. But it was condemned

327. They were aware of the different

varieties of fishes such as Cinnai, whale, ilamin328. Mutton was included as a

non-vegetarian dish329. The Tamils, generally had no fascination towards fish,

mutton and intoxicating liquor was disliked.330 It was believed that asuras i.e.,

demon alone will consume such items331. The various facts relating to food

habits as mentioned by Kachchiyapar reveal that the Tamil society adopted the

customary food habits. Culinary practices were familiar even during his time.

Further Kachchiyiappar has made no references about the use of chewing betel

during his period.

323. Ibid., Salai sel Padalam, 11:14:1 -4. 324. Ibid., Vallavan Vathabi Vadai Padalam, 26:26:2 325. Ibid., 26:18:1-4. 326. Ibid., Devarai eval sei Padalam, 18:24:1- 2. 327. Ibid., 18:15:3, 18:18:1-2. 328. Ibid., 18:9:1 329. Ibid., Villavan Vathavi Vadai Padalam, 26:31:1. 330. Ibid., 30:5:1-3. 331. Ibid., 30:5:1-3.


Customs and beliefs

As rightly observed Abbe J.A. Dubois less resemblance available

between people of different regions of India and every one of them preserved

their own language and customs invariably.332 It is no wonder that the Tamil

customs and beliefs were indigenous in character as depicted in Kandapuranam

Great deal of ritualistic elements which were included in the marriages,

officiated by Brahmin priests were known for their pomp and festivities333.

Further marriage was a sacrament and not a contract. Hence it could not be

either ended or broken by divorce.334 Such facts are visible in the

Kandapuranam of Kachchiyappar. Further no importance was assigned either to

polygamy or polyandry.

The marriages were conducted in a ritualistic way with sacrificial

rituals.335 The term Kadimana murai referring to the marriage of Siva with

Parvathi will attest the above fact.336 Vaduvai salai, was exact place of

marriage and it was adorned and decorated337. The houses and streets were also

beautified338. This was done mainly to express their joy and happiness

339. The

332. Dubbois, Abbe J.A. Hindu Manners, customs and ceremonies, New Delhi , 1983,

p.11 333. R.Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.277. 334. N.Subramanian, op.cit., p.277. 335. Kandapuranam, Thirumana Padalam, 8:20:1. 336. Ibid., Manaperu Padalam , 7:10:1-4.

337. Ibid., Varaipunai Padalam, 8:13:1-4 338. Ibid., 8:10:1-4. 339. Ibid., 8:5:3-4.


palatial building and the surrounding areas were all covered with the shamiana

decorated by flowers340. The beautification processes at times of marriages

captivated the attention of the people who were greatly astonished by such

memorable sights341. The marriage as usual was considered as an auspicious

act342. This was also a continuous and customary practice available in Tamil

Nadu through the ages. Marriages of different kinds were also in practice.

The Tamil marriages were decided by elders who constituted the

manram even from the Sangam age.343 This customary practice continued even

during the period of Kachchiyappar in the Tamil country. It was customary

practice to be executed in the Manram. It was the primary duty of the father to

execute the marriage at the appropriate and auspicious time fixed on the basis

of astrology and astronomical details.344 On the basis of the planatory positions

the hours of marriages were fixed. The marriages were celebrated with pomp

and glory with all rituals, sacrifices and offerings.345 It was attended by all the

relatives and women of different ages.346 Sixteen kinds of holy and auspicious

things were carried out on a procession of joy in rows by women.347 The

340. Ibid., 8:7:1-4. 341. Ibid., Thirumanappadalam, 8:3:3-4. 342. Ibid., Umai thavam puri Padalam, 7:8:4. 343. N. Subramanian, Sangam Poety , Madurai, 1980, p.311. 344. Kandapuranam, Tirukkalyana Padalam, 10:77:2-4 345. Ibid., 10:78:1-4 346. Ibid., 10:30:1-4 347. Ibid., 10.34:1-4


women carried water, food and other things in vessels in large quantities348.

Thus it is evident that customary rites occupied a significant place in the

sanctified marriages of that period. The old traditions and new customers were

harmoniously blended and adopted by the parents during the marriages of their

sons and daughters. In general the marriage was a traditional one.

In India the practice of Sati or self immolation of the widows was a

continuous process.349 This custom of a widow committing Sati or suicide on

pyre and dying with the husband was prevalent in the Tamil country even

during the Sangam age.350 It emerged because of the fact that a good and chaste

wife should not survive after her husband351. Further the widowhood was a

miserable as well as a horrible one. S. Krishnaswamy Iyengar had defined Sati

by the following statement that “a women who burns herself on the pyre of

her husband”.352 Muttollayiram mentions that the women who lost their

husbands, in battle fields threw themselves in to the funeral pyre353. As

pointed out by epigraphs it was treated as a voluntary act.354 Falling on line with

the customary practice Kandapuranam too informs that by producing fire the

women fell in to that and went to the higher world along with her husband’s

348. Ibid., 10:35:1-4. 349. N.Subramanian , op.,cit., p.311-312. 350. Purananuru, 256,247 351. Rajalakshmi, R. op.cit.., p.184. 352. S.Krishnaswamy Iyengar, “Self immodation which is not Sati”, Indian Antiquary,

Vol. XXXV, p.139. 353. Muttollayiram, 1433. 354. 156 of 1936


soul.355 The women realised that will be an appreciable act to go with the

beloved and predeceased husband by falling in to the fire.356 Thus it is evident

that sati was a custom continued even during Kachchiyappar’s period in the

12th century in the Tondaimandalam region. So far as Tamil Nadu is concerned

this was an approved escape from the horrors of widowhood.

For having the concentration of mind and also for keeping the body in

tact observance of fasting was advocated. It was believed that God will shower

all his blessings on those who undertook fasting with bodily sufferings.357 It

was also a practices that all should undertake fasting with the thought of

God.358 Fasting to gain the grace of Siva was also a common future existed

then.359 For the attainment of the bliss of paradise fasting was felt as a means to

set a side the worldly distresses and sorrows.360 There is also a scope to

consider fasting as an impact and influence of Jains who were known as umma

moligal. Being a poet hailed from Kanchi, a sacred temple city,

Kachchiyappar says that even to go over to Kanchi the ladies undertook

fasting.361 Thus fasting was treated as a devotional act. Fasting in the midst of

sacrificial fire was an appreciable act.362 It was believed that those who adhere

355. Kandapuranam, Asurendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:19:1-4 356. Ibid., 22:17:3-4. 357. Ibid., Umai thavam Puri Padalam, 7:12:3- 4 358. Ibid., Thakkan Mahapperu Padalam, 3:4:2. 359. Ibid., 3:5:3-4. 360. Ibid., Gajamuhan Urpatthi Padalam, 14:31:4, 14:42:2-3 361. Ibid., Indiran Karanturai Padalam, 21:23:3-4 362. Ibid., Villavan Vadai Padalam, 20:16:1


to fasting by torturing the body will have a life appreciated by all. The power

obtained by fasting will protect them from the disasters of any nature because

the body condition will be amenable to any situation. The fasting was expected

to offer constant wealth and a permanent life.363 As the Jains were

accustomed to adopt eight kinds of fastings.364 The northerners were so

particular in accepting fasts as ways and means prosperity and ceaseless

progress.365 The gains achieved by fasting were believed to place one equal to

the celestials, saints and graced people.366 The above said benefits have

encouraged people of even to day to adhere to different varieties of fastings

with the belief that fastings are for the betterment of one’s life in the future.

Further it was felt that fasting will assist development of the body and health.

Sacrifices were also common during that period. It generally meant that

the offerings poured into the sacrificial fire will offer prosperties and a long and

healthy life for an individual. There were many kinds of sacrifices associated

with religion. The Gods were offered in the form of flowers, coconut etc.367

Sacrifice was a Vedic custom and that has gone through the ages. Even as

pointed out in Kandapuranam sacrifices were executed with the belief to obtain

the grace of god. Sacrifices were carried out on the basis of stipulated

363. Ibid., Kasipan Upadesa Padalam, 4:25:1- 4 364. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:153:3 365. Ibid., Asura Yaga Padalam, 8:35:1 366. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:10;1-4. 367. R.Rajalakshmi , op.cit., p.175.


principles.368 At the specific place called yagasalai

369 offering the blood of

a goat is a still prevalent custom among the Tamils in different ages.

Sacrificial offering to the Gods was a common custom among the Sangam

Tamils.370 During the Sangam age human sacrifice was usually made to the

bhudas i.e. demons.371 Sacrificing the life of living being continued to prevail

during the Kandapuranam period.372 Thus the period of Kandapuranam which

witnessed the Hindu revivalism offered others even to the adoptions of the

customary and traditional sacrificial rituals.

The conduct of the funerary rites was a common practice prevalent then.

The son had to carry out such funerary rites for his parents373. Cremation was

the common practice and burial had lost it significance374. Hospitality was a

venerable deed available then. Feeding the hungry was hailed as a virtuous

act375. Giving aims, a matchless generous act of all the human beings was

treated as the Dharma376. Here too one can estimate the influence of

Thirukkural over Kachchiyappar377. Lust was an enemy, to spoil the wealth

368. Kandapuranam, Veerabhadra Padalam, 19:59:3. 369. Ibid., Yaga Sankara Padalam, 20:1:2 370. Achara Kovai, 39:2 Ahananuru ; 167:6;232:12, 369:8 Kalittogai, 52:9, 65:18, 93:4,

Manimegalai, VII:80, Narrrinai :281:1, 293:2, Padirruppattu :20:37, 71:23

Porunararruppadai : 182, Purananuru : 50:5, 52:13, 143:1, 331:12, 362:3, 363:15,

369:5, Silappatikaram; VI:13, XII:152. 371. Cilappatikaram, V.87. 372 . Kandapuranam, Veerabhadra Padalam, 19:46:2 373 . Ibid., Asurendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:36:3 374. Ibid, 22:17:1-2. 375. Ibid, Suran Dandam Sey Padalam, 42:14:3-4. 376. Ibid., Mayay Padalam, 1:77:1 377. G.U. Pope, op.cit., chapter 23, giving (Egai) , p.59-61.


and the good done by one to others. It will not remove darkness in life, was also

a common tradition. So one should be always virtuous by setting aside lust.378

It was stressed that the dead body should be taken to the south379. Those who

were indulged in the act of executing penance had to finish up their duties of

wearing the muppirinul i.e Punul. It was duty of the father to make the some to

wear the sacred thread380. It was a customary practice among the married

couple to lead a life of love and generosity.381 Placing the baby in a cradle

abounded with golden bells was another custom traced in Kandapuranam.382

The Tamil custom of madalurdal continued even during the days of

Kachchiyappar383. Killing of deers of specific type by the hunters was treated as

a sin and that was a customary belief.384

Beautification and decoration were commonly followed by the tradition

oriented Tamil women and that was carried out with the use of many things.385

Establishment of grooves (nandavanam) was also a custom.386 The man, who

did not like the women, was expected to be happy in the company of men of

378. Kandapuranam, Kumarapuri Padalam, 24:62:1-4. 379. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalama, 5:239:2-3 380. Ibid., 5:169:3-4 381. Ibid., 5:167:1-2 382. Ibid., Pudalvarai Peru Padalam, 19:11:3, 19:5:1, 19:4:1-2 383. Ibid., Valliyammai Tirumana Padalam, 24:136:1-4 384. Ibid., Kumarapuri Padalam, 24:47:1-2 385. Ibid., Umai Varu Padalam, 18:18:1-4 386. Ibid., Kaveri ningu Padalam, 27:29:1-2 (Even in the 18

th and 19

th centuries the Nadars

of Aruppukkottai , Sivakasi, Virudhunagar, etc., establish such grooves for the common

public to take path in the big well there and to workship the deity installed within it. This

stands to prove the continuation a social custom) Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

similar view.387 To take the deity in procession outside the temple during

festive occasions in the juggernauts or temples cars of palanquins was also a

religious tradition.388 This custom continues even today in almost all the big

temples of Tamilnadu. The political and religious messages were brought to

the notice of the common people by the beat of drums. In the same way the

time was announced to the public by the beat of a specific kind of drum called

Naligai Parai. 389 Chanting of the Vedic verses was a common act prevailed

among those who undertook fasting.390 This is a custom adopted by the

devotees who undertake the Kandashasti fasting and Sivarathiri fasting. Both

religious and secular customary practices were abundant in the them Tamil

country.

“The Tamils had many beliefs and concentrated like most ancients

devoted to many things which were superstitious in nature. This perhaps

indicates that “an advanced material civilization is not inconsistent with many

deeplying superstitions and other substantiated beliefs.391 This dictum is

applicable event to the period of Kachiyappar. The women undertook fasting

with the belief that God will shower all his blessing to them and offer them

what all they wanted.392 In the same way it was felt that those who adopt the

387. Ibid., Mahasatta Padalam, 32:34:1-2 388. Ibid., Amarar Siraibuhu Padalam, 43:80:2 389. Ibid., Suran Arasirukkai Padalam, 39:18:3-4 390. Idem 391. N.Subramanian , op.cit., p.334 392. Kandapuranam, Manampesu Padalam, 7:1:1-2


standards of married life and those who executed their duties to the Brahmins

would achieve prosperity.393 The unmarried girls believed that by constant

worship they can get their husbands of their like.394 Those who rendered all

helps, out of affection towards others, was expected to attain fame and name. It

was a common virtue applicable to all.395 Those who were unable to help

others in all possible ways had to meet with the distresses of sorrows and

miseries.396 So Kachiyappar has stressed on the adherence of the quality of

helping others. On that line the execution of noble deeds was believed to be

the ways to set aside the horrors of Karma397. The belief over Karma was a

continuous process. It was strongly believed that no one can go against the

directions of fate.398 Since fate was the directive of the life, as pointed out in

Cilappatikaram399 and Kural

400. It was felt that things will go according to the

way of fate.401 The Tamils believed that the chantings in Vedas will assist to

overcome the irony of fate.402 As fate was a means to lead to an end

Kachiyappar had given importance to that and has sprinkled his views about

fate as mentioned above. The belief over fate was an acknowledged one among

393. Ibid, Thavamkan Padalam, 6:22:3-4 394. Ibid., Manam Pesu Padalam, 7:16:4 395. Ibid., Kama Thakana Padalam, 396. Ibid., 4:47:1-3 397. Ibid., Arruppadalam, 4:8:3-4 398. Ibid., Thakkan Davam Sei Padalam , 2:20:4 399. Elango has mentioned that the fate will proceed every thing ( Vide S. Jayaprakasam,

Ed), op.cit., p.5) 400. Fate is treated as the root cause of all the things (Vide. G.U. Pope, op.cit., Fate (ul)

chapter 38, p.99-102. 401. Kandapuranam, Thakkan Sel Padalam , 2:10:3. 402. Ibid., Upadesa Padalam, 1:31:2 Asurendiran Mahendiran Sel Padalam, 22:8:4


people throughout the ages as they knew that they could not set aside the irony

of fate, causative factor of rebirth.

As the Tamil had unshakable faith over superstitions, Kachiyappar too

has approved it. The happening of unnatural and super natural things compelled

every body to think of their own consequences. But the evil doers unknowingly

neglect them without any botheration.403 The supernatural occurances of were

different types.404 The fall of meteor, the unusual sound of birds etc, formed

part of superstitions.

Thus the Tamil society of the period of Kachiyappar centred on customs

and habits which attained greater significance. The paradavar adopted the

custom of spreading the fish on the sand for drying in a scattered manner as

rubbish.405 Those who suffered due to Karma gave up the principles

enunciated by the Vedas.406 The good and bad results are the outcomes of the

individual activities and they are not the consequences of the activities of

others407. Individual actions are believed to be the causes for the future

happenings.408 It was believed that Gods are responsible for dealing with

403. Ibid., Dana Padalam , 16:2:1-2. 404. Ibid., 16:14 405. Ibid., Arruppadalam, 4:30:3 406. Ibid., Devaray Evalkol Padalam, 18:20:1-2. 407. Ibid., Indiran Karaturai Padalam 21:31:2-3 408. Ibid., Indirani Morudalai Padalam, 35:11:3-4


fate.409 The life of the Tamils of the married was one known for the harmonious

blending of good and bad occurances.

Thus it is no wonder that the people of the period of Kachiyappar, as

hinted by him, did not deviate from the general customary and tradition

oriented beliefs. Since the Tamil society was a tradition and custom oriented

one, Kachiyappar without any deviation has adopted the same technique of

mentioning about customary practices. So the life of the Tamils was known

for its own individualism.

Ornaments

People of all the ages were fond of ornaments and the people of the

period of Kandapuranam were not an exception in wearing many ornaments

Nuburam, meaning the anklet was a popular ornament during the Sangam

age410 and the same ornament continued to be won by people even during the

time of Kachiyappar.411 Nuburam was studded with red coloured stone called

Pushparagam.412 Mehalai was another used along ornament known as Tandai

during Sangam age413. As an ornament it was in vogue even during the period

409. Ibid., Asamuki Morudalai Padalam, 35:11:3-4. 410. Kalittogai , 83:16, 96:16, Silapathikaram , VI. 84. 411. Kandapuranam, Tumaivar Varu Padalam, 12:20:2 Veerabhadhra Padalam,

18:46:3Tirumana Padalam, 8:6:4 412. Ibid., Thunaivar Varu Padalam, 12:27:3 413. Kalittogai, 96:15, Silapathikaram , IV;30, 48, VIII :90, XII :30, 62, 117, XIII : 159,

XV :38, XXVIII : 72 etc. Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

of Kandapuranam.414 Mehalai was used along with kasu, nul, and kaivalai.

415

Even among silambu a type of anklet, there were varieties such as red coloured

silambu and Polankalal Silambu.416 Ornaments were made of gold and

studded with varieties of costlier and precious stones.417 The twine tied around

the hip had bells like the anklets and round bells. Kundalam was an ear

ornament.418 Like that Kulai a common ornament during the Sangam age

419

continued its prevalence420 Kundalam the ear ring

421 was known as makara

kundalam during the Sangam age422. Kundalam was added with Kulai

423. Thus

the varieties of ornaments mentioned in the Kandapuranam suggest that the

Tamil of his period were fond of wearing the traditional ornaments. That too

informs the use of ornaments was a part and parcel of the practices included in

the social life of the Tamils. The ornaments of different varieties prove the

414. Kandapuranam , Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:60:3 415. Ibid., Tirnattuppadalam, 5:38:2 416. Ibid., Virabhaddirar Padalam, 19:13:4 417. Ibid., Dhana Padalam, 16:12:2-4 418. Ibid., Tiruvilayattu Padalam, 14:1:1-3 419. Ahananuru, 3:18, 6:7, 86:27, 158:3, 351:12, Aintinai elubadu, 59:2, Eladi, 43:3

Innanrpatu, 23:1, Karnarpatu 2:2, 28:2, Kural 1081:1, Kuruntogai , 159:5, 256:5,

Tirumurugarruppadai Ahananuru, 3:18, 6:7, 86:27, 158:3, 351:12, Aintinai elubadu,

59:2, Eladi, 43:3 Innanrpatu, 23:1, Karnarpatu 2:2, 28:2, Kural 1081:1, Kuruntogai ,

159:5, 256:5, Tirumurugarruppadai 86, Naladiyar, 370:1, Nammanikkadigai, 56:2,

Narrinai, 120:3, 286:1, Nedunalvadai, 139, Padirruppattu , 14:15, 31:25, 86:11,

Palamoli, 163:3, Paripadal , 1:5, 11:97, 12:87 , 17:1, Pattinapalai 23,

Perumbanarruppadai , 161, 3:2, Porunarruppadai, 30, Silapattikaram, IV, 51, V:190,

XI:205, Sirupanchamulam, 155:4, Tinaimalai nuraimbadu, 46:3 420. Kandapuranam, Mayay Padalam, 5:117:2 421. Ibid., Markandeya Padaam, 5:117:2 422. Paripadal Tirattu, 10:1 423. Kandapuranam, Avaibuhu Padalam, 12:28:4


artistic skill of the artisans of that period. The metals used exhibit their

economic standard.

Fine Arts

Being people of an affluent culture, the Tamils devoted much attention to

fine arts of different nature. The fine arts generally as Viyankalai were familiar

even from the days of the Vedas.424 Every art had its own individualistic

qualities and veneration425. Those arts were carried out as hereditary ones

426.

There ware due regards and recognition for the artists of different nature427.

Kandapuranam too contains details about existence of fine arts in the Tamil

country.

There were learned musicians, who were experts in producing

wonderful music. They were regarded as a venerable group in the society

because they were well trained in the art of music.428 Vocal music was

accompanied by the music of instruments, played by artists such as kinnarar,

siddhar, iyakkar along with the dance executed by arambayar. All these

performances were executed according to the work exclusively written to

promote that art. The work pertaining to dance and music was called

424. Ibid., Upadesa Padalam ,:13:1 425. Ibid., Sandirasaa Padalam ,:4:7:3 426. Ibid., 4:46:3-4 427. Ibid., Salai padalam , 11:7:2 428. Ibid., Jayantan Kanavukan Padalam, 10:14:2-4


Natakanul.429 Since dance and music were the important aspect of fine arts

Natakanul, was an eye opener for the artists.430 So proper learning and training

in the fine arts is an unique feature of the Tamils. Monodance by an individual

was quite popular.431 There were specialists in the performing art of dance.

Kuravai dance mentioned in Kandapuranam432 was a continuous traditional one

carried out by the Tamils even from the Sangam age onwards.433 At that time it

was also a dance executed by the victorious kings.434 And it was treated as

the dance performed by Tirumal with Nappinnai.435 Group dance such as

Kuravai were quite familiar among the Tamils. The hunter women engaged

themselves in this kind of dance.436 Dance performances were carried out for

both for the joy and happiness of individuals and others.437 Thus dance which

was an art executed for the removal of tiredness and monotony was

accompanied by music.438 Since Siva is the cosmic dancer all the dances are

treated as the dance of Siva.439 He is also called Thandavam because of that.

The celestials and Kaman dance were also executed.440 These facts stand

429. Ibid., Avaibuhu Padalam, 12:23:1-4. 430. Ibid., Asamuhi Nagar Kan Padalam, 40:14:1 431. Ibid., Vali nadai Padalam ,:23:15:3 432. Ibid., Tarakan Vadai Padalam ,20:50:3 433. Ahananuru, 232:10, 269:20, 336:9, Kalittogai , 39:28, 102:35, 103:75, 404:70, 108:61,

Narrinai 276:10 434. Maduraikkanchi, 97, Padirruppattu, 73:7, Purananuru, 21:22, 24:6, 129:3,

Silappattikaram, XVII :6 Tirumurugarruppadai, 197. 435. Cilappatikaram, XVII, Karuppam. 436. Kandapuranam , Devagiri Padalam, 21:13:1 437. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:43:4 438. Ibid., Varaisunai Padalam, 8:18:3-4 439. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam , 6:44:1 440. Ibid., 6:54:3-4


testimory to the importance assigned to the dance performances of that period.

In this regard as such as Tudi, Kudai, Peeli, Kodukotti, Alliyam, Kudam etc.,

pointed out by Cilapathikaram as there were 11 types of dances one could note

that there were different types of dances available even during the period of

Kandapuranam.

The author of Kandapuraman was fascinated by the sound of music. The

song by the name Vallaippattu song by Kadaisiyar etc, was familiar then.441 The

Kadaisiyar were peasant women442 and their traditional name continued even

after ten centuries during the time of Kandapuranam. The Vallaippattu,

popularly known as the song of mortar and pestle, carried out by labourers, who

pounded grains during the Sangam age443 was associated with kadaisiyar. The

Vedas were also sung with melodious musical notes.444 Every one at that time

was interested in listening to a quality music.445 Such facts disclose the value

assigned to dance and music of different varieties executed at that time for

merry making.

Like music, different varieties of musical instruments also are

mentioned in the work taken up for analysis. Only by having an analysis of

441. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam , 5:29:2-3 442. Purananuru, 61:1, Silappatikaram, X: 130 443. Kalittogai, 41:40, 42:9-10 Kuruntogai , 89:1 444. Kandapuranam, Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:44:3 445. Ibid., 13:47:2


those things the estimate of fine art will be a full pledged and complete one.

Mulavu.446 i.e., modern mridangam used in the Carnatic music was popular

even from the Sangam age onwards.447 Parai, another instrument

448 too was

common even at the time of the Sangam age.449 There was a Padalnul which

refers to the playing of musical instruments such as vennai, kulal, thannummai

etc450. There was a combined performance of music, musical instruments and

dance451. The one who sang the Mularippan was the prime player

452. During

the performances sallari, tadari, sachari, karadi, kakalam, timilai, palliyam were

the instruments served as essentials for the background music.453 Kudamula,

tudi, perigai, tannummai were other musical instruments available then.454

Sangu (conch), Parai are the other instruments.455 While most of the above

mentioned musical instruments were available even during the Sangam age, one

can estimate the customary developments of fine arts through the ages.

446. Ibid., Tirunnattu Padalam, 5:29:1 447. Ahananuru, 35:14, 61:15, 66:22 Aingurunuru, 171:2, Inna Narpadu , 31:3,

Kuruntogai, 78:2 , Kurinjipattu, 236, maduraikanchi, 99, 114 Malaipadu Kadam, 3,

Manimegalai ,IV :12, VI:119, Tirumurugarruppadai, 215, Paripadal, 5:11 7:16,

Perumbanarruppadai, 47, Porunararruppadai, 109, Purananuru , 15:23, 50:12, etc. 448. Kandapuranam , Tirunattu Padalam, 5:34:2 449. Ahananuru, 23:2, 45:2, Inna Narpatu, 28:1, ural, 1076:1, Kuruntogai 7:4, 15:1,

Naladiyar 23:1, Nanmanikadigai, 4:1, 15:1, Narinai, 46:7, 83:4, Paripadal, 6:24, 10:7,

Purananuru, 62:5, 126:1 225:10, Silappattikaram, XII:40, XV:46, XXV :28,

Tolkappiyam, Porual 18:1 etc. 450. Kandapuranam, Dhana Padalam, 16:42:1-2 451. Ibid., Pattabhisheka Padalam, 16:13:3-4 452. Ibid., Kumarapuri Padalam, 16:13:3-4 453. Ibid., Saravana Padalam, 24:23:2 454. Ibid., Gajamuhan, Urppathippadalam, 14:214:1-4, Tirukkalyana Padalam, 10:6:1-4 455. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:24:1-2


Tundubi456 was also popular then Tannummai was equal to mridangam and

was popular even from Sangam days onwards457. Tudi was a kind of drum

Udukkai or Kanjira was another instrument familiar even from the Sangam

age and it was played during the time of worship.458 Palliyam mentioned at

different places in Kandapuranam459 was also an instrument belonging to the

Sangam age460 like these instruments Yal, the commonly popular musical

instrument throughout the ages was famous even during the period of

Kachiyappar.461 Veenai was yet another popular musical instrument.

462 There

were experts in playing veenai463 tannummai

464 sarangam which were the

renowned instruments known to the Tamils of the Kandapuranam period.

Thus it is evident that the Tamils utilized the different varieties of

musical instrument wind and leather instruments which were traditionally and

continuously used by the Tamils even from the Sangam age to the days of

Kandapuranam. This also stands to prove the many sided abilities of the

456. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5;188:1-5:150:1, Tiru Avathara padalam, 11:93:1 457. Ahananuru, 40:14, 63, Aingurunuru, 215:3, Kuruntogai, 390:5, Narrinai, 130:2,

260:3, Paripadal, 12:41, Perumbanarruppadai, 144, Purannarru, 89:7, 270:8 etc. 458. Ahananuru, 19:4, 89:14, Manimegalai, VII:69, XXVIII :105, Naladiyar, 338:2,

Narrinai , 77:2, Paripadal, 7:28, Pattinappalai, 265, Porunararuppadai, 125 etc. 459. Kandapuranam, Arruppadalam, 4:36:2-3, Taragan Vathai Padalam, 20:31:1,

Tirukkalyana Padalam, 10:41, Umai varu Padalam 18:25:3, etc. 460. Ahananuru 154:3, 301:20, Kuruntogai 178, Tirumurugarruppadai, 119, 209,

Purananuru, 281:2, 336:6, Silappattikaram, XIII :139, XXXVI :227 etc. 461. Kandapuranam, Tirunattu Padalam, 5:49:1, Nagar Puhu Padalam, 8:32:3,

Pattabhisheka Padalam, 16:10:3. 462. Ibid., Varaipunai Padalam, 8:17:3, Dadisi uttara Padalam, 13:79:1-2 463

. Ibid., Thakkam Tavam Sei Padalam, 2:11:2 464

. Ibid., Varipunai Padalam, 8:18:2, Padai elu Padalam Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

Tamils of the different periods. This culture too centred on their

entertainments and part time activities.

Like dance and music, painting, another fine art too existed during the

period of Kandapuranam. There were specific set of artists who were expert

painters.465 The painting was used to adorn the hails of the buildings.

466

Separate apartments were also there for painting.467 The paintings were treated

as figures without life.468 The colour, theme and expressions were given

importance.

Thus the Tamil country of the Kandapuranam period did not lag behind

in preserving fine arts of distinctive qualities. They even habit the qualities

and bent of mind of the Tamils and they even serve as sources to notice the

cultural traits of the Tamils.

Structure and functions of the Tamil Society

A proper analysis of the structure and functions of a particular society

and the social life of the people will help the estimate the realties of a society

in a comprehensive manner. The medieval Tamil Society can be studied in two

ways; by considering it as a constituent of complex of tribes, communities

465. Ibid.,. Suran Arasirukkai Padalam , 39:4:4 466. Ibid., Gajamuhan , Urppathi Padalam , 14:141:3-4 467. Ibid., 14:140:4 468. Ibid., Umai Kayilai Ningu Padalam, 5:15:2-3


and castes, based partly on allegedly ethnic and partly on occupational

grounds and also as a power structure.469 Even in that society too the Brahmins

were sill in the apex as they were in the previous periods. They were known as

muppurinulinar470. i.e., those who were the sacred thread. As they were

associated with religious pursuits they are hailed as Vedhiyar who were experts

in gaining the grace of penance471. They bore the name nanmarai kulathu

andhanar i.e., people belonging to the clan of four Vedas.472 They were well

versed in the four holy Vedas473.On the basis of traditional approach the

Brahmins were placed at the highest pedestal due to their Vedic wisdom and

involvement in their religions pursuits.

In addition to them the Tamil society comprised of people belonging to

different professions. Those who were well versed in the work on drama, i.e.,

Natakanul, the Kalayinar and Kuttar formed in to a separate group.474 The

Tamil Society consisted of bow men, swordsmen, warriors, wrestlers,

magicians and others who preached the Dharma of Manu475. There were experts

in the four Vedas476. Saranar (Buddhists), nilathar, those who were engaged in

discussions and people who understood disputations were included in the

469. Raja Lakshmi R. Op.cit., p.162. 470. Kandapuranam , Dhana Padalam, 16:14:2 471. Ibid., 16:30:1-2 472. Ibid., Thirunagara Padalam, 6:37:1 473. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:3:1 474. Ibid., Asamuki Nagar Kan Padalam, 40:14:1-4 475. Ibid., Nagar buhu Padalam, 8:57:1-4 476. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 6:38:1-2


common folk.477 Physicians were there.

478 Valorous mallar

479, great mallar

480

are the expression referring to another strong and powerful unity. The aralai

kalvar, i.e., the waylying robbers were threatening the ur 481 formed a

separate group. The Kalvars, like monkeys, were causing troubles to the

passengers by playing hide and seek.482 The paradavar who go in to the deep

sea for fishing due to the irony of fate483 too had their own distinctive place

in the society. The eyinar, who were engaged in hunting484 were a despicable

set of people,485 parathar and ayar also formed part of the society.

486 The

butchers occupied a separate place.487 Since agriculture was the primary

occupation, the ulavar or farmers were prominent. As such the ulattiyar, the

peasant women too had their role to play488. Thus the Tamil society was a

composite one. With many distinctions and disparities.

The Kanigayar, who had a fickle mind were there489 and they were

known for their beauty and attraction.490 The reference about the Kanigayar,

477. Ibid., Andakosa padalam 11:51:1 478. Ibid., avaibuhu Padalam, 12:98:1 479. Ibid., Arrup Padalam, 5:1:1 480. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:1:1 481. Ibid., Arrup Padalam, 4:14:3 482. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:284;1-2 483. Ibid., Devarai Eval sei Padalam, 18:19:1-2. 484. Ibid., Valliammai thirumana Padalam, 24:165:2 485. Ibid., 24:90:1 486. Ibid., Padai edu Padalam, 19:12:1-2 487. Ibid., 19:8:3 488. Ibid., Kuamarapuri Padalam, 24:34:1 489. Ibid., Arrup Padalam, 4:32:4 490. Ibid., Thirunattu Padalam, 5:20:1


who dedicated themselves to God491 (devaradiyars), attests the availability of

Devadasi system in the Tamil country during his period. The Devaradiyars

were appointed to temples to dance before the deities at specific occasions.

Such as processions. As they danced before god and dedicated themselves to

the service of God they were known as Deivatha Kanigayar. The repeated

references about parathayar492 stand testimony to the existence of prostitution

and the availability of women of mean order. They are treated as poisonous

women.493 The term ivali parathayar and kanigayar will attest their ways of

life.494 They attracted every body by their behaviour and actions.

495 These

facts suggest the prostitution was a wide spread one and that of the

downtrodden condition of the Tamil society of the contemporary period.

Dress

The estimate of the dress habits of the people also will reveal a total and

complete analysis of the society. In that sense the referenes about puntugil496

suggest that the society was fond of wearing embroidered cloth. In the same

way the various terms about cloth such as nantugil,497 kalingam,

498

491. Ibid., Suran Dandam Sey Padalam, 42:8:3 492. Ibid., Nagar Puhu Padalam, 8:66:4, 8:35:1 493. Ibid., Thirunattu Padalam, 5:7:4 494. Ibid., Nagar Puhu Padalam, 8:71:4:1-4 495. Ibid., 8:69:1-4 496. Ibid., Thirunattu Padalam, 5:50:1 Dana Padalam, 16:35:1 497. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:56:3 498. Ibid., Gajamuhan Padalam, 14:253:4


pontugil499 ponnin adai

500 etc prove not only the dress materials used but also

the fact Kanchi, a popular weaving centre was comprised of weavers of high

caliber. The repeated occurance of the term Kalingam used in different

contexts too points out the use of embroidered cloth.501 The references of

about the upper cloth502 and blanket.

503 In the Sangam classics indicate the

continuation of the traditional method of dresses for a longer period up to that

of Kandapuranam. Further it is obvious that during the medieval period the

Tamils were accustomed to stitch and use silk, cotton and other textiles504.

They suggest the workmanship of the weavers and the culture of the Tamils,

who were specific in selecting the varieties of cloths.

Streets and buildings

The terms salai,505 vidhi,

506 mada vidhi

507 manager vidhi

508expose that

the Tamils of Kandapuranam period were known for other engineering skill in

promoting the different kinds of streets and roads for the welfare of the people

and also for the uplift of the economy of the country. It also enables one to

have an idea of town planning. The same skill is disclosed in the descriptions

499. Ibid., Devagiri Padalam, 21:26:3 500. Ibid., Pattbhiseka Padalam, 5:30:4 501. Kalittogai, 92:46, Silappatikaram, XXII: 21 502. Kalittoagi, 69:3, Padirruppattu, 76:13, Purananuru, 383:11 503. Sirupanarrupadai, 85 504. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.175 505. Kanadapuranam, Tirunattu Padalam, 5:30:4 506. Bid, Nagar ali Padalam, 15:53:2 507. Ibid., Nagar Sey Padalam, Nagar ali Padalam, 15:51:3 508. Ibid., Kavabalar Vadai Padalam, 14:2-4


about he constructions of their buildings. The terms maligai509, gopura

mandabam510, murram,

511 sikara gopuram

512, padiyuru mandapam

513 ( stepped

halls ) too exhibit the technological skill of the masons in construction of

buildings of various types. The dancing hall and musical hall,514 elephant

hall and birds hall,515 sacrificial hall, and the hall for chanting mantras,

516 the

athani mandapa for the execution of administrative affairs and the war

training hall,517 the dinning hall and the hall for preserving cooking materials,

518

the unjal mandapa,519 the vasantha mandapa

520 etc ., too reveal the comfortable

way of life led by the Tamils due to their skill in assigning different places in

the palace for the execution of different activities in the day – to-day life. The

reveal not only the skill in the construction but also their fascination in

leading a life of comforts due to economic prosperity. The forts constructed

for the sake of safety521 the main entrance i.e., the Toranavayil,

522 the

allotment of places for elephants, army and army chiefs,523 the moat

509. Ibid., Nagar Ali Padalam, 15:67:1-4, Sahattira Vahukan Vadai Padalam, 16:12:2 510. Idem 511. Ibid., Nagar Ali Padalam, 15:67:1-4 512. Ibid., 15:40:1 513. Ibid., 15:9:3 514. Ibid., Nagar Sei Padalam, 15:11:1-4 515. Ibid., 15:12:4 516. Ibid., 15:13:1-4 517. Ibid., 15:14:1-4 518. Ibid., 15:15:1-4 519. Ibid., 15:16:1-4 520. Ibid., 15:17:1-4 521. Ibid., 15:8:2 522. Ibid., 15:9:1-4 523. Ibid., 15:10:1-4


encircling the city.524 Prove the importance assigned to convenience comfort

and safety. The reference about Konagar, i.e. the capital city Kanchi contained

the above things. Such varieties places included in a building testify to the

eminent nature and also the skill in the arrangements made for the benefit of

public. They also exhibit the importance assigned tot eh planning of the

buildings.

Thus Kandapuranam, reveals the social life of the Tamils as a well

organized and well knitted one with all facilities and comforts. The people

had faith and belief over Karma and rebirth. Stress was assigned to the

adherence of moral principles in life. Importance was given to parents,

penance, chastity and valour. The flawless individualistic character and

principled way of life were always expected of the people. Wisdom and

knowledge, devotion to dharma were other expected qualities of the

common folk. The chastity of women was a venerable aspect among them.

Due recognition was assigned to married life and sons were mostly

like than girls. The women were recognized for their values of life. The

widespread knowledge of geography, literature, metallurgy etc, stands

testimony to the qualitative way of a cultured life. They wanted to have a life

as a complete one by having many children with better standards of living.

524. Ibid., Amarar Sirai buhu Padalam, 43:9:1-2


Both vegetarian and non – vegetarian dishes along with various types

of snacks were consumed. The Tamils were experts in culinary practices. The

consumption of fish was not liked and it considered as a despicable item of

food. As usual the Tamil society was a tradition and custom oriented one

with regard to food habits also. Elaborate customary food practices were in

vogue. The people of the Tamil country were always hospitable and

generous. The Tamils were known for their aesthetic qualities. So along with

personal decorations, the Tamils were fond of using various types of ornaments

and different varieties of dresses.

Fine arts such as dance, music and use of musical instruments were

common. Attention was paid to painting. There were literary works

pertaining to different arts such as Natakanul, Padalnul etc.

The social stratification points out that there were different sets of

people such as Brahmins along with different types of professionals. Kanchi,

the birth place of Kachchiyappar was a renowned silk and cotton weaving

centre, producing excellent varieties of cloth. The Tamils of that age were

known for their engineering skill. The transport facilities and the buildings

constructed with all the facilities and comforts disclose the fact that the

Tamils of that period led a comfortable, prosperous and happy life. In general

the Tamil society of the period of Kachiyappar was a remarkable one. Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

Political condition and ideas

The study about the Tamil society will be a complete one only when the

then existed political condition ideas abounded in Kandapuranam is revealed

was known for monarchical form of government, the kings duties, his

assistants and paraphernalias were familiar in the statecraft. The proper and

uninterrupted continuous functioning of these things extolled the status of the

rulers. Hence it becomes a must to analyse these facts as gleaned from

Kandapuranam. Though Kandapuranam is a devotional work, the author,

while discussing the political system of the earthly nature. The non –

availability of any legendary of mythical qualities in the description of the

politics warrants one to have an analysis of the contemporary political ideas.

As the regalia and paraphernalia are common both to God and king.525 It is

obvious that both of them were treated equally and were called iraivan.

Kachiyappar though had attached significance to the political conditions of

the divine beings his descriptions are all based on the politics of the earth.

Further kingship was also a divine one. So an attempt will be made to reveal

the political ideas as mentioned by Kachiyappar in the subsequent pages.

525. R. Rajalakshmi, Tamil Polity, (C.A.D. 600 to C.A.D. 1300) Madurai, 1983, p.25.


Kachiyappar, being a poet hailed from Kanchipuram, has given due

recognition Tondaimandalam,526 the area known for its prestige renowned

nature and familiarity527 due to its contact with the eminent Pallavas. The

capital Kanchi was known for its upright qualities.528 The political condition

of Kanchi, generally known as Kanchipuram, prior to its occupation by

Pallavas remains obscure. But Karikalan, the Sangam Chola ruler maintained a

nominal suzerainty over Kanchi.529 Though Periya Tirumoli has called it a port,

T.V.Mahalingam has refuted this view.530 Any how Kanchi was politically and

economically popular during the early period was a renowned one even during

the period of Kachiyappar and is mentioned as a city having wealth equal to

that of celestials.531 This city, appreciated by people of the world

532 was the

Konagar, i.e., the capital city having abundant costlier and precious stones.533

It was a city of floating population.534 Due its temples movement of scholars as

well as silk industry. That prosperous city had forts.535 The forts were known

for their strength length and height.536 It touched even the sky.

537 The forts

526. Kandapuranam, Vidaiperu Padalm, 18:12:2 527. Ibid., Valliammai Tirumana Padalam, 24:13-4 528. Ibid., Tirunagar Padalam, 6:6:4 529. C. Minakshi, Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas of Kanchi, Madras,

1977, p.7. 530. T.V. Mahalingam, Kanchipuram in Early Life in Indian History, Bombay, 1969, p.89 531. Kanadapuranam, Tirunagar Padalam, 6:1:4 532. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:57:2 533. Ibid., Digvijaya Padalam, 12:30:4 534. Ibid., Tirunagar Padalam, 6:13:4 535. Ibid., Asamuhi Nagar Kan Padalam, 40:33:3 536. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 6:13:4 537. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:2:4, 12:3: 3


contained a lot of weapons with mechanical devices.538 At the gates of the

capital city, protected by guards, people were waiting539. The above facts

suggest that Kanchi had all sorts of securities and that too stands for the

political achievements and attainment of the then rulers. They in turn had their

own echo over the society of that period.

The king who was equated with god, was also known as iraivan and

“the Tamils held their kings in reverence bordering on worship“.540 All the

rulers had an element of Vishnu in them.541 The medieval Tamil kings had at

least legendary antecedents and needed little justification for their title to

royalty.542 In general divinity was imposed on the rulers. Due to the impact and

influence of the Bhakthi movement there existed, a harmony between

politics and religion. As pointed out by the Srivaramangalam copper plate the

Pandya543 and Chola

544 periods Kanchi was popular. Nammalvar was able to

see Tirumal in the form of prosperous kings (Thiruvudai Mannarai Kanil

Thirumalaikanden)545 Such identical narratives treatments available in

Kandapuranam enables one to have an idea of kingship of Kachchiyappar.

538. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 11:36:1-2 539. Ibid., Salai Sei Padalam, 11:36:1-2 540. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.24 541. Nandhikkalambagam, 64. 542. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.26. 543. Varaguna I (788-816 A.D.) is treated as a king in the form of Tirumal and Simaran

Srivallalha (816-89 A.D) is called as Senganmal 544. Nandhikalambagam, 64. 545. Tiruvaimoli, 4:48:1-2.


Anyhow it is evident that the period of Kachchiyappar was known for its

superior monarchial form of Government. The kings played the role of

heavenly gods in this earth.

The king who was carrying out many sacrifices for various reasons

were called velvi mannan546 velvi vendan

547. For achieving great things the

kings indulged in the execution of sacrifices. A garland was hanging in his

chest around the neck.548 The king was known for royalty his wealth and

prosperity,549 and had a huge army

550. He was surrounded by people who were

always waiting to render their offerings to him.551 His crown was a mark of

high respect552. He exalted and veneral position enabled him to be hailed as

mannar mannan i.e, king of kings in many places in Kadapuranam.553 The

kings were treated as powerful divinity who appeared in human shape554,

and his virtuous and memorable qualities are disclosed by Kachchiyappar . It

was a customary practice among the kings to be in court surrounded by

many555 and only by being in the court be executed his administrative

546. Kandapurnam, Tirukkalyana Padalam, 10:57:1 547. Ibid., Tiruvilayatu Padalam, 14:47:4 548. Ibid., Avai buhu Sei Padalam, 12:78:1 549. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 12:111:13 550. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:279:2 551. Ibid., Nagar Ali Padalam, 15:9:2 552. Ibid., Valinadai Padalam, 23:1:1 553. Ibid., Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:14:1, Kanda Viratha Padalam, 23:26:1,

Asurar Yaga Padalam, 8:21:2, Uruddirar Kelvi Padalam, 14:1:1, Amarar Sirai Puhu

Padalam, 43:89:1, Pudalvarai Peru Padalam, 19:2:1 554. Manava Dharma Sastra, Chapter VII Sloga VIII 555. Kandapurnam, A Surrendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:32:4


duties.556 He was seated in throne with a cool garland.

557 The throne was the

hereditary right of the king.558 The king’s royal court was known as athani

mandapam559 and he was guarded by warriors with sword.

560 The king who is

known for his prosperity which the king was seated on the throne which was

in an elevated place.561 and that stands to prove his superior, sovereign

power. He was in the court and celebrated his kingly duties for a pretty long

period in a day.562 It was believed that the kings who execute their duties

without any flaw will gain the blessings of the God.563 The kings were ever

righteous and executed their administrative functions as per the said norms of

Dharma. His upright scepter kept his state away from the troubles by foreign

enemies and thiefs564. At times of troubles the state suffered much even to exist

and at that time only the upright rule alone allowed the activities and duties of

the rulers to be carried out successfully.

In case of royalty coronation known as mudisuttudal was a renowned

and unforgettable action in the life of a king. At the time of coronation the one

who ascends the throne was seated on the throne and coronation the

ceremony was carried out with all grandeur with a fillent wound round his

556. Ibid., 22:33:1 557. Ibid., 22:9:2 558. Ibid., 22:41:2 559. Ibid., Nagar Sei Padalam, 15:14:2 560. Ibid., Avai Buhu Padalam, 12:47:3-4 561. Ibid., 12:50:1-2 562. Ibid., Sandira Saba Padalam, 4:62:3 563. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:228:2-3 564. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 12:37:1-2


head and sceptre given to his hands.565 As pointed out by Kalingathupparani of

Jayankondar, the white umbrella, flag with the emblem and a fly whisk were

mainly appropriated for the ruler.566 As the early Pallava rulers had the

Ghatikayar to coronate the king, the Dikishdiar Brahmins of the Chidambaram

temple were engaged for coronation in the Chola kingdom.567 Due to its

importance Kachchiyappar has vividly described the coronation ceremony.568

The king possessed the crown,569 dhandam,

570 flag

571 etc., as his own reserved

paraphenelias . Such things reveal that the position of the king was an

unmatched one beyond comparison. The kings personal traits and qualities

were highly venerable. Thus kingship enjoyed a remarkable status.

The kings were aware of the fact that a single wheel cannot carry out

anything as propounded by Arthasastra of Kautilya. Hence the government is

possible only with the assistance of ministers572. They were known as

amaichar in Tamil. Even Tiruvalluvar has described the significances to

ministers.573 By having this traditional view in mind, Kachchiyappar too has

assigned significance to the ministers who were efficient administrators and

565. 136 of 1919 566. Kalingattupparani, V.266 567. R.Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.31. 568. Kandapurnam, Pattabhisheha Padalam, 16:2:2 569. Ibid., 16:8:3 570. Ibid., Devagiri Padalam, 21:7:3, Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:243:2 571. Ibid., Kalindhi Padalm, 6:9:3 572. Shama Sastri (Tr)., Artha Sastra of Kautilya, Bangalore, 1923, 1:7 573. G.U. Pope (Jr), Tirukkural, Madras, 1973, Amaichiyal, pp.169-196.


were wpell read and learned scholars.574 As the Pallavas preferred learned

Brahmins as ministers,575 the author Kachchiyappar too has stressed that the

ministers should be learned scholars. The number of ministers was not fixed

but they were in plenty.576 The king was always in the company of ministers

in the court.577 Among the ministers there was a head and was known as

mantiri talaivar.578 As there were nearly 50 ministers under Kulottunga I (1070

to 1120 A.D)579 this work taken up for study too attests the fact that the number

of ministers was a spreaded one580. So it is obvious that he ministers should

have occupied a significant place in the art of administration during the

Kandapuranam period.

Even during the Sangam age itself the kings were instructed to have

ministers, detectives and spies.581 For having an estimate of the feeling of the

public and to know the internal as well as external political trends the kings

adopted the tradition of the use of spics and detectives.582 The espionage

system was wide spread in different parts of the country.583 The spies exposed

574. Kandapurnam, A Surendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:61:1-2 575. C. Minakshi, op.cit., p.9. 576. Ibid., Suran Dandam Sey Padalam, 42:71:1 577. Ibid., Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:260:1 578. Ibid., Taragan Padalam, 20:10:3 579. A.R.S. I.E., 1932, Part II, Para 14. 580. Kandapurnam, Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:31:4 581. G.U. Pope, Op.cit., pp.156-158. 582. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.57. 583. Kandapuranam, Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:20:1


their messages to the kings by successive relay race.584 The spices appointed by

the kings went to the different parts of the country585 and were quick in their

actions.586 It is evident that without the works of the spies nothing could be

achieved successfully.587 People engaged in various activities served as spies

588.

Espionage system played a predominant role even from the Sangam age and it

was more intense during times of war589. Their service was an unavoidable

one.590 Employment of Dutas (envoys) was not a new idea among the Tamils.

The dutas and the aspects related to them are all mentioned in a separate

chapter in Kural591 The rulers were particular in having close contact with the

neighbouring countries and adopted the tradition of sending envoys.592 The

dutas593 were people who were were used for sending messages

594. The dutas

also were known for their noble qualities595. There was the belief that the kings

who never listened to the worlds of the envoys had to face difficulties.596 Thus

for the sake of successful and efficient administration with the knowledge of

different occurrences envoys were employed and the envoys played a

significant role in the art of administration. 584. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam,12:101:2-3. 585. Ibid., Indiran Karanthurai Padalam, 31:44:2 586. Ibid., 21:20:1 587. Ibid., 21:19:1 588. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:31:1 589 . N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity, Ennes Publications, Madurai, 1980, p.109. 590. Kandapurnam, Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:34:1 591. G.U. Pope, op.cit., Chapter 69, Envoy, (Tudu) pp.182-85. 592. Nammalvar’s Tiruviddham, 30 593. Kandapurnam, Kanda Virata Padalam, 23:41:3-4 594. Ibid., Tarakan Vadai Padalam, 20:26:3-4 595. Ibid., Salai Sei Padalam, 11:33:2 596. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 12:32:1


It was a customary practice among the people to interview the king in

his court.597 The youthful kings listened to the words of the ministers as it

was a common order of the day.598 The prosperity of the king is revealed by

the fact that the kings resided in the palace made of reddish gold.599 King’s

orders were brought to the notice of the public by the beat of drum.600 Since the

kingship was imposed on the ruler, who was assisted by learned scholars and

grace of god, it was felt that such directives will allow the kings to carry out

their duties in a cheerful way.601 The kings were expected to be quick in

thinking and action.602 The king had to finish of his duties with utmost

accuracy for maintaining the just rule.603 If not he and his associates will face

hardships and distresses. The king was expected to be virtuous and just in his

dealings, for avoiding his status to be lowered.604 In addition to the above

mentioned facts many other aspects pertaining to kingship are also disclosed

by Kandapuranam.

Since the Tamil country was under going a religious ferment from 600

to 1300 A.D. it had its own echo over the royal attitude towards religion. The

Bhakthi movement, which was prominent in the TMAil country between the

597. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:62:3-4 598. Ibid., 12:114:23-4 599. Ibid., Nagar Ali Padalam, 15:3:2 600. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 12:10:1 601. Ibid., Kaveri Ningu Padalam, 2715:3-4 602. Ibid., Sayandan Pulamburu Padalam, 9:44:1-3 603. Ibid., Indiran Marutalai Padalam, 35:10:1-4 604. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:107:23-4


sixth to ninth centuries A.D. began to offer fruits in the subsequent centuries

and the religious pursuits of the Pallava and Imperial Chola monarchs will

stand testimony to this. The rulers had their own attachment towards a

specific religion but were not religious fanatics and almost all of them

adopted the policy of religious toleration. The tradition of Vedic sacrifices

continued even then.605 By the execution of various sacrifices the kings

were particular in attaining the blessings of the god. As a resultant factor they

were capable of maintaining their individual prowess and ran the

administration effectively with prosperity.606 By the use of the upright

scepter they were able to save the lives of many.607 Kingship attained

perfection by the showerings of divinities.608 It was the duty of the kings to

make efforts to acquire wealth, cities and to earn reputed name through the

wielding of the sceptre effectively.

They were aware of the fact about the negative approaches also.609 All

the deities were expected to shower their benefactions to those rulers who

executed their religious rites uninterruptedly.610 It was believed that the kings

who were not virtuous and just had to face distresses of varied nature.611 To

be more cautious and to be always alert the kings had to give priority to

605. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., pp.39-40 606. Kandapurnam, Arasirukkai Padalam, 39:24:1-3 607. Ibid., Tarakan Vadai Padalam, 20:147:3-4 608. Ibid., Suram buh Padalam, 1:70:1-3 609. Ibid., Mayay Padalam, 1:70:1-3 610. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:271:1-4 611. Ibid., Nagar Ali Padalam, 15:26:1-4


news offered by the spies and detectives.612 Here it must be remembered that

the words and deeds of the envoys should be given due recognition.613

Since the unjust ruler will spoil himself,614 he should be of honest dealings

on the basis the understandings of the situation through the spies.615 The king

should never feel angry and should always yield to the utterances of the

ministers.616 He should be brisk in having the news about the different

happenings in the state.617 The king was expected to be even ready to redress

the grievances of the mass and should take care of the welfare of the ruled.618

He should never hesitate to punish the wicked.619 As an individual, who is

equated with god, due to his vedic wisdom, by using the knowledge of the

vedic chantings he must try his best to maintain his status always at an

elevated level.620 He should acknowledge that he is endowed with kingship

for removing the evils caused by bad elements.621 Like the sea and smoke he

was to be deep and broad in all his careers and achievements.622 The estimate of

his limitations alone was expected to put him in the right path.623 As kingship

was a hereditary one the king was to have the knowledge of the activities and

612. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:210:2-3 613. Ibid., 5:157:1-4 614. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:97:1-2 615. Ibid., Asurendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:51:1-2 616. Ibid., 22:57:1-4 617. Ibid., Tiru avatara Padalam, 11:5:3 618. Ibid., Tiruvilayattu Padalam, 14:33:1-2 619. Ibid., 14:103:4 620. Ibid., 14:120:1-4 621. Ibid., Vidai Peru Padalam, 18:35:4 622. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 18:35:4 623. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 5:33:3-4


services of his ancestors.624 Thus Kachchiyappar treats kingship as a noble

profession and has given a descriptive account about it in the form of

narration of the qualities of the rulers. Here also one should note the impact

and influence of Kural over the author.625

Certain duties of the kings are also disclosed by Kachchiyappar, as the

prerequisites for a prominent ruler it is warranted to have an analysis of those

things. Primarily he has to relieve the problems of others at all times.626 On

the basis of the duties the principles of the kings are all traced.627 It is his duty

to understand every situation.628 Without showing any disparity the king had

to execute his duties with all promptness.629 Along with people the elephants,

horses and the chariots should all be protected.630 It was the duty of the king

to go on procession and camps to have an idea of the views of the people.631

Even though the king was known for his valour, prosperity etc., if he was

unable to render justice, he has to lose his rule.632 He has to adhere to all the

things which are good and best.633 He has to over come the army of

624. Ibid., Meru Padalam, 3:52:3-4 625. G.U. Pope, op.cit., chapters 39 to 63, p. 103 to 166 626. Kandapurnam, Agattiya Padalam, 23:41:2-3 627. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:2:2 628. Ibid., 5:3:2 629. Ibid., 5:25:2-4 630. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:34 631. Ibid., Asurendiran Mahendiram Sel Padalam, 22:5:2 632. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:44:1-4 633. Ibid., Suran Dandam Sei Padalam, 42:21:4


enemies.634 As there was no one to match the kings.

635 The king was

compelled to possess honesty, dharma, fame combined in him636 because that

was be finest way for prosperity. With regard to succession there was a distinct

priority order of succession of the heir apparent and after him a number of

heirs presumptive like the other sons of the king and in the event of the ruling

king being sonless, the kings brothers and their sons in the order or

seniority.637 In this regard the kings was even expected to be cautions in the

selection of their successor.638 The king was not allowed to suppress the

values of the sacrifices.639 Further the king while engaged in wars, was to

assign importance to the gracious deities and sages.640 If he was not able to

over come one’s distress, naturally he has to face others in succession.641 The

king’s duty was to feed the Brahmins with food and the materials.642 He was

compelled to be aware of the fact that the state should have protective forts at

appropriate places643. He was directed to devote attention in the making of

temples for different deities.644. The king should possesses the quality of

634. Ibid., Adiviran Vadai Padalam, 5:36:3-4 635. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:275:1 636. Ibid., Maya Upadesa Padalam, 6:12:1-4 637. R. Rajalakshmi, op.cit., p.29 638. Kandapurnam, Pudalvarai Peru Padalam, 19:6:1-2 639. Ibid., Vivalan Vatabi Padalam, 20:2:2 640. Ibid., Gayamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:93:1-4 641. Ibid., 14:189:1-4 642. Ibid., Salai Sei Padalam, 11:24:3-4 643. Ibid., 11:9:1-4 644. Ibid., Valinadu Padalam, 23:10:1-4


tolerating the activities of different religions.645 Along with a well trained

army, consisting of different wings.646 He should be careful in punishing the

wicked and evil doers647 and should see that his orders reach every body

promptly.648 Thus from the analysis of Kandapuranam it is evident that king

and kingship were venerated due to obvious reasons. As kingship was the

general order, the role of the king in politics was a remarkable one.

War was considered desirable and always inevitable with regard to

Tamil kings. As the king was in need of expanded territories it was essential for

him to involve in wars. The king himself led the army to the battle field.649

The kings felt happy to be called as the king of great army650. The commander

in chief was also there.651 There were four wings in the army comprising of

elephants, horses chariots, and foot soldiers.652 The armed forces were known

for their training, quality as well as quantity.653 At times of war initially the

forts were destroyed and penetrated.654 The doors of the prisons were all closed

at times of war.655 Various weapons such as gadha, kanichchi, low, arrow,

645. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 6:10:4 646. Ibid., 6:15:1-4 647. Ibid., Indiran Kayilai Sel Padalam, 33:17:4 648. Ibid., Valliyammai Tirumana Padalam, 24:16:1 649. Ibid., Tiruvilayattu Padalam, 14:106:3 650. Ibid., Avai buhu Padalam, 12:95:1 651. Ibid., Salai Sey Padalam, 11:37:3 652. Ibid., Nagar buhu Padalam, 8:15:1-2, 8:5:2 653. Ibid., Amarar Sirai Taru Padalam, 43:41:1 654. Ibid., Yaga Sangara Padalam, 20:57:2-3 655. Ibid., 20:70:1-2


spear commonly used.656 The bow was made to steel and the weapons such as

malu, wheel , vajiram were also familiar.657 Vajiram the thunder bolt was a

most popular weapon and the repeated reference about it will attest the above

fact.658 The weapon Vajiram was used only by a specific set of soldiers

659.

The hand or dagger sword another weapon.660 There were different

varieties of swords used at times of war.661 There were separate swordsmen in

the army.662 Bow and arrow were the other weapons.

663 The bow was treated

as a powerful weapon.664 The weapon kanichchi was associated with

Siva and this mace like weapon was familiar even during the Sangam age.665

This unique like weapon is mentioned repeatedly in war occasions in the

religious literature Kandapuranam.666 Malu or mace or axe was a popular

weapon even during the Sangam age itself.667 Kachchiyappar too has

referred to this weapon.668 Trisul was used in the war

669. Dandam wasn

656. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:38. 657. Ibid., Sahattira Vahugan Vadai Padalam, 16:7:1-4 658. Ibid., Thiruvillayattu Padalam, 14:47:3, Dadisi Utttara Padalam, 13:203:1, 13:233:1,

Chandira Saba Padalam, 4:16:1, Varaipunai Padalam, 8:22:2. 659. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:13:2. 660. Ibid., Amarar Sirai Padalam, 43:37:3 661. Ibid., Gajamuhan Urappathi Padalam, 14:37:1 662. Ibid., Dunaivar Varu Padalam, 12:12:4. 663. Ibid., Thiruvilayattu Padalam, 14:53:3, 14:56:23, Arruppadalam, 4:38:1-4. 664. Ibid., Payira Padalam, 7:18:1. 665. Kalittoai, 101:8, 105:20, Purananuru, 56:2, 195:4, 42:22 has mentioned Kanichchi as a

weapon of yama. 666. Kandapurnam Brhama Yaga Padalam, 10:4:2, Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:102:1,

Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:118:1, Gayamuhan Urppati Padalam, 14:245:2 667. Ahananuru 220:5, Kalittogai, 85:8, 86:3, Purananuru 206:12 668. Kandapurnam, Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:3:2-3 669. Ibid., 13:44:1, 13:176:4


another weapon.670 Pasupathm was n vogue at times of war

671. The reference

Kulisa mappadai suggests that there was a separate wing to handle the

weapon672. Horses were used in plenty to prevent the attack by the enemy

soldiers and to draw the war chariots673. The wars found during day times were

adjourned at dusk after witnessing the horrors of loss on both sides674. The

terms Ueyyadhoar senai675, nediyapal padiagai

676, indicate the huge army used

at times of war677 etc., and they suggested not only the fascination for war but

also the essence of war. The wrestles served in the army were known as mallars

during the Sangam age678. They too formed a separate wing of the army during

Kachchiyappar’s age.679

Various strategics were employed in the war.680 The swords which

played an important role due to their clash in the war produced huge noise.681

Those who used in egadha, the throwers of malu and those who used

kulisappm functioned simultaneously in the war.682 The functioning of

670. Ibid., Taragan Vadai Padalam, 20:63:4 671. Ibid., Varamperu Padalam, 20:63:4 672. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 9:23:2-4 673. Ibid., 13:245:1, Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 13:224:1-2 674. Ibid., Dadisi Uttara Padalam, 13:316:2-4 675. Ibid., Gajamuhan Urppathi Padalam, 14:245:1 676. Ibid., 14:247:1 677. Ibid., Adimudi Tedi Padalam, 21:51:1-3 678. Ahananuru, 21:123, 144:14, 185:7, Aingurunuru, 94:1, 371:1, 400:1, 432:2, Kalittogai,

106:10, Kuruntogai, 364:8, Tirumurugarruppadai, 262, Narrinai, 260:3, adirruppattu,

13:21:38:10, 63:13, 66:14, 81:34, 90:44 679. Kandapurnam avaibuhu Padalam, 12:22:3-4 680. Ibid., Yagasangara Padalam, 20:114:1 681. Ibid., Valliyammai Thirumana Padalam, 24:177:1-2 682. Ibid., Amarar Siraibuhu Padalam, 43:38:1-2


different weapons were continuous like the torrential rainfall683. In general the

battles were ferocious pierce in nature. The chariots dashed against each other

and the flags twisted with one another.684 Different varieties of chariots such

as the lion faced chariot and the horse faced chariot685 were used and they

testify not only the art of chariot making but also the importance assign end to

chariotry employed in war686 As the army consisted of different wings it was a

renowned one.687 The references about the use of many varieties of weapons at

a time in the war688 explicate the nature of wars . The proper estimate of the

strategy employed by the enemy allowed the opponents to take up the

offence.689 The ferocious nature of the warring parties point out that everyone

of them was particular in achieving their end victory at the end.690 The wars

caused disasterous result as caused by the natural drought which affected the

prosperity of the state.691 As a small chisel can destroy the entire iron pillar,

a small war strategy of offensive war fare was capable of routing the enemy’s

army.692 It was a customary practice among those who became victorious in

the wars to capture the army of the vanquished as war captives.693 Each and

683. Ibid., 43:39:1 684. Ibid., Tarakan Vadai Padalam, 20:23:1-4 685. Ibid., 20:22:1-2, Kadal Bai Padalam. 686. Ibid., Nagarbuhu Padalam, 8:23:3 687. Ibid., Namarar Siraibuhu Padalam, 43:89:2-3 688. Ibid., Veerasingan Vadai Padalam, 3:9:1-4 689. Ibid., 3:16:2-4 690. Ibid., Ilangai Vil Padalam, 4:15:3-4 691. Ibid., Gajamuhan Vadai Padalam, 7:37:23-4 692. Ibid., 7:38:1-2 693. Ibid., Kasiban Pulampuru Padalam, 2:3:1-2


every wing of the army had its own leader to command that force.694 The

horrors of the bloody scenes of the battle was a terrifying one.695 The wealth

the precious stones along with various other things were also taken as tributes

of the war captured in the victorious war.696 At times of wars the security

forces were strengthened in all possible ways697. As they State was a war loving

one it was a custom to send me male member to get training in the art of war

fare as per the order of king698. Thus war played a significant role in the state of

hereditary monarchy for expansion and consolidation.

From the above facts it is evident that Kanchi of Tondainadu was a

renowned political centre as well as a capital city. It was a prosperous city for

it had the capacity to satisfy all the needs and requirements of all the people.

Since monarchy was the form of government, the king, position was a

remarkable one. His functions described and the different subordinates in the

administration suggest that stateship was a complicated one. Though no detailed

list of officials are available, ministers, spies and envoys are given

importance. The distinctive qualities of the kings are highly commended. He

was particular in his official duties. Due recognition is also given to the royal

paraphernelias such as sceptre, throne, elephant horse, garland etc. The flags,

694. Ibid., Nagar Puhu Padalam, 8:79:1 695. Ibid., Dig Vijaya Padalam, 17:19:4 696. Ibid., 12:35:2-3 697.Ibid., Arasu Sei Padalam, 17:19:4 698. Ibid., Nagar Puhu Padalam, 8:59:1-4


garland etc, too are exhibited. Wars were justificable and inevitable but had no

ethics of moral background. In general all the kings had a standing armies of

different wings. The weapons employed, consisted of the bow, arrow,

Kanichchi, malu, sword , spear etc. There is scope for the classification of the

weapons, as detailed in Kandapuranam into human, divine and mixed. The

battles were gruesome and the battle field was naturally bloody. Thus

Kachchiyappar had not attached more details king, kinship, administration and

at the same time equal importance is offered to the war like of the ruler and the

State. So warfare was a primary concern of a state during the period of

Kachchiyappar. It is mainly because of the existence of the renowned Chola

hegemony. As the State was a state of war, the kings were always alert, shrewd

and attentive.

Economic ideas

Literary evidences in pointing out the economic aspects of the Pallava,

Chola and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu were unfortunately inadequate.699

Though there are stray references about them in the Devaram hymms of the

Saiva Nayanmars and in the Pasurams of the Vaishnava Alwars included in

the Nalayira Divya Prabandam, the Sanskrit work Mathavilasa Pragasena of

Mahendravarman and Nandhikkalambagam, a Tamil work by an anonymous

author on Nandhivarman II contain little details about the Pallavas and their

699. C. Minakshi, op.cit., p.2.


time. Kachchiyappar , being a poet hailed from Kanchipuram, has rendered

some appreciations about Kanchi with its economic prosperity. The references

such as mani kol kanchi.700 having streets as a part of clouds,

701 the city

having the population belonging to various sects,702 the matchless city.

703 Etc

will reveal the familiarity of that city at the time of Kachchiyappar it is called

by different names such as Sakar Saram,704 Sakala Siddhi,

705 Praya siddh,

706

Brahmma Puram,707 Vindumapuram

708 etc. They stand testimony to the

prosperity of that city. The city was comprising of people known for their

fame due to their contribution to economic pursuits.709 As this city was known

for its prosperous population it had experts in yoga practices and as they were

able to get the grace of the deities it gained the name Karmapidam. 710 Due to

the impact of Saivism had the name Sivapuram.711 It was popular among seven

cities712 and is called by the name Dandagapuram.

713 Due to its activities of

many sided nature its name was Dudirapuram.714 It is hailed as a city which

was ruled by Karikalan, the Sangam Chola rruler who built the Kallanai dam in

700

. Kandapurnam, Tirunagara Padalam, 6:52:4 701

. Ibid., 6:59:4 702

. Ibid., 6:62:3-4 703

. Ibid., 6:64:4 704

. Ibid., 6:71:2 705

. Ibid., 6:71:4 706

. Ibid., 6:71:2 707

. Ibid., 6:69:4 708

. Ibid., 6:67:4 709

. Ibid., 6:68:4 710

. Ibid., 6:70:2-4 711. Ibid., 6:66:4 712. Ibid., 6:75:3 713. Ibid., 6:74:3-4 714. Ibid., 6:73:4


Kaveri.715 In the same way it is described as a city ruled by Mamallan and his

successors.716 All these facts stand to prove that Kanchi was known for its

values. The city was popular for its religious activities and it was sung by the

Siva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alwards and that will attest its fame and

name.717 Kachchiyappar has given importance only to devotionalism and

religious ideas in addition to his objective of promoting Murugan worship. But

few descriptions are available in his work relating to the economic conditions

and ideas.

The economy of the Tamil country through the ages centred on the

prime occupation agriculture. So it is imperative to concentrate on the economic

ideas as exposed Kandapuranam. Due to the growth of various varieties of

agricultural produces, the ancient city Kanchi and prosperity and abundant

agricultural wealth.718 The exorbitant yield from the land encouraged the

people to devote attention towards their protection.719 As the irrigation facilities

were sufficient the methodical agricultural activities were uninterrupted and

continuous.720 The winnowing was a common practice available then and

paddy was dumped in different places.721 The houses in the form of hut were

715. Ibid., 6:87:4 716. Ibid., 6:48:3-4 717. Ibid., 6:72:4, 6:83:4, 6:85:4 etc. 718. Ibid., 6:30:3-4 719. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:44:1 720. Ibid., 5:6:1-4 721. Ibid., 5:24:3-4


used to preserve paddy. It was a customary practice adopted.722 As people were

so particular in storing paddy there was surplus production.

Sail , the red coloured superior kind of paddy was common during the

Sangam age.723 Growing the same variety of superior variety continued even

during the time of Kachchiyappar in the Kanchipuram region due to the fertility

of the soil.724 Sennel was also a common superior variety during the Sangam

age.725 It is also treated as Sali. The same quality was produced during period

of Kachchiyappar also.726 Aivanam was a white variety of paddy popular in

the Tamil country even from the days of the Sangam, mostly in hill sides,727

Kachchiyappar has described it as Toraiaivanam.728 So due to economic

prosperity the people were fond of using food made up of superior varieties

and the farmers were always capable of satisfying the needs of the mass.

Tumbu, the sluice used as an outlet for water in tank was a common tradition

adopted in irrigation even from the Sangam age.729 The same technique of

watering the field continued even in the days of Kachchiyappar730 this stands to

722. Ibid., 5:26:3 723. Porunararruppadai, 246, Cilappatikaram, XVI, 27, XXII:48. 724. Kandapurnam, Tirunattur Padalam, 5:21:3, Assurar Yaga Padalam, 8:71:3 725. Ahananuru, 303:12, Kuruntogai, 53:4, Naladiyar, 269:1, 367:1,2, Padirruppathu,

75:12 726. Kandapurnam, Asurar Yaga Padalam, 8:53:, 8:55:2 727. Aingurunuru, 267:3,285:3, Aintinai Elubadu, 21:1, Kalitogai, 43:4, Kuruntogai,

100:1: 371, 2, Narrinai, 373:4, Purananuru, 159:17, 172:6, Silappatikaram, XI, 80,

Tinamalai Nurraimbadu, 8:1, 19:2 728. Kandapurnam, Asurar Yaga Padalam, 8:72:1 729. Kalavali Narpadu, 2:4, Nanmanikkadigai, 73:3 730. Kandapurnam, Arruppadalam, 4:33:1-2


prove the continuation of the traditional form of agrarian activities. The term

nirvayal kanchi731, the field which produced gold

732 etc are factors which

expose the economic property.

Thousands of huge palatial buildings were available at Kanchi.733 They

testify to the economic prosperity. The huge buildings even touched the

clouds.734 The big buildings and palaces were having decorated and adorned

arches infront and that was known as magara toranam.735 Even to day the

huge cities have Toranavayil to welcome the entrants in to the city. Kanchi

was always a busy centre due to the brisk trade by the people which brought

economic prosperity to the state and allowed people to lead a happy and

prosperous life.736

Foreign trade which favoured prosperity was an important source of the

country’s wealth.737 From Foreign countries various commodities were

transported by ships.738 These facts suggest the availability lucrative foreign

trade. The merchants were busy in the noisy market street. The records

731. Ibid., Valliyammai Tirunana Padalam, 24:217:3 732. Ibid., Tirunattu Padalam, 5:5:1-2 733. Ibid., Tirunagara Padalam, 6:47:1-2 734. Ibid., 6:37:4 735. Ibid., Devagiri Padalam, 21:14:1-2 736. Ibid., Arruppadalam, 4:36:3 737. Ibid., Tiruanattu Padalam, 14:76:1-4 738. Ibid., Kanda Viratha Padalam, 23:83:4


pertaining to transactions were called avanam.739 All these facts are made

available in Kandapuranam of Kachchiyappar.740 The rich merchants by their

wealth, were capable of enhancing the prosperity of the country’s existing

wealth.741 Various kinds of precious stones were available in plenty

742. The term

mudu peruvanigam (the chief vast trade) highlights the qualities of trade743.

The wealth of the country centered on developed agricultural wealth and

flourishing commercial pursuits. The richness of the country though speaks of

the prosperity references are available in to express the prevalence of poverty.

The term variyan,744 i.e., the poor attests it. The trees such as mango, jack

fruit, coconut, ahil, teak, asokam, kura, etc., were available and they too

exhibit the wealth of the forest,745 The people were particular in earning their

wealth only by proper and appropriate means.746 The merchants were interested

in earning wealth, dress, gems, lands, houses etc.747 Handicrafts were also

familiar.748 The Tamils of the contemporary period of Kachchiyappar felt that

one should not attaché any significance to wealth and at the same time on

economic consideration the relatives and the friends and associates were

739. Nedunelvadai, 44, Padirruppathu, 68:10, Pattinapalai, 158, Cilappattikaram, XVI,

213. 740. Kandapuranam, Tirunagarapadalam, 6:39:4. 741. Ibid., Markkandeaya Padalam, 5:127:1-2 742. Ibid., Nagarpuhu Padalam, 8:26:1-2 743. Ibid., Markandeya Padalam, 5:141:2 744. Ibid., Amarar Siraipuhu Padalam, 43:95:2 and Asurendiran Mahendrian Sel

Padalam, 5:141:2 745. Ibid., Indiran Karanturai Padalam, 21:41:1-4. 746. Ibid., Markkandeya Padalam, 5:131:1 747. Ibid., 5:129:1 748. Ibid., Valliyammai Tirumana Padalam, 24:52:1-2


recognized in all possible ways749. This was the general economic order of the

Tamil society as depicted by Kandapuranam.

Such facts indicate that Kachchiyappar has no stone unturned in

exhibiting aspects here and there in his work. Being an epic Kandapuranam

contains the social, political and economic ideas. Anyhow certain unique

political and economic ideas are brought to light as cited above. They are of

immense value in understanding the socio-political, economic and cultural

history of the contemporary period of Kachchiyappar. Kandapuranam, written

in epic form widened the scope in highlighting various things along with the

expression of the main theme. Kachchiyappar’s due scholarship in both Sanskrit

and Tamil languages had helped him to project his ideas in a multidimensional

approach. Though not a historical literature, Kandapuranam, due to its superior

literary qualities has allowed the author Kachchiyappar to sprinkle different

aspects of life. His multifaceted and deep knowledge too supported him to

explicate the facts with a historical perspective. On that line the socio-political

and economic ideas available in Kandapuranam have disclosed the historicity of

the work.

749. Ibid., Amarar Siraipuhu Padalam, 43:95:3-4


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CHAPTER – III SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS IN KANDAPURANAM ...

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