68

Chapter IV

GEOGRAPHICAL PERSONALITY OF THE STUDY AREA

4.1: The Study Area in the History

A part of North East India is described as Kamrupa in Indian history. Ancient

Kamrupa had four divisions as Kam-peeth, Ratna-peeth, Swarna-peeth and Soumar-

peeth. The present study area was a part of Soumar-peeth. The area between the

Bhairabi (Bharali) river in the west to the Dikrai river near present Sadiya in the east

was known as Soumar-peeth. (Gohainbaruah, 1937). It included the present

Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinisukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat and part of

Sonitpur districts. Until the first quarter of the thirteenth century AD, the Soumar-

peeth was ruled by the Barahi, Matak and Moran rulers (Gohainbaruah, 1937 pp. 56-

57). Sukapha belonged to the Shan or Tai ethnic group of the Irrawaddy valley of

Myanmar. He invaded Soumar-peeth and defeated the Barahi, Matak and Moran

rulers. Myth says that Sukapha was the grandchild of Lord Indra, the king of heaven.

It is, therefore, the word Swargadeo (meaning king) is prefixed to the name of each of

the kings of that dynasty (Gohainbaruah, 1937 p 50). The kingdom of Swargadeo

Sukapha was later named as ‘Asom’ which means unequal. Swargadeo Sukapha ruled

his new kingdom with unprecedented valour and power. Before him, no ruler in

Soumar-peeth could show such valour (Gohainbaruah, 1937 p 57). During the British

rule, the word Asom was spelt as Assam. There are, however, few other propagandas

as well regarding the origin of the word ‘Assam’.

During his reign, Swargadeo Sukapha shifted his capital from place to place

and finally set up at Charaideo. During the subsequent period, the capital of the Ahom

69

kingdom was shifted to Charaideo, Gargaon and Jorhat – all the three capital sites of

the Ahom kingdom lie within the present study area.

Swargadeo Shivasingha was throned in 1636 AD. Under circumstances, he

nominated Ambika, one of his queens, as the ‘Bor-raja (the care taker queen). She

ruled the Ahom kingdom from 1642 to 1663 AD. During her tenure a large tank was

dug as ‘Shivasagar’. The Shiva-dol, which is said to be the tallest Shiva temple in

Asia, was erected at one of the banks of the Shivasagar tank (Barbaruah 1981, pp.

242-246). In course of time, the area around the tank was known as Shivasagar.

During British period the word ‘Shivasagar’ started to be spelt as ‘Sibsagar’. Assam

came under the British rule following the Yandabu Treaty in 1826. A decade later, in

1836, the British rulers constituted two districts as ‘Sibsagar’ and ‘Lakshimpur’

(Allen, 1906). Sibsagar continues to be a district of Assam since then. During that

time these two districts were much larger than their present size.

The three districts forming the present study area were united as a single

district and were known as Sibsagar. The present three districts were its three sub-

divisions. The Sibsagar district of 1971 (which is the base year for the present study)

has been divided into three different districts as Golaghat, Jorhat and Sibsagar. These

divisions were made in the year 1983.

4.2: Location and Extension

The extreme north eastern corner of India has a cluster of seven states

surrounded by foreign countries like Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh. This

cluster of seven states is connected to the mainland of India through a narrow strip of

land consists of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura,

Meghalaya and Assam. Assam has the central location among these seven states.

Assam alone is surrounded by seven other states of India and two countries Bhutan

70

and Bangladesh. Assam has Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh along its entire northern

boundary. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is also bordering Assam on the east.

Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram. Tripura and Meghalaya are the states located to the

south of Assam. Bangladesh is also sharing a small portion of the southern boundary

of Assam. Along with West Bengal, Bangladesh again shares the western boundary of

Assam.

The mighty river Brahmaputra flows through the state from east to west

dividing the state into two unequal halves being the north bank and the south bank.

Assam has its major part of the geographical area within the Brahmaputra valley.

Excepting a small gap in the west, the Brahmaputra valley is surrounded from all sides

by hills and mountains. These hills and mountains include the foothills of Himalayas

on the north, the hills and mountains of the Naga-Patkai range on the east as well as

south-east, the Barail range and the table land of Meghalaya on the south. As the

Brahmaputra valley is surrounded by hills and mountains, the rain water rushes to the

valley through numerous rivers and streams coming out of these hills soon after a

downpour. Under the impact of monsoon, which causes rainfall during summer, the

river Brahmaputra and many of its tributaries cause flood during the summer months

from May to October every year.

The study area comprises three districts of Assam on the southern bank of

Brahmaputra (Fig. 4.1). These three districts, form west to east are Golaghat, Jorhat

and Sibsagar. Majuli, which is often called as the world’s largest river island is a sub-

division of the Jorhat district and is located along the northern margins of the study

area. In fact, the study area lies between the hills of Nagaland on the south and the

river Brahmaputra on the north. The districts of Dibrugarh and Karbi Anglong are

bordering the study area on the east and west respectively.

71

Geographically, the study area lies little north of tropic of cancer and to the

south of the eastern Himalayan ranges. The study area is stretching from 25°48′32″

north to 27°16′30″ north parallels. Longitudinally, the area lies between 93°17′15″

east and 95°22′39″ east meridians. The total area covered by the three districts is

8731.77 sq km. It includes 3358.80 sq km under Golaghat district, 2730.47 sq km

under Jorhat district and 2642.50 sq km under Sibsagar district. As such, the study

area covers 11.13 per cent of the total geographical area of Assam. The Brahmaputra

and its tributaries cover 72 percent of the total geographical area of Assam (Bora,

2001, p. 19). Based on this, the present study area covers 15.50 per cent of the

Brahmaputra valley within the state of Assam.

Assam and Nagaland have a common boundary of 347 km between the two

states. Nagaland, basically has a hilly topography while Assam is a state with its major

part in the plains. As many as five districts of Assam, namely North Cachar hills,

Karbi Anglong, Golaghat, Jorhat and Sibsagar are located along this boundary. Of

these five districts, North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong have hilly topography and

the remaining Golaghat, Jorhat and Sibsagar districts span over the Brahmaputra

plain. In the present study, only these three districts of the Brahmaputra plain have

been considered. This is the reason behind the selection of these three districts as the

study area. A distinct zone of foothills exists in these three districts along the Assam-

Nagaland boundary. These foothills belong to the Naga-Patkai range. The Assam-

Nagaland boundary is not merely a political boundary separating the two states. In

fact, it is a geographical boundary separating two very important physiographic

divisions of the north eastern part of the country.

72

Fig. 4.1: Map of the study area

73

4.3: Geology and Physiography

The study area is a small part of the north-east India. The entire north-east

India is situated along the margin zone of two tectonic plates. This zone has the Indo-

Australian plate on one side and the Europe-Asian plate on the other. The area is

tectonically restless and occasional earthquakes indicate that the earth movement in

the area has not yet stopped (Bhattacharyya, 2005). The Brahmaputra basin represents

a fragile geological base which is seismically very active. This seismic instability

manifests itself in frequent earthquakes sometimes of very high magnitude, which

make a severe impact on the fluvio-sedimentary regime of the river and its tributaries

(Dutta, 2001, p. 84). Several great earthquakes, measuring above 8 in the Richter scale

have already taken place along this plate margin as stated earlier. The great Tsunami

killer earthquake of December, 2004 was also associated with this plate margin, but its

epicenter was far away from the study area.

4.3.1: The Geologic Setting

A complex geologic and physiographic make-up can be observed in the state

of Assam. The state is surrounded by highlands and hills and plateaus on the three

sides. Only the western end of the state is plain where the Brahmaputra valley merges

with the Indo-Gangetic plain. Mainly Archaean, Pre-Cambrian, Tertiary and

Quaternary formations are found to scatter in the state of Assam. Based on these, the

state of Assam can be divided into five geologic units. These are (i) the Archaean

group of rocks, (ii) the Pre-Cambrian rocks, (iii) the lower Tertiary sediments, (iv) the

upper Tertiary sediments and (v) the Quaternary alluvium sediments (Bora, 2001, pp.

19-35).

The Brahmaputra plain is a narrow and elongated foredeep (or rift valley)

between the rigid massifs of Meghalaya and Karbi plateau (an extended part of the

peninsular Gondwanaland) and the fold-mountains of Tertiary origin born out of the

74

Tethyan geosyncline (Taher, 1986, pp. 1-19). These Tertiary hills include the hills of

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. The major part of the study

area lies in the plain of Brahmaputra. Geologically, the Brahmaputra is a young river

and its present configuration took shape only during the Pleistocene and Recent times.

The foredeep, believed to remain submerged under sea till the sub-Recent period,

received deposits during all the periods of Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The

Tertiary deposits consist mainly of sandstone, shale, grit, conglomerate and limestone.

The Quaternary deposits include alluvial sediments comprising pebbles, sand, silt and

clay. All these were deposited over the Archaean basement of the trough. Patches of

reddish brown sandy clay and that of unassorted pebbles, cobbles, sand and silt have

also been observed in the valley. These are composed of older alluvium. The

sediments comprising clay sand and silt grouped as newer alluvium overlie the older

ones with a thickness of 200 to 300 metres (Bora, 2001, pp.18-35). The older alluvium

appears in patches.

One of the geological formations of the upper Miocene period is known as the

Tipam series. It represents lower arenaceous facies – the Tipam Sandstone Formation

consisting of fairly coarse to gritty, false bedded, ferruginous sandstone interbedded

with shale, sandy shale, clay and conglomerate. The sandstone is usually bluish grey

to greenish in colour giving a brownish tint on weathering. In Assam valley, the

Tipam Group occupies a 300 km long strip from near Langtang (25°25΄ N : 90°23΄ E)

to Digboi, interrupted by small patches of alluvium. The Tipam Group includes

fragments of silicified and semi-carbonized fossil wood. It also includes several oil-

sand horizone in Upper Assam (Geological Survey of India, 1974). The Geleki oil

field of Sibsagar district, Selenghat and Borholla oil field of Jorhat district and

Khoraghat and Gholapani oil fields of Golaghat district are the oil fields which come

75

under the Tipam Geological Formation. These are located along the Assam-Nagaland

border of the study area.

One of the Oligocene formations is known as the Barail Group. Among other

formations of the Barail Group is the Baragolai formation which comprises hard,

massive and bedded sandstone with interbeds of clay, shale, carbonaceous shale and

numerous thin, impersistant coal seams. The Baragolai Formation includes several oil-

sand horizons in Upper Assam. The group is well exposed in the Dilli- Jaipur and

Makum coalfield areas in Upper Assam (Geological Survey of India, 1974). The

greater part of this formation lies beyond the present study area, but it appears in

patches in the south-eastern part of the study area. The Moran and Rudrasagar oil

fields, which are located within the study area belong to this group of geological

formation.

foothills and the river Brahmaputra. This plain is spreading within the study

area for a length of 212 km in the east-west direction, while its breadth varies from 40

km to 100 km. Its eastern end is narrower than the western end and the total

geographical area of the study area is 8731.77 sq km.

4.3.2: The Physiographic Set-up

Excepting the river island Majuli, the entire study area is located to the south

of the mighty river Brahmaputra which flows along the northern margin and separates

the study area from the Sonitpur, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of the northern

bank. The southern margin of the study area, on the other hand, is formed by an

elongated belt of foothills belonging to the Naga-Patkai range. An extensive plain

exists between the

The Brahmaputra valley has an east-west orientation and it exhibits four

distinct physiographic units such as (i) the northern foothills, (ii) the north and south

bank plains, (iii) the floodplain and char-lands and (iv) the southern foothills (Bora,

76

2001). Excepting the northern foothills as included above, the present study area

distinctly exhibits all the other three physiographic divisions. Majuli has the unique

distinction of being the largest river island in the world. But, unlike the numerous

channel bars and islands formed under the intense braiding process of the river

Brahmaputra, Majuli has its own history of genesis. The southward migration of the

channel of Brahmaputra is identified as the prime cause for its formation as a river

island. In fact, Majuli was an integral part of present Jorhat district of Assam on its

south bank. The southward shifting of Brahmaputra captured the lower course of one

of its tributary Burhi Dihing which flew parallel to the master stream. As such, Majuli

emerged as a river island during the first half of the eighteenth century (Bora, 2001).

River Brahmaputra is characterised by intense braiding, rapid aggradation and drastic

bank line migration. Braiding in Brahmaputra follows the mechanism of channel bar

formation. With regard to bank erosion and channel migration, Brahmaputra is

extremely unstable at some vulnerable locations including Majuli and Kaziranga

(Bora, 2001, p.38).. Many of these channel bars do not exist for long time under

severe erosional activities of the river. For this reason the geographical area of Majuli

is also shrinking every year. Considering the geographical area of Majuli in 1915 and

that in 1995, it has been measured that the river island is losing its geographical area

at the rate of 7.4 sq km every year ( Bora and Das,1998).

A continuous belt of piedmont and foothills is extending all along the southern

margin of the study area (Fig. 4.2). Topographically, this belt represents an undulating

surface with intermittent protrusions of foothills of the Naga-Patkai range into the

geographical territory of Assam. These hills include the hills of Merapani-Disoi

valley, Tiru hill, Chatai, Charaideo and the hills of Sonari (Taher, 2000). This belt of

piedmont and foothills covers as much as 9.17 per cent of the geographical area under

the study. The foothills of Jorhat district are more conspicuous than the other two

77

districts. In Jorhat district, the hills rise upto 450 m above mean sea level. The

piedmont and undulating uplands just at the foot of these hills have many alluvial fans

formed by the colluvial / alluvial deposits at the base of the hills orienting towards the

plain. These colluvial / alluvial fans vary in thickness and present an undulating

topography (NBSS&LUP, 2004). Nearly the entire length of this belt of undulating

topography is covered by forests. Many of the rivers and streams of the study area

come down from these foothills to arrive at the master stream and they have their

source in these foothills.

River Brahmaputra borders the study area on the north. Throughout the whole

of its course through the present study area, the Brahmaputra is bounded on the south

by a belt of flooded land varying from three or four to as much as seven or eight miles

in width. At the western end of the study area, this belt is comparatively wider near

the Dhansiri mouth. This part is covered with high reed jungle, interspersed with

swamps and bils and magnificent stretches of rich fodder grasses (Alen, 1906, pp. 1-

15). The continuity of this floodplain is broken by isolated hillocks of Archaean

origin. The hillocks of Negheriting of Golaghat district belong to this type (Taher,

2000). The belt of floodplain including Majuli has been inundated by the flooding

water of river Brahmaputra since long back (Fig. 4.2). But recurrent flood in

Brahmaputra started after the great earthquake of August, 1950. In order to protect the

areas from inundation a large number of earthen embankments were raised at different

places along the bank of Brahmaputra and many of its tributaries. These

embankments, though man-made have played distinctive role in aspects like

physiographic setting of the areas located close to the river bank, agricultural

practices, human settlement and occupation and the like. Including the Majuli sub-

division, the flood plains of Brahmaputra and its tributaries of the study area cover as

much as 22.58 per cent of the geographical area under the study. The foothills belt

covers 13.30 per cent of the study area.

78

Fig. 4.2: Physiography of the study area

79

In between the river Brahmaputra and the foothills there exists an extensive

plain composed of new and old alluvium. This plain is the largest physiographic unit

of the study area and it covers 64.12 per cent of the geographical area of the study

area. As it exists between the foothills and the river Brahmaputra, a gentle slope exists

from south to north and a large number of streams and rivers like Dhansiri, Bhogdoi,

Janji, Dikhow and Disang come down from the foothills following the slope. In fact,

this plain is formed under the erosional and gradational activities of the rivers and

streams. At places some of these rivers cause occasional flood along their banks.

These rivers have been aggraded by the sediments carried by them from the foothills,

where depletion of forest is continuing due to anthropogenic activities. Siltation in the

river bed and consequent rising of the beds necessitate construction of embankments

along both the banks of the major rivers of the study area.

4.3.3: Drainage

With Brahmaputra and its numerous large and small tributaries Assam is a

truly a land of rivers. The hills and mountains, which surround the Brahmaputra valley

from nearly all sides, give it a unique geographical location enabling it to receive

copious rainfall under the south-west monsoon during the summer months. The

Brahmaputra originates from a glacier called Chema Yangdung of the Himalayan

region (Bhattacharyya, 2005 p. 26). But, most of the water it carries through the state

of Assam comes from rain water. Few of the north bank tributaries of Brahmaputra

are snow-fed and they come from the Himalayan region. The other tributaries have

their source in the non-glaciated hills and mountains which surround the valley.

80

Fig. 8.3: Drainage of the study area

81

The Brahmaputra valley is an elongated trough with an east to west

orientation. The master stream, passing through the middle of the valley along its

entire length, flows to the Bay of Bengal. The channel of Brahmaputra is highly

braided throughout the state and it divides the valley into the north and south bank,

both of which are extensive floodplains criss-crossed by numerous tributaries and

their sub-tributaries.

The Brahmaputra forms a complex river system characterized by the most

dynamic and unique water and sediment transport pattern. It is the fourth largest river

in the world in terms of average water discharge at the mouth with a flow of 19830

m3s

-1 or cubic meter per second. Again, it is the second river only to the Yellow river

of China in amount of sediment transported per unit of drainage area (Goswami, 1985,

1988).

As the study area is bordered by the hills of Nagaland to the south, several

large and small rivers and streams come down from these hills. Many of the small

ones have their source in the foothills, while few of them including Dhansiri and

Dikhow have their source beyond the foothills and they flow across the mountainous

topography of the state of Nagaland.

Dhansiri, one of the major south bank tributaries of Brahmaputra comes across

the hills of Nagaland following a fault line. The upper course of the river passes

through a thick forest cover in the hills of Nagaland and several reserved forests of

Assam. In its course through the plains the river is extremely meandering in nature

and has formed a large number of cut-off lakes on both sides of its channel (ARSAC

Report, 1990). Dhansiri is perhaps one of the most meandering rivers of the world. It

has a channel length of 352 km from source to mouth. Inside the geographical

territory of Assam the river has several tributaries of its own. The Doyang is the

82

largest tributary of Dhansiri. In fact, Doyang is nearly two times larger than Dhansiri

and in that context Dhansiri should be treated to be the tributary of Doyang (Sharma,

2008). The other tributaries of Dhansiri are Diphu, Chunga-jan, Deopani, Nambar,

Doigrung and Kaliani. Among these Deopani, Nambar, Doigrung and Kaliani have

their source in the hills of Karbi Anglong and the others have their source in the hills

of Nagaland. Each of these rivers has their own sub-tributaries and all these have

together formed a complex drainage network covering 12584 sq km area of the basin

of river Dhansiri (Sharma, 2008). Before meeting the master stream, Dhansiri meets

Gelabil at a place called Kuruabahi Rangagora of Golaghat district. In fact, Gelabil is

an abandoned channel of Brahmaputra (Gazetteer, 1906, p. 8) which now carries the

joint discharge of Bhogdoi and Kakadonga to Dhansiri. The river network of the study

area is shown in Fig. 4.3.

Kakadonga has its source in the foothills of Assam-Nagaland border and its

channel through the plains separates the Jorhat district from the Golaghat district.

Earlier, Kakadonga was a direct tributary of Brahmaputra. Under circumstances, it lost

its direct link with the master stream and met Bhogdoi. The lower parts of Kakadonga

and Bhogdoi flow together with Gelabil, an abandoned channel of Brahmaputra which

finally ends at Dhansiri. Some of the tributaries of Kakadonga in the plains of Assam

are Chel-cheli, Sukan-jan, Nagini-jan, Negheri-jan and Ghiladhari. From the foothills

to Borholla the river Kakadonga has no tributary on its left bank for a length of 18 km

(Sharma, 2008). From source to mouth the river is 100 km long and it meanders

through the plains. Its basin covers an area of 1100 sq km.

Bhogdoi flows across the Jorhat district from south to north. A hilly

segment of the channel of Bhogdoi forms the inter-state boundary between Assam and

Nagaland. The river has its source in the foothills of the Assam-Nagaland border and

83

it meets the plain of Assam at a place called Nagajanka. In fact, Nagajanka is a

tributary of Bhogdoi. The other tributaries of Bhogdoi are Kaliapani-jan, Cheni-jan (or

Ranga-jan), Tocklai-jan, Tarajan and Raroya-jan. As per historical documents

Bhogdoi was known as Disoi and was a tributary of Brahmaputra. During the last two

centuries Disoi (or Bhogdoi) has undergone tremendous changes of its course due to

physical and anthropogenic factors. A case study on the Bhogdoi river basin has been

taken up in a succeeding chapter for detailed discussion.

River Janji has its source in the Mokokchung district of Nagaland. From

source to mouth the length of the river is 107 km and its basin covers an area of 1359

sq km. Janji enters the plains of Assam at a place called Tuli and separates Jorhat

district from Sibsagar district. In its course through the plains of Assam the river

meets few large and small streams which include Tiru-jan, Chumurun and Akhoi-

dicha. As per maps prepared during 1917 the streams like Teok, Jag-duar and few

others were also tributaries of Janji, but in the present scenario they have changed

their course (Sharma, 2008). At present the river Janji has its lower course through a

number of wetlands in the active floodplain of Brahmaputra and finally ends in the

master stream near the place called Janjimukh. In between Bhogdoi and Janji, several

small streams and sub-streams are flowing from south to north. Few of these come

down from the foothills, while the others originate from the piedmont area or areas

very close to it. These streams and sub-streams include Teok, Mudoi-jan, Jag-duar jan,

Kapah-toli jan, Diha-jan and Meleng.

Dikhow, a major south bank tributary of Brahmaputra, flows through the

central part of the Sibsagar district. The river has its source in the Zunheboto district

of Nagaland. The river has a length of 200 km from its source to mouth at a place

called Dikhowmukh. Including both plains and hills its basin covers an area of 4372

84

sq km. The river enters the plain of Assam at Naginimara. While meandering through

the plains, the river leaves more than fifteen abandoned channels at different places.

Many of these are ox-bow lakes. The longest abandoned channel of Dikhow has a

length of 20 km and it is extending from Naginimara to Namdang river through the

Hatipati Tea Estate. This channel is known as Mori-Dikhow (Sharma, 2008). Entering

into the plains Dikhow meets river Santak. The Dorika was a tributary of Dikhow, but

presently it meets Brahmaputra independently. At the foot of the hills the course of

Dorika is known as Namsai. Dorika also has few abandoned channels at places. River

Namdang also has its source in the foothills. Like Dorika, it was also a tributary of

Dikhow. But its water is now diverted to flow to Mitong river near Gaurisagar.

Disang, with its source in the hills of Arunachal Pradesh is a major tributary of

Brahmaputra. A part of its upper course acts as the inter district boundary between

Sibsagar and Dibrugarh districts. Again, one of the tributaries of Disang called the

Loka-jan forms the inter-state boundary between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

Disang enters into the plains of Assam at Dillighat. From this point the river is known

as Disang. Small rivers like Taokak, Safrai, Timon and few others which roll down

from the foothills meet river Disang in the plains of Assam. Two other rivers Diroi

and Dimow also meet Disang in its downstream reach. All these tributaries of Disang

and their sub-tributaries together form a very complex drainage network covering an

area of 3950 sq km. Disang flows a distance of 230 km from the source to its mouth at

the Brahmaputra near Disangmukh.

The lower few kilometers of the channel of Burhi-Dihing flows along the

north-eastern margin of Sibsagar district. Burhi-Dihing is the second largest south

bank tributary of Brahmaputra

85

4.3.4: Soils

As the major part of the study area is in the floodplain, the soils are mostly

alluvial. The northern areas, which are nearer to the river Brahmaputra have new

alluvium, while the southern areas or areas near the foothills have old alluvium. The

areas with older alluvium are the best sites for the cultivation of tea. Accordingly, the

areas with older alluvium are dotted with a large number of tea gardens. The entire

area is under humid sub-tropical climate and it receives well distributed rainfall from

May to October. The process of leaching of soils in the undulating piedmont and hilly

areas and stagnation and flooding in the areas with gentle slope are very prominent.

As per taxonomical classification considering the aspects like soil depth, soil drainage,

soil texture, areas of occurrence, slope condition, nature of the exposed surface,

vulnerability to erosion and flooding - a taxonomical classification of the soils of

Assam has been suggested by the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use

Planning (NBSS&LUP). As per this classification the soils of Assam belong to 4

orders, 9 sub-orders, 15 great groups, 26 sub-groups and 83 family associations. In the

context of Assam it is observed that the Inceptisols are the dominant soils followed by

Entisols, Aflisols and Utisols and these occupy respectively 41.4 %, 33.6 %, 11.3 %

and 5.6 % of the total geographical area of the state (NBSS&LUP, 1993). The

characteristics of the various soils of the study area with their textural classifications

are shown in table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1: Taxonomical classification of the soil types and their characteristics

Soil

Mapping

Unit

Descriptions Taxonomy

32 Moderately deep, moderately well drained, fine silty

soils occurring on level to nearly level active flood

plain encompassing ‘char’ and ‘chapori’ having

Fine-silty

Typic Udifluvents

86

loamy surface with very severe flooding; associated

with

Deep, well drained sandy soils occurring on char,

chapori and river islands of active floodplain with

severe flooding

Typic

Psammaquents

34 Very deep, well drained, coarse loamy soils occurring

on very gently sloping floodplain having loamy

surface with moderate erosion and moderate

flooding; associated with

Coarse loamy

Aeric Fluvaquents

Very deep, moderately well drained fine loamy soils

occurring on level to nearly level floodplain with

slight erosion and moderate flooding

Fine loamy

Typic Haplaquepts

35 Deep, well drained, coarse silty soils occurring on

river islands of active floodplain having loamy

surface with very severe flooding; associated with

Coarse silty

Mollic

Fluvaquents

Moderately shallow, well drained, coarse loamy soils

with severe flooding

Coarse loamy

Aquic Udifluvents

37 Deep, well drained fine soils occurring on moderately

sloping side slopes of hills having loamy surface with

erosion: associated with

Fine

Typic

Kanhapludalfs

Deep, well drained loamy soils occurring on

moderately sloping hills slopes having with moderate

erosion

Fine loamy

Umbric

Dystrochrepts

38 Deep, excessively drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on gently sloping side slopes of hills having loamy

surface with moderate erosion: associated with

Fine loamy

Typic Paleudalfs

Deep, moderately well drained, fine loamy soils

occurring on very gently sloping piedmont plain with

slight erosion

Fine loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

39 Deep, excessively drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on moderately sloping side slopes of hills having

loamy surface with moderate erosion; associated with

Fine loamy

Umbric

Dystrochrepts

Deep, excessively drained fine loamy soils occurring

on steep sloping hills with moderate erosion and

slight stoniness

Fine-loamy

Typic Udorthents

40 Very deep, well drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on gently sloping to undulating uplands having loamy

surface with moderate erosion; associated with

Fine loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

Very deep, well drained, clayey soils occurring on

undulating plain with slight erosion

Clayey

Typic Hapludults

41 Very deep, well drained fine loamy soils occurring on Fine loamy

87

undulating upland having loamy surface with slight

erosion; associated with

Umbric

Dystrochrepts

Very deep well drained clayey soils occurring on

undulating puland with moderate erosion

Clayey

Typic Hapludults

42 Very deep, well drained, coarse loamy soils occurring

on undulating upland having sandy surface with

moderate erosion; associated with

Coarse-loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

Very deep, moderately well drained, fine loamy soils

occurring on gently sloping plain with slight erosion

Fine-loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

43 Very deep, poorly drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on gently sloping subdued plain having clayey

surface with slight erosion; associated with

Fine-loamy

Aeric Haplaquepts

Very deep, poorly drained, coarse loamy soils

occurring on gently sloping plain with slight flooding

Coarse-loamy

Aeric Udifluvents

44 Very deep, well drained fine loamy soils occurring on

gently sloping plain having loamy surface and

moderate erosion; associated with

Fine-loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

Very deep, poorly drained fine soils occurring on

gently sloping subdued plain with slight erosion

Fine

Typic Haplaquepts

45 Very deep poorly drained, fine silty soils occurring

on nearly level flood plain having loamy surface with

moderate flooding; associated with

Fine silty

Aeric Haplaquepts

Deep, poorly drained, coarse loamy soils occurring

on gently sloping plain with slight erosion hazard

Coarse loamy

Aeric Haplaquepts

46 Very deep, well drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on gently sloping plain having loamy surface with

slight erosion; associated with

Fine-loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

Very deep, poorly drained fine soils occurring on

nearly level plain with slight erosion

Fine silty

Typic Haplaquepts

47 Very deep, poorly drained, fine loamy soils occurring

on very gently sloping plain having loamy surface

with slight erosion; associated with

Fine loamy

Aeric Haplaquepts

Very deep, moderately well drained, coarse loamy

soils occurring on gently sloping plain with moderate

erosion

Coarse-loamy

Typic

Dystrochrepts

51 Very deep, imperfectly drained, fine soils occurring

on gently sloping plain having clayey surface with

slight erosion and slight flooding; associated with

Fine

Aquic Dystric

Eutrochrepts

Deep, poorly drained, fine soils occurring on very Fine

88

gently sloping plain with slight erosion Fluvaquentic

Dystrochrepts

54 Deep, well drained, coarse silty soils occurring on

active flood plain having loamy surface with slight

erosion and severe flooding; associated with

Coarse silty

Typic Udifluvents

Moderately deep, imperfectly drained coarse loamy

soils with severe erosion and severe flooding

Coarse loamy

Typic Fluvaquents

56 Deep, well drained sandy soils occurring level to

nearly level active flood plain having loamy surface;

associated with

Sandy

Typic Udifluvents

Very deep, well drained coarse loamy soils with

severe erosion and severe flooding

Coarse loamy

Aquic Udifluvents

59 Very deep, imperfectly drained, coarse silty soils

occurring on level to nearly level active flood plain

having loamy surface with very slight erosion and

severe flooding; associated with

Coarse silty

Aquic Udifluvents

Deep, poorly drained fine loamy soils with slight

erosion and severe flooding

Fine loamy

Typic Haplaquents

61 Moderately deep, moderately well drained coarse

loamy soils occurring on level to nearly level active

flood plain and on stable river islands having sandy

surface with ground water table below one metre of

the surface and very severe flooding; associated with

Coarse loamy

Mollic

Fluvaquents

Deep, imperfectly drained coarse silty soils occurring on

nearly level active flood plain with moderate erosion and

very severs flooding

Coarse silty

Aeric Fluvaquents

Source: NBSS&LUP, Jorhat

4.3.5: Climate

Assam shows distinctive climatological attributes which can be compared to

no area within the Indian sub-continent. These distinctions come from the unique

geographical location and the physiographic set up of the region (Borthakur, 1986).

Humid Sub-tropical climate prevails all over the Brahmaputra valley. As the study

area is a part of the valley, it also enjoys this type. The geographical setting of the

Brahmaputra valley is very particular with the Himalayan barrier along the entire

northern margin and the Naga-Patkai and Meghalaya and Karbi plateau along the

southern margin. The Himalayan barrier protects the valley from the chilly cold winds

89

of the Tibetan region in winter. It also obstructs the warm moist winds or the south-

west monsoon to cause rainfall in the valley. The clouds brought by south-west

monsoon that pass over the southern hills and plateaus bring about rainfall in the

Brahmaputra valley.

Before the onset of monsoon, the pre monsoon period starts from March to

May. The atmospheric temperature starts to rise. The development of a depression

over the Bay of Bengal makes the atmosphere unstable. Occasional thundershowers

occur under severe atmospheric instability. The nor’westers, locally known as

Bardoichila visits the area during this pre monsoon period.

After the pre monsoon period, the south-west monsoon begins. The monsoon

is very significant as the study area has an agricultural economy and wet paddy

cultivation is extensively practised throughout the area. In absence of adequate

irrigation facilities the farmers have no way out but to rely upon the monsoon rainfall.

The area is also noted for tea cultivation and to a large extent the production of tea

depends upon the rainfall received during this period.

The onset of monsoon depends upon the appearance as well as the location of

a low pressure trough over northern India. Usually it occurs in the last week of May or

early June. As soon as the trough arrives at the Himalayas, monsoon breaks.

Excessively high rainfall, high temperature and high atmospheric humidity are the

distinctions of this season. In a study conducted by the Jorhat Regional Centre of

National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, 87 per cent of the annual

rainfall is received in a period from April to September. Both rainfall and atmospheric

temperature start to fall from October as a consequence of retreat of monsoon. The

retreat of monsoon is indicated by foggy mornings. Following the withdrawal of

90

monsoon, light unsteady winds are experienced which are usually northeasterly

(Borthakur, 1986).

The study area, like the rest of the upper Brahmaputra valley enjoys a cold

winter and cool and pleasant spring. In October the rain begins to stop and the nights

grow cool, but the real cold weather does not set in till the next month (Alen, 1906, pp

11-12). The winter season continues till February. January is the coldest month.

Winter is generally dry, but sometimes very little rainfall occurs under the impact of

an atmospheric phenomenon called the western disturbance.

The south-western part of Golaghat district, which is located at the foot of the

Karbi plateau comes under the lee-ward side to the south-west monsoon, and thus is a

rain-shadow area (Bora, 2001). As the western part receives comparatively less

rainfall, there is an increase in the amount of rainfall from west to east in the study

area.

Data received from the climatological observatory of Tocklai Experimental

Station, Tea Research Association, Jorhat for a period of 37 years from 1969 to 2005

reveals that the average annual rainfall is 1983.8 mm. The annual rainfall is studied

with respect to time and it shows a declining trend. The average number of annual rain

occurring days is 165. The number of annual rain occurring days is also showing a

declining trend over time. The Tocklai Experimental station is located in the Jorhat

city, which is centrally located in the study area. It has a well equipped as well as

modern meteorological observatory keeping detailed meteorological records of the

area for nearly a century (since 1918). Accordingly, the meteorological data collected

from it can be used to understand the general atmospheric conditions of the study area

covering an area of 8731.77 sq km. Analysis of these meteorological data has been

made in chapter VII.

91

4.3.6: Natural Vegetation

The physiographic set up coupled with the climatic characteristics of the study

area presents a very suitable environment to support a wide variety of flora and fauna.

A wide range of plant species starting with evergreen trees to tall grasses are

occupying a considerable portion of the study area. The area has as many as sixteen

large and small reserved forests, one national park and three wild life sanctuaries. All

these together cover 1774.77 sq. km which account for 20.33 percent of the area under

study. The tropical rain forest on the low undulating tract of the Golaghat district of

Assam bordering Nagaland has, however, been depleted (Choudhury, 2001). It has

been observed that the entire piedmont tract at the foot of the Naga-Patkai range is

highly rich in forest resources. These include a large number of valuable timber

species. The Golaghat and the Jorhat districts have tropical evergreen or semi

evergreen type of forests. As the winter is dry and the area receives rainfall during

summer, some of the plant species suffer from scarcity of water and shed their leaves

in winter. These types of deciduous trees are spread all over the area under study. The

areas receiving abundant rainfall usually the foothills tract the evergreen type of trees

grow and unlike the deciduous type they do not shed leaves in winter. Some of the

valuable tree species of the area are Holong (Dipterocarpus mannii), Mekai (Shorea

assamica), Hollock (Terminalia myriocarpa), Sam (artocarpus chaplasa), Nahor

(Mesua ferrea), Teak (Tectona grandis), Shilikha (Terminalia citrana), Ajhar

(Lagerstroemia reginae), Uriam (Bischoffia javanica), Titasapa (Michelia champaca),

Poma (Cedrela toona), Gandhsoroi (Cinnamomum cecicodaphne), Agar (Aquilaria

malaccesis), Simul (Bonbax malabaricun), Amari (Amoora spectabilis), Paroli

(Stereospermum chelonoides), Khakan (Duabanga soneratioides), Koroi (Albizzia

procera)and many more (Gazetteer, 1906).

92

The plants like Nuni or Mulberry (Morus australis), Mejankari (Litsea

cubeba), Suwalu (Litsea monopetala), Som (Persea bombycina), Kecheru

(Heteropanax fragrans) and Era or Castor (Ricinus communis), the leaves of which

are consumed by the pat (silk), muga and endi worms grow wild all through the area.

Several species of tall grass, few of which grow beyond two meter high can be

seen to grow in abundance on the bank of Brahmaputra. Kaziranga, a national park of

the state, noted as the abode of the single horned Indian rhinos, is basically grassland

with a large variety of grasses including Erianthus ravennae, Eleusine indica,

Hygroryza aristata, Hymenachne acutigluma, Leersia hexandra, Phragmites karka,

Saccharum spontaneum, Thysanolaena agrostis, Cynodon dactylon, and the like

(Bora, 2003). In fact, bamboo is also a grass variety. As many as 21 different species

of bamboo are found in Assam. The two most common species, the ‘Bhaloka Banh’

(Bambusa balcooa) and the ‘Jati Banh’ (Bombusa tulda) are found all over the study

area and almost all the rural families possess bamboo plants in their homesteads. The

other varieties of bamboo grow wild in the foothills of the area. These hills and forests

are also noted for several varieties of cane.

The study area is endowed with a wide variety of banana and citrus fruits.

Apart from their nutritional value, each of these has its own size, shape, taste and

fragrance. A large number of medicinal plants including trees, shrubs, herbs, and

creepers grow wild all over the area, the body parts or extracts of which have very

high medicinal as well as commercial values in the market. Many of these pants are

edible and are consumed as vegetables.

4.4: Land Use

Land use is associated with putting up of parcel of land into its productive

purposes. It is a dynamic concept because, the characteristics of heterogeneity and

93

fertility differentials or the possibility of the use for production of alternative outputs

of a plot of land make people to choose their land to be put under uses in such a way

that they could maximise the output (Das, 1976). In fact, the land use in an area is the

cumulative outcome of the historical events, the interaction of the economic forces

with the natural environment, and the value of the society (Singh and Dhillon, 1989, p.

326).

The land use / land cover maps and reports of Assam prepared by the Assam

Remote Sensing Application Centre (ARSAC), Guwahati identify six major land

cover categories as shown in the table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Land Cover Categories in the Study Area (1986-87)

Categories

Golaghat

(Ha)

Jorhat

(Ha)

Sibsagar

(Ha)

Total area

(Ha)

% to total

area

Built-up area 375.28 380.09 937.50 1692.87 0.19

Agricultural area 229911.70 191402.00 216786.75 638100.45 73.08

Forest land 29021.89 27888.04 29093.75 86003.68 9.85

Wasteland 5253.94 2052.52 13594.00 20900.46 2.39

Water bodies 45610.14 47062.50 2275.50 94948.14 10.87

Others 25706.88 4262.00 1562.50 31531.38 3.61

Total 335879.83 273047.15 264250.00 873176.98 100.00

Source: ARSAC Report, 1990

Only the first two categories of land are under direct human control and

they are more susceptible for land use. In the ARSAC report, he built up area refers to

the area under urban land use only. Due to scale factor other medium, small and minor

settlements could not be delineated in the ARSAC study. However, five urban centres

94

namely, Golaghat, Jorhat, Mariani, Sibsagar and Nazira could be mapped for the same

factor. They occupy 1692.87 hectare of land which constitutes 0.19 per cent of the

study area (table 4.2). The agricultural land includes areas under different crops (rabi

and kharif), plantation crops and the areas under rural settlements. Plantation crops

occupy 238710.30 hectare of land and constitutes 27.34 per cent of the total

geographical area under study. These plantations consist mainly of tea gardens, but to

a limited extent they include the areas under arecanut and bamboo. The kharif crops

are cultivated in 346524.17 hectares of land covering all the three districts of the study

area and it constitutes 39.69 per cent of the total geographical area. Similarly, the rabi

crops are cultivated in 135368.67 hectares of land constituting 15.50 per cent of the

total area. As much as 10.08 per cent of the cultivated area is under double cropping.

The net sown area forms 45.10 per cent of the total geographical area.

Table 4.3: Land Use within the Notified Forest Areas (1986-87)

Category Golaghat

(Ha)

Jorhat

(Ha)

Sibsagar

(Ha)

Total area

(Ha)

% to

total

area

Evergreen/semi

evergreen forest

15199.72 21563.19 13961.25 50724.16 28.58

Deciduous forest 0 0 1062.50 1062.50 0.06

Degraded forest 12822.17 2251.39 9537.50 24611.06 13.87

Cropland 62859.92 0 1875.00 64734.92 36.48

Agricultural

Plantation 4003.2 0 0 4003.2 2.26

Grass land 22079.15 0 0 22079.15 12.44

Swamp 625.46 0 0 625.46 0.35

Waterbodies 7625.56 0 0 7625.56 4.30

Shifting cultivation 0 2010.92 0 2010.92 1.13

Total 125215.18 25825.5 26436.25 177476.93 100.00

Source: ARSAC Report, 1990

95

The area under study has as many as sixteen large and small reserved forests,

one national park and three wild life sanctuaries. These are the ‘Notified Forest Areas’

and they are occupying 1774.77 sq. km of area which forms 20.33 percent of the total

area. These include tree forest as well as grass lands (of Kaziranga national park). All

the forest areas have now been encroached. Few of the reserved forests of the area

have totally been depleted. During 1986-87, the percentage of existing forest cover in

the study area was only 9.85 per cent which was smaller than the combined area under

Brahmaputra and other water bodies of the study area. The combined area of all the

water bodies including Brahmaputra was 10.87 per cent during that point of time.

According to the report, during that period 39.87 per cent of the Notified Forest Area

was under agricultural land use including 36.48 per cent, 2.26 per cent and 1.13 per

cent under different crops, plantation crops and shifting cultivation respectively. These

are shown in table 4.3.

Source: Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2008

Fig. 4.4: Land use of the study area (2003-04)

The present land use shows variation mainly in four aspects. The first is the

expansion of the urban areas. For lack of relevant data, the area under urban land use

could not be measured out. The increase in the urban population between 1991 and

2001 census years and consequent change of the fringe areas into an urban look

96

necessarily increases the area under urban land use. The second reason is the

conversion of the land under miscellaneous crops and paddy fields into tea gardens.

This leads to a slow and steady increase in the land under plantation crops. The

reserved forests of the foothills are dotted with many small tea gardens all along the

Assam-Nagaland border.

The third is the clearing and felling of forests in the foothills and the piedmont

areas for the purpose of settlement and cultivation (including the practice of shifting

cultivation). These are happening within the Notified Forest Areas. Consequently, the

area under degraded forest and cropland (including plantation) is increasing with time.

These will be dealt in a next chapter in details.

Table 4.4: Pattern of land use in the study area (2003-04)

(All values are in ha.)

District A B C D E F G H

Golaghat 22655 6555 117046 159505 39308 9001 36245 153291

Jorhat 20456 13406 119107 28202 82869 21069 34249 153356

Sibsagar 29719 8041 136622 34343 41118 10447 17439 154061

Total area 72830 28002 372775 222050 163295 40517 87933 460708

% to total

geographical area 8.10 3.11 41.44 24.69 18.15 4.50 --- ---

A - Other uncultivated land excluding fallow E - Area put to non agricultural uses

B - Fallow land F - Barren and uncultivated land

C - Net Sown Area G - Area sown more than once

D – Forest H - Gross cropped area

Source: Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2008

The present land use pattern is analysed based on the data recorded in the

Statistical Hand Book of Assam for the year 2008. It shows the land use in six

97

independent categories (table 4.4). The net sown area occupies the largest share with

41.44 per cent of the total geographical area. It is followed by area under forest with

24.69 per cent of the total area. The area put to non agricultures uses occupies 18.15

per cent of the total area. Other uncultivated land, barren land and fallow land cover

8.10, 4.50 and 3.11 per cent respectively. Of the net sown area, as stated above 23.59

per cent is cultivated more than once. The six columns of the table 4.4 (i.e. from A to

F) include the total geographical area under study. The sum totals of these six

columns are represented in figure 4.4. It gives the land use under these six categories.

This, however, shows district wise variation in this category. As per the calculations

made, the districts of Golaghat, Jorhat and Sibsagar show respectively 30.96, 28.75

and 15.77 per cent of their net sown area under area sown more than once. This

analysis indicates a distinct increase of the area sown more than once from west to

east in the study area.

4.5: Population and Settlement

Sibsagar, which encompassed the entire study area in the past has been a

centre of Assamese culture since long back. It was the administrative head quarter of

the Ahom rulers. The extensive and fertile plains coupled with the cultural heritage of

the area support a large population base.

4.5.1: Population

As per 2001 census, the total population of the study area was 2997236

persons (11.24 per cent of the total population of the state) of which 1552777 (or

51.81 %) were males and 1444459 (or 48.19 %) were females. The sex ratio of the

study area is 930 and it is lower than the state average (935 females against every

thousand males). The area has only 11.66 per cent urban population and remaining

88.33 percent people live in the rural areas. The total number of households in the

98

three districts of the study area is 582074. Of these only 73583 are urban and the

remaining 508491 households are in the rural areas.

The religious composition of the population of the study area shows that 89.04

per cent of the people are Hindus. The Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, Sihkhs and

Jains constitute respectively 6.95, 3.31, 0.32, 0.14 and 0.05 per cent of the total

population of the area. The castes among the Hindus of the study area include the

Ahom, Chutiya, Kalita, Koch, Kaivarta, Brahmins, Keot, Yogi, Sut, Kayastha,

Kachari, Mishing, Mikir (Karbi) and the tea garden workers (Taher, 2000).

Source: Statistical Hand Book , Assam (2008)

Fig. 4.5: Linguistic composition of the study area (2001)

Again, as per 2001 census, the scheduled caste population of the study area is

165591 which forms 5.52 per cent of the total population. The scheduled tribes of the

study area, with a population of 258587 persons form 8.63 per cent of the total

population of the study area. With regard to literacy rate, it is noticed that all the

districts of the study area show a higher literacy rate than the state average. As per

2001 census, the rate of literacy of Golaghat, Jorhat and Sibsagar district were 69.38

99

%, 76.33 % and 74.74 per cent respectively, when the state average was 63.25 per cent

only. Jorhat records the highest literacy rate among all the districts of Assam.

It comes from another analysis that of the 2997236 persons of the study area,

2416381 persons or 80.62 per cent of the population speak Assamese as their mother

tongue (Fig. 4.5). The next largest group in terms of the mother tongue is the Bengali.

The number of Bengali speaking people is 128697 and it forms 4.29 per cent of the

total population. Hindi speaking people, with 109302 persons constitute 3.65 per cent

of the population. Other languages of the study area are Nepali (1.34 %), Oriya (1.23

%), Bodo (0.67 %), Manipuri (0.33 %), Santhali (0.25 %) and Punjabi (0.14 %).

4.5.2: Settlement

The rural population of the study area constitutes 80.33 per cent of the total

population and these people have been living in 2719 villages of the study area. The

total number of villages covering all the three districts of the study area is 2820, but

the number of inhabited villages is 2719 only. It indicates that 101 villages of the

study area have no population. The number of total households in the study area is

582074 and 87.36 per cent of these households are in the rural areas. These villages

are scattered all over the area, but these are widely spaced in the active floodplains

and in the foothills of the area.

In the study area, three types of villages, i.e., the revenue villages, the forest

villages and the encroached villages are observed. The revenue villages dominate the

other villages in number and these are recognised by the state revenue department.

The dwellers of the revenue villages pay land revenue to the Govt. exchequer. The

forest villages are villages set up by the concerned department inside the reserved

forests under certain terms and conditions. The dwellers of these forest villages pay a

minimum tax to the department, but not directly to the Govt. exchequer. The number

100

of these villages is the least. The third type is the encroached villages mainly found in

the reserved forests of the study area. The number of the encroached villages is

smaller than the revenue villages, but it is many times more than the forest villages.

The villagers of these encroached villages do not pay the land tax or land revenue.

These villages are of great significance with regard to the present study as they have

been identified as the major factor affecting the land cover as well as deforestation in

the study area. The encroached villages, their distribution, population they have, their

role in the land cover change and many other aspects will be dealt in details in a

succeeding chapter.

As per the 2001 census, the study area has 18 urban centres. The seven urban

centres of Jorhat district have 171363 persons, which constitutes 49.01 per cent of the

urban population of the study area. Sibsagar district has five urban centres and they

together constitute 27.79 per cent of the urban population of the study area. Golaghat

district, with six urban centres claims 23.20 per cent of the total urban population of

the study area. Jorhat is the only declared city of the area. Among the 18 urban

centres, five centres (including Jorhat) have Municipal Boards, seven urban centres

have Town Committee and six centres are Census Towns.

From ancient time, two major roads are passing across the study area in an east-

west orientation. One of these roads is the Cheuni-Ali or Assam Trunk Road (A.T.

Road) or National Highway No. 37, which passes through the middle of the study

area. The other road is the Dhodar-Ali, which passes mainly through the southern part.

These transport lines are connected by a large number of branch lines and feeder

roads. In view of connectivity, most of the villages of the study area are located along

these roads and the branch and feeder roads. This is why, the middle tract or the area

between the tracts of foothills and the active floodplain has comparatively more

101

concentration of villages. The railway line between Guwahati and Tinisukia of Upper

Assam has also increased the connectivity of the area as it runs through this middle

tract of the study area.

Recently, it has been observed that human settlement has been increasing in

the sub urban areas around all the 18 urban centres. This process is taking place at the

cost of the fertile agricultural lands.

4.6: Transport, Communication and Development Activities

The study area enjoys all modes of transportation and it is well connected to

the rest of the India. Three National highways (NH) pass through the area. The NH-

37 passes across all the three districts of the study area. Again, NH-39 and NH-61

originate from NH-37 and they connect Nagaland with Assam. There have been,

however, several other roads connecting Assam and Nagaland since long back. As the

study area had been the capital of the Ahom kingdom, several roads were constructed

by the Ahom rulers at different periods. The Dhodar ali (ali means road) is one such

notable road. The Gar ali, Cheuni ali, Bor ali, Kamarbandha ali, Rohdoi ali are some

other examples of this kind. These roads are now maintained by the state Public

Works Department (PWD).

The railway line between Guwahati and Tinisukia runs across all the districts

of the study area. This single-line railway tract has a loop line which originates from

the Furkating Junction and moving via Golaghat, Numaligarh, Baruabamun gaon and

Jorhat Town, it ends at the same railway tract at Mariani Junction. Another branch line

has recently been opened from Simaluguri Junction to Dibrugarh via Moran. Few

other branch lines, e.g. Jorhat-Nimati, Titabar-Jorhat, Amguri-Tuli and Simaluguri-

Naginimara, which were operative in the past have now been closed for certain

102

reasons. The Jorhat Town railway station has a goods yard, which is a transshipment

point for goods coming to Assam from other states by trains. The goods unloaded here

are loaded to trucks to different places of Assam and other neighbouring states.

The only airport in the study area is at Rawraiah, only six km away from

Jorhat city. This airport has flight services to Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport

(Guwahati), The Domdom airport (Kolkata) and many inland as well as international

airports.

During the British rule in Assam, the river Brahmaputra was used as a water

way and steamer services were introduced for transportation of goods mainly tea and

passengers. In addition to these steamer services, country boats were widely used in

Brahmaputra and its tributaries for both passenger and goods. In absence of bridges

across the rivers, the country boats provided ferry services at a number of points,

locally known as ghats. The steamer services were withdrawn for several reasons, the

prime among which is the siltation that took place in the bed of Brahmaputra after the

1950 earthquake. The construction of bridges across various rivers during the post

independence period substantially reduced the dependency of boat services in the area.

But, engine driven country boats are still in operation between Majuli (a river island

of Brahmaputra and a sub-division of Jorhat district) and the mainland on the other

side of the Brahmaputra. These boats are the only means of transportation to visit

Majuli.

As regards communication, the study area has reach to nearly all means of

modern communication including news paper, radio, television, telephone and cellular

phones, post and telegraph services and the like. The first Assamese news paper

Arunodoy was published from Sibsagar in 1846. An Assamese daily is now being

103

published from Jorhat. Few other Assamese dailies have their satellite editions from

Jorhat.

With regard to developmental activities it can be said that many roads and

bridges have been constructed during the last decade mainly in the rural areas.

Arrangements for drinking water for the villages have been made, but all the villages

are not getting pure drinking water. Developments are taking place in the health

sector. A Medical College at Jorhat has recently been started. However, the medical

facilities are centralised mainly in the urban areas which puts the rural folk into misery

when they are sick. It is good that the epidemics like cholera, malaria, dysentery could

be controlled to some extent through the implementation of the health programmes.

The agricultural economy of the study area can be improved by means of

agricultural development only. Though measures have been taken for its development,

the outcome is not satisfactory. Several irrigation schemes of the area are not

functioning today. Again, many of the villages are non-electrified and the electrified

ones are also not getting constant power supply. All these problems need solution for

overall development of the area.