216 CHAPTER TEN INTRODUCTION The concept of providing people with food security extends from the individual and local community level to the global level. At the individual level, the concept of food security implies that under all circumstances each man, woman and child has access to sufficient, good quality food to meet the individual dietary requirements consistent with normal active life. At the national and regional levels, food security implies an assured availability of food through production, stock draw down, trade or food aid to meet minimum requirements per capita, and also to meet any unexpected shortfall over a limited period. The achievement of food security requires the utilization of both renewable and non-renewable agricultural resources and carries the risk of environmental degradation if managed inappropriately. This chapter discusses the food security situation in Asia and the Pacific in terms of food production availability, its inter-relationships with environment, and policy actions undertaken to promote food security. FOOD PRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY: STATUS AND TRENDS A. Food Resources and Production Since 1970, overall food production has increased significantly in the Asian and Pacific Region (Figure 10.1), with Asia outstripping the world and developing countries in both total and per capita food production. This trend emerged against the backdrop of a similar performance in total agricultural production and whilst most subregional and individual country performances reflected that of the region, a number of country level performances were more varied in per capita production. People’s Republic of China’s performance has been particularly noteworthy since its transition to the household responsibility system which gave a boost to food and agricultural production, particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s. In Northeast and Southeast Asia, the total cereal (wheat, milled rice, maize, and coarse grains) production increased, from the 1960s through to the 1980s, at a faster rate than in South Asia (Table 10.1) and, according to the FAO, this differential in the trend of cereal production between the two subregions is likely to continue up to 2010. 1. Crop Production (a) Cereals An analysis of production rates for major cereals indicates a slowing down in production growth in the late 1980s and early 1990s from the levels reached in the 1970s (Figure 10.2), with the exception of rice production in South Asia where the average rate of growth in the 1980s was higher than in the 1970s. All projections for cereals and coarse grain production over the next decade show that the average trend of increasing production will be maintained (Figure 10.3), whilst per capita production of starchy roots reveals the opposite trend. South Asia lags behind other regions in terms of per capita production of total cereals and its productivity is projected to decline over the next ten years (Figure 10.4). Many countries experienced significant variability in food production in recent years, which contributed to food insecurity (Alamgir and Arora 1991; Jazairy et al 1992). Cereal production has been less stable than the production of other crops. Several countries have experienced significant production decline (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Fiji, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Korea, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, Solomon Islands, Tajikistan, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Vanuatu), whilst the food security situation has deteriorated alarmingly in the South Pacific and in the Northeast and Central Asian countries. South Pacific countries are inherently vulnerable to natural calamities and import shortfalls, while countries in Northeast and Central Asia have suffered from breakdown of institutions serving agriculture and food production. While existing centralized institutions dealing with agriculture were dismantled, new ones have yet to efficiently Figure 10.1 Food Security Indices for Selected Countries (1986-1997) Source: FAO 1998 Bangladesh Cambodia India Islamic Rep. of Iran Lao DPR Mongolia Nepal Philippines Thailand 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1986 1990 1995 1997 Indices Country
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INTRODUCTION
The concept of providing people with foodsecurity extends from the individual and localcommunity level to the global level. At the individuallevel, the concept of food security implies that underall circumstances each man, woman and child hasaccess to sufficient, good quality food to meet theindividual dietary requirements consistent withnormal active life. At the national and regional levels,food security implies an assured availability of foodthrough production, stock draw down, trade or foodaid to meet minimum requirements per capita, andalso to meet any unexpected shortfall over a limitedperiod.
The achievement of food security requires theutilization of both renewable and non-renewableagricultural resources and carries the risk ofenvironmental degradation if managedinappropriately. This chapter discusses the foodsecurity situation in Asia and the Pacific in terms offood production availability, its inter-relationshipswith environment, and policy actions undertaken topromote food security.
FOOD PRODUCTION AND FOODSECURITY: STATUS AND TRENDS
A. Food Resources and ProductionSince 1970, overall food production has
increased significantly in the Asian and Pacific Region(Figure 10.1), with Asia outstripping the world anddeveloping countries in both total and per capita foodproduction. This trend emerged against the backdropof a similar performance in total agriculturalproduction and whilst most subregional andindividual country performances reflected that of theregion, a number of country level performances weremore varied in per capita production. People’sRepublic of China’s performance has beenparticularly noteworthy since its transition to thehousehold responsibility system which gave a boostto food and agricultural production, particularly inthe 1980s and early 1990s. In Northeast and SoutheastAsia, the total cereal (wheat, milled rice, maize, andcoarse grains) production increased, from the 1960sthrough to the 1980s, at a faster rate than in SouthAsia (Table 10.1) and, according to the FAO, thisdifferential in the trend of cereal production betweenthe two subregions is likely to continue up to 2010.
1. Crop Production
(a) CerealsAn analysis of production rates for major
cereals indicates a slowing down in production
growth in the late 1980s and early 1990s from thelevels reached in the 1970s (Figure 10.2), with theexception of rice production in South Asia where theaverage rate of growth in the 1980s was higher thanin the 1970s. All projections for cereals and coarsegrain production over the next decade show that theaverage trend of increasing production will bemaintained (Figure 10.3), whilst per capita productionof starchy roots reveals the opposite trend. SouthAsia lags behind other regions in terms of per capitaproduction of total cereals and its productivityis projected to decline over the next ten years(Figure 10.4).
Many countries experienced significantvariability in food production in recent years, whichcontributed to food insecurity (Alamgir and Arora1991; Jazairy et al 1992). Cereal production has beenless stable than the production of other crops. Severalcountries have experienced significant productiondecline (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Fiji,Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Korea, LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia,Solomon Islands, Tajikistan, Tonga, Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan and Vanuatu), whilst the food securitysituation has deteriorated alarmingly in the SouthPacific and in the Northeast and Central Asiancountries. South Pacific countries are inherentlyvulnerable to natural calamities and import shortfalls,while countries in Northeast and Central Asia havesuffered from breakdown of institutions servingagriculture and food production. While existingcentralized institutions dealing with agriculture weredismantled, new ones have yet to efficiently
Figure 10.1 Food Security Indices for SelectedCountries (1986-1997)
Source: FAO 1998
Bangladesh
Cambodia
India
Islamic Rep.of Iran
Lao DPR
Mongolia
Nepal
Philippines
Thailand
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
1986199019951997
Indices
Cou
ntry
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displaced population (850 000 from conflict overNagomo Karabakh) and Tajikistan has suffered fromthe effects of civil war. However, although differencesbetween the countries of the region remain, the foodsecurity situation seems to have improved since 1996(Table 10.2).
The trend of production over latest two years(1996-1998) for which data are available shows adecline in total cereals in most countries except inNortheast and Central Asia, with serious declinebeing recorded in Indonesia, Democratic People’sRepublic of Korea and the Philippines. The declineis linked to relatively unfavourable weather includingthe impact of El Nino (FAO 1998). Wheat productionhas been better than rice and coarse grains. Riceproduction is estimated to have declined significantlyin Indonesia and the Philippines, coarse grains inDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea and thePhilippines. According to FAO and WFP (1997), grain(cereals and pulses) production improved between1996 and 1997 by between 3 per cent (Armenia) and38 per cent (Turkmenistan). Production increased bymore than ten per cent in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. This is attributed tobetter availability of inputs and improved incentives,although Kazakhstan was affected by financialconstraints and fuel and input supply problems,which led farmers to plant seed on unprepared land.As a consequence, it is estimated that in 1997/98 thearea sown with grains in Kazakhstan declined byover one million hectares compared with the previousyear. In addition to factors identified above, a numberof countries in the Northeast and Central Asia, hadto deal with the consequences of low prices receivedby farmers, obsolete machinery, deterioration in theration of milling to feed quality grain (due to poorquality seed, low level of input use and poorcultivation practices), and a shortage of cash.
(b) Other Food CropsAmong food crops, three other important
groups are roots and tubers, pulses and oil. Rootsand tuber production in a Northeast, Southeast andSouth Asia grew at a rate comparable to that for alldeveloping countries crops, and recent performancein the 1990s is better than the historical trend since1970. Significant increases in production took placein Islamic Republic of Iran, Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Thailand.Roots and tuber production has declined in theRepublic of Korea since the 1970s, while a similarnegative trend emerged in several countries in the1990s, the most pronounced being the DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea. Thailand and Indonesiagained significant growth in cassava production dueto export possibilities to Europe, although this hasslowed in recent years.
Table 10.1 Cereals Production (Including Rice inMilled Form) and Growth by SelectedRegion/Area
Source: FAO at 2010 database and Alexandratos 1995
Notes: 1. 93 Developing countries as defined in Alexandratos (1995:404).
2. North and Southeast Asia includes Cambodia, People’s Republicof China, Indonesia, and Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,Republic of Korea, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia,Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
3. South Asia includes Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan andSri Lank.
4. Includes East and South Asian countries plus Islamic Republicof Iran and Afghanistan.
5. According to FAO, annual percentage growth rates for historicalperiods are computed from all the annual data of the periodusing the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method. Annualgrowth rates for projection periods are compound growth ratescalculated from values for the begin- and end-point of the period.
Growth(per cent
per annum)
Period
administer input supply, capital provision andmarketing need requirements. Furthermore,Azerbaijan has faced the added problem of a large
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Figure 10.2 Annual Growth Rates of Production of Major Food Crops by Selected Regions/Area
Source: FAO at 2010 database and Alexandratos 1995
Total cereals
Wheat
Rice milled
Maize
Barley
Millet
Sorghum
Other cereals
Coarse grains
Starchy roots
-4 -2 0 2 4 6Per cent annual rate of growth
Food
cro
ps
Total cereals
Wheat
Rice milled
Maize
Barley
Millet
Sorghum
Other cereals
Coarse grains
Starchy roots
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Per cent annual rate of growth
Food
cro
ps
Total cereals
Wheat
Rice milled
Maize
Barley
Millet
Sorghum
Other cereals
Coarse grains
Starchy roots
-4 -2 0 2 4 6Per cent annual rate of growth
Food
cro
ps
Total cereals
Wheat
Rice milled
Maize
Barley
Millet
Sorghum
Other cereals
Coarse grains
Starchy roots
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8Per cent annual rate of growth
Food
cro
ps
a. 93 developing countries b. North and Southeast Asia
c. South Asia d. 18 Asian countries
As for pulses, an important source of proteinin many communities in the region, production islikely to grow at a rate faster than in the recent pastbut it is likely to remain under two per cent perannum. The Asian countries achieved an average offive per cent annual growth in the production of oilcrops, higher than the world average, but individualcountry performance varied widely both over thelonger and recent periods. In Southeast Asia,production of oil palm increased rapidly over thepast two decades, especially in Indonesia and
Malaysia. According to FAO (Alexandratos 1995),over the next decade production of oil crops willgrow by 2.8 per cent per annum in Southeast Asiaand 2.2 per cent in South Asia.
2. Present and Potential Crop YieldsContribution to crop production increases came
mostly from yield increase. The contribution of yieldincrease to total crop production increase was muchhigher in South Asia as compared with Northeastand Southeast Asia (Table 10.3). In South Asia
Figure 10.3 Per Capita Production of Major FoodCrops in 18 Asian Countries
Figure 10.4 Per Capita Production of Total Cerealsby Region
Source: FAO 1998
Note: Countries as depicted in Table 10.1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1969-71 1979-81 1989-91 1994-96 2010
Total cerealsWheatRice milled
Coarse grainsStarchy roots
Maize
Years
Kilo
gram
Source: FAO 1998
Note: Countries as depicted in Table 10.1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1969-71 1979-81 1989-91 1994-96 2010
Years
Developing countries
North and Southeast Asia
South Asia
18 Asian countries
Kilo
gram
increased areas of harvested land accounted for lessthan a fifth of production increase with the remainderresulting primarily from increases in croppingintensity. The pattern is reversed in Northeast andSoutheast Asia and this trend is projected to continueover 1988/90 to 2010 period.
In Central Asia, crop yields declined overthe 1982-84 to 1992-94 period except for a modestgrowth of cereal yields in Kazakhstan andTurkmenistan and roots and tuber yields inTurkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Recent yield trendsin the subregion suggest that, along with the largeruse of fertilisers and pesticides, improved weather
and better outputs were the main contributors to the19 per cent increase in aggregate grain yields.Nevertheless, average 1997 yield per hectare,although above the 1992-96 average, is still about4 per cent below that of 1986-90.
The area under irrigation and high yieldingvarieties of seed has increased across the region andmost Asian countries are likely to expand irrigationand the use of modern varieties within the constraintsof land suitability and financial resources forinvestment. According to projections made by FAO,in Northeast and Southeast Asia harvested land underirrigation will increase from 23.2 million hectares in1989/90 to 27.1 million hectares in 2010, representingrespectively 26 and 25 per cent of harvested arableland in use (Alexandratos 1995). The correspondingfigures for South Asia are 74.6 and 103.4 millionhectares, or 35 and 44 per cent of harvested arableland in use. For Asia as a whole (excluding China),the share of planted area devoted to modern varietiesof rice increased from 12 per cent in 1970 to 67 per
Table 10.2 Recent Trends in Production of MajorCereals in Selected Asian Countries
Democratic People’sRepublic of Korea 100.0% -20.8% 5.0% -6.7%
Republic of Korea 0.0% -4.1% -3.9%
Myanmar 0.0% 25.0% 0.6% 1.1%
Pakistan 10.7% 5.6% 9.2% -1.2%
Philippines -9.5% -8.9% -7.8%
Thailand 4.3% -4.0% -3.0%
Viet Nam -7.7% 4.0% 3.5%
Per cent change in production of grains(cereals and pulses) 1997 over 1996
Armenia 3%
Azerbaijan 5%
Kazakhstan 8%
Kyrgyzstan 19%
Tajikistan 10%
Turkmenistan 38%
Uzbekistan 10%
Source: FAO 1999 and FAO/WFP 1997
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Table 10.3 Sources of Growth
Region/Area Contribution to total crop prodcution
1970-90 1988/90-2010
Harvested land Yields harvested land yieldsDeveloping countries (excl. PR China)1 31 69 34 66North and Southeast Asia2 41 59 39 61South Asia3 18 82 18 82
Contribution to production increase
1969/71-1994/96 1994/96-2010
area yields area yields
CerealsDeveloping countries (without PR China) 22% 78% 36% 64%East Asia excl. PR China 31% 69% 43% 57%South Asia 2% 98% 32% 68%Total Asia excl. PR China 10% 90% 35% 65%
WheatDeveloping countries (without PR China) 28% 72% 17% 83%East Asia excl. PR China 99% 1% 8% 92%South Asia 37% 63% 12% 88%Total Asia excl. PR China 33% 67% 6% 94%
RiceDeveloping countries (without PR China) 23% 77% 30% 70%East Asia excl. PR China 32% 68% 22% 78%South Asia 10% 90% 15% 85%Total Asia excl. PR China 20% 80% 16% 84%
MaizeDeveloping countries (without PR China) 35% 65% 42% 58%East Asia excl. PR China 31% 69% 69% 31%South Asia 25% 75% 15% 85%Total Asia excl. PR China 27% 73% 54% 46%
Contribution to harvested area increase arable land cropping intensity1988/90-2010 38
62 1882 7822
Source: FAO at 2010 database and Alexandratos 1995
Note: 1. 92 Developing countries as in Alexandratos (1995:404) without PR China.2. In this table the grouping of North and Southeast Asia includes Cambodia, PR China, Indonesia, and Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea, Republic of Korea, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.3. South Asia includes Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
cent in 1991. In the case of wheat it increasedfrom 42 per cent to 88 per cent. For maize, the 1990figure was 45 per cent. High yielding and hybridrice could expand in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,and elsewhere, whilst the adoption of semi-dwarfwheat is at its maximum potential in many countries,though further expansion in rainfed areas may befeasible. There might be some movement in adoptionof hybrid maize in Asia while the rising trend ofhybrid sorghum in South Asia continues. Acombination of improved soil management, crophusbandry and cultivars could also raise yield of rootsand tubers.
However, raising cropland productivity will beconstrained, particularly in Central Asia, where lowrainfall and soil erosion will hold back increases inwheat productivity, whilst in South Asia and People’sRepublic of China the constraints are the slow growthpotential for irrigation and soil degradation. Riceyield growth across Asia is likely to be constrainedby irrigation, uncertainty of rainfall and naturalcalamities and lack of high yielding rainfed varieties.However, prospects are good for Bangladesh, VietNam and Myanmar and from the new rice varietyunder development at the International Rice ResearchInstitute in the Philippines (Brown 1998).
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3. Livestock ResourcesLivestock production indices show a marked
improvement in most of the countries of the region,except in Bhutan and Mongolia. In Bhutan, there isa problem of declining feed/pasture resources andin Mongolia production seems to be linked to a periodof downward economic transition, which haswitnessed a breakdown of support institutions.Nepal’s indifferent performance is again linked tothe poor livestock resource base. Among SouthPacific countries where data are available, per capitalivestock production declined over 1986-96 period inSolomon Islands and Tonga, while it increasedslightly in Fiji and Vanuatu. On the other hand, over1992-97 period, per capita livestock productionshowed significant decline in all Central Asiancountries, except Turkmenistan. Over the 1991-97period, total meat production declined by 46 per centand milk production by 33 per cent. The largestreductions in meat production occurred in Armenia(down 40 per cent), Azerbaijan (42 per cent),Kazakhstan (50 per cent), and Tajikistan (47 per cent).The reasons for such drastic reductions include a
worsening of the terms of trade for the livestocksector, the lack of competitiveness of the sector dueto declining feed conversion rates, the shortage offeed and high transaction costs due to a lack ofinfrastructure.
Within many of the countries of region, meatand milk production grew at rates well above thoseof the world (Table 10.4), particularly in People’sRepublic of China, Indonesia, the Islamic Republicof Iran, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Pakistan.According to FAO growth of meat production willslow down over the coming decade up to 2010,although poultry meat is likely to show a rapid rateof growth. Similar projections for milk indicate asignificant slow down in growth of consumption andproduction (Alexandratos 1995).
4. Fishery ResourcesFish is an important source of protein for many
countries of the region. Fish production increasedby 3.7 per cent annually, from 13 million tonnes in1970 to 35 million tonnes in 1990 (Table 20.4). Growthin total production has slowed over the years due
Table 10.4 Growth of Production of Meat, Milk and Fish (Per Cent Per Annum) in Selected Countries
Country/AreaTotal meat Milk (cows) Total fish catch
1970-97 1990-97 1970-97 1990-97 1970-80 1980-90
Afghanistan 0.8% 0.2% -1.9% 0.0% – 0.0%
Bangladesh 1.6% 5.2% 0.4% 0.5% 0.8% 1.0%
Bhutan 2.1% 2.2% 1.4% 0.0% – –
Cambodia 3.0% 5.2% -0.2% 1.6% 2.8% 6.6%
PR China 7.6% 8.7% 9.1% 6.9% 4.9% 3.6%
India 3.5% 2.2% 5.2% 3.7% 2.9% 1.6%
Indonesia 6.7% 6.6% 8.2% 4.2% 3.4% 1.9%
Islamic Republic of Iran 5.4% 6.6% 4.9% 6.0% 9.1% 7.0%
Developing countries 5.1% 6.2% 3.6% 3.6% 2.2% 2.0%
Asia and the Pacific 6.7% 7.7% 5.2% 3.9% 3.1% 1.4%
Source: FAO SOFA database
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mainly to over fishing, although a few countries showa significant growth in fish catches since the 1970s.Total fish production remained fairly stable in thecountries of the South Pacific subregion over the1986-96 period, with only Samoa experiencinga significant decline in fish catches. The Philippineshas witnessed modest growth in fish catches, whilstSri Lanka experienced a decline in fish catches duringthe 1990s.
Historically, the development of fisheries hasbeen characterized by several trends, including thedepletion of popular stocks, and an increase in theproduction of freshwater species by aquaculture (e.g.in People’s Republic of China). The increased
mechanization of fishing fleets has also led to intenseconflicts between large and small-scale fisheries, andneighbouring countries have often been entangled indisputes over fisheries jurisdiction.
B. Food Availability TrendsProgress has been good over the past decade
in terms of the overall availability of food andnutritional status of the region, although not allcountries or population groups have benefited fromthis trend due to inequities in access, distributionand in the matching of food availability with “foodentitlements”. The latter is determined byagricultural income, which is dwindling due to
Box 10.1 The 1990s Agricultural Crisis in Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
The agriculture sector accounts for some 28 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the Democratic People’s Republicof Korea. Land is very scarce, the growing season is short and the climate is harsh, with early frosts, uncertain rainfall in spring andheavy rainfall in July. The total cropland was estimated at slightly over 2 million hectares in 1991-93, an increase of 4.5 per cent over1981-83, which, on a per capita basis, amounted to only 0.09 hectares, down from 0.1 hectare in 1983. Potential land is estimated atabout 5 million hectares and the area currently under irrigation is put at 1.3 million hectares. Although the rate of mechanization isthe highest in Asia, 441 tractors per 100 hectares of arable land by 1994-96, many of these tractors were technologically obsolete,incapable of ploughing to proper depths and lack spare parts and fuel. Food (cereals, meat, milk and fish) production increasedbetween 1970 and 1990 but has since declined significantly. Taking the 1970-97 period as a whole, total cereal production (wheat,coarse grains and paddy) declined at annual average rate of 0.6 per cent, although the most significant decline occurred between1990-97 when production fell by 6.5 per cent. Recent estimate suggests a decline of about seven per cent between 1996 and 1998,from 4.5 million tonnes to 4.2 million tonnes. However, over the 1969/71-1989/91 period, yields of rice and wheat increasedannually by over 3 per cent, whilst maize lagged behind with and annual increase of 0.8 per cent.
Policy and institutional weaknesses together with structural problems played a strong role in constraining agriculturaldevelopment over past decades. The strategy for agricultural development emphasized self-reliance (“juche”) in food and feed grainproduction without due consideration for resource use efficiency. The cooperatives and state farms provided little incentive forfarmers to improve efficiency, whilst decision making on production planning, input procurement and distribution and irrigationwas centralized through the national Agricultural Commission and its affiliated bodies. With subsidized inputs and a limited role ofthe market, co-operatives produce some 90 per cent of the country’s grain output with surpluses sold to the Government, at a fixedprice, with minor transactions taking place through barter arrangements or at local farmers’ markets.
Historically, the country’s well established trading links with People’s Republic of China, the Russian Federation and othersocialist block countries provided sources of agricultural inputs, equipment and other assistance. However, the political andeconomic realignment of many of these trading partners in the 1990s, exposed the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea todifficulties in securing the necessary agricultural of inputs and prevented further gains in yield. In response, agricultural productionextensified, moving into marginal pasture areas in the hills and, in the absence of mechanical and chemical inputs, employing morelabour intensive methods. Despite these measures, food and feed production declined, putting pressure on livestock and poultryproduction. Efforts to import food to supplement domestic production were frustrated by the Government’s declining capacity toimport on commercial terms. This situation was aggravated by a series of natural disasters, including hailstorms, high intensityrainfall, typhoon, drought and floods, which adversely affected crop production in 1995, 1996 and 1997. The flooding of large areasof the country left agricultural croplands covered with silt and damaged supporting infrastructure, including irrigation. Floodingand tidal surges led to infiltration of seawater into croplands, whilst specific events, such as Typhoon Winnie in August 1997 andsevere rainfall shortages in the critical months of June and July 1999, affected standing crops directly. As consequence, the countrysuffered from a grave food security crisis in 1997 and 1998. The Public Distribution System (PDS) came under severe stress anddelays in the shipment of international emergency food aid threatened an already precarious situation. When food aid did finallyarrive, it was the key means by which many lives were saved.
The lessons for the international community regarding the need for adequate and speedy response, irrespective of politicalconsiderations, were clear. Similarly, the events of the 1990s were not lost on the Government of the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea, whose strategic focus for the avoidance of similar crises is important in enhancing the countries food resources.
Source: 1) IFAD 19972) FAO and WFP 1996a, 1997a, 1998b
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increases in population, intensification of pockets ofpoverty, resource depletion/degradation as well asenvironmental pollution. Additional pressures onthe earnings of the poor have occurred through theAsian economic crisis of the late 1990s, which sawseveral countries confronted with the real spectre offood insecurity. An extreme case in the DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea where two consecutiveyears of flooding, drought and typhoon, and the slowresponse of the international community, combinedto create widespread human suffering (Box 10.1). Inthe countries of Central Asia, food availabilitycontracted significantly in early 1990s. This trendhas been reversed in recent years and food aid needsand the number of vulnerable persons needingtargeted food assistance have fallen sharply (FAOand WFP 1997).
1. Per Capita Food AvailabilityThe growth of per capita calorie supply in the
region has slowed down in recent years, except inFiji, the Maldives, Armenia and Kazakhstan, whicheach experienced slight increases in daily caloriesupply per capita. There are some cases such asAfghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia and Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea where food availabilityper capita declined between 1970 and 1996, whilstmore significant decline was experienced in the 1990sin the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (FAOSOFA database). Although data on average foodsupply per capita provide a partial view of the foodsecurity situation in the region, the average and thedistribution of food intake per capita provideindicators of the food security status at the householdlevel. These two parameters were used to estimatethe prevalence of under-nutrition in two subregionsof the Asian and Pacific Region (Table 10.5) and it isclear that in terms of per capita availability of food,South Asia will remain a difficult region requiringclose monitoring and emergency preparedness.
2. Under NutritionFood insecurity and under-nutrition are linked
to agro-ecological zones and their major farmingsystems (FAO Committee on World Food Security1993). According to FAO, in dry lands and areasof uncertain rainfall both pastoral systems andupland cereal based system are under stress inNorthern China, Indonesia, South Asia, Lao People’sDemocratic Republic and Mongolia. Within humid
Table 10.5 Estimated Levels of Undernourishment in Selected Countries
Country/AreaPer cent undernourished Number undernourished
and peri-humid areas with shifting cultivation,plantations and extensive grazing systems, vulnerablezones are located in Indonesia, Lao People’sDemocratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, PapuaNew Guinea, Thailand and Viet Nam. Irrigated andnaturally flooded areas, which contain lowland ricebased system and irrigated farming system areexposed to threats of waterlogging and salinitycompromising food security and degrading land.Many parts of the hill and mountain areas, practisinghill farming system and dairy and grazing systemare extremely vulnerable and the situation isdeteriorating.
FAO (1998) reports a continuation of difficultfood supply situation in Afghanistan, DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Lao People’sDemocratic Republic, Mongolia and Papua NewGuinea. In the case of Democratic People’s Republicof Korea, 16 per cent of young children currentlysuffer from wasting, or acute malnutrition, and60 per cent suffer from long-term malnutrition,placing the country amongst those with the highestmalnutrition rates in the world. Interestingly, unlikemost other countries, the malnutrition rate is higheramong boys than girls (WFP 1998).
Table 10.6 Average Annual Net Trade in Food for Selected Countries
Note: Positive numbers are net cereal imports, and mt represents metric tonnes.
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C. Access to Food
1. Food Distribution and Trade RegimesFood distribution channels are mostly
market-oriented in Asia and the Pacific, althoughsome countries have government sponsored fooddistribution schemes including food security reserves,subsidized sale of food and food-for-worksprogramme. India succeeded in raising food grainproduction ahead of population growth, but in orderto improve access of different groups of populationto food the Government is involved in grainprocurement and distribution, sale of food at lessthan economic cost and employment promotionschemes for the poor (Rao 1998).
Imports and drawdown from stocks fillnational and regional food deficit. Most of thecountries of the region are net cereal importers andwill remain so in 2010 (Alexandratos 1995). Data onaverage annual net trade in food by country shows
that People’s Republic of China, Indonesia, the IslamicRepublic of Iran, and Republic of Korea were largeimporters of cereals from the 1980s through to theearly 1990s (Table 10.6). The same is true of CentralAsian countries like Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, whilst VietNam became a net exporter for the first time duringthis period. Myanmar remains a net exporter, whilstPakistan turned from exporter to importer duringthe 1980s. People’s Republic of China, India andBangladesh succeeded in achieving nearself-sufficiency in cereals, although in the lattertwo countries this is contingent upon a high levelpoverty that depresses demand (Alexandratos andBruinsma 1999).
In recent years, available data have indicatedthat total cereal imports by 14 Asian countries areprojected at 53 million tonnes in 1998/99, down from60 million tonnes in 1996/97 (Table 10.7). Wheat
Table 10.7 Recent Trends in Cereal Trade in Selected Asian Countries (Million Tonnes)
imports top the list followed by coarse grains andrice respectively. Thailand and Viet Nam willmaintain their dominant position in rice exports,while India and Pakistan are expected to improvetheir position as exporter of fine quality rice. AmongCentral Asian countries, cereal imports remained thesame or were slightly reduced between 1996-97 and1997-98, which is attributed to better harvests and areduced demand for bread and feed due topurchasing power limitations. The bulk of the cerealimport was in the form of wheat.
2. Food StocksStock carry-over (Figure 10.5) is an important
factor in stabilising food availability and prices aswell as in meeting emergency food requirements.Stock carry-over of cereals in Asia is projected todecline from 137 million tonnes in 1993 to 126 milliontonnes in 1999 (Figure 10.5). Due to large populationand production base, producers, traders and thegovernment maintain relatively large stocks in
People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, theRepublic of Korea, Pakistan and the Philippines. Thecost of stock carry-over can be quite substantial, withadequate facilities and financing required to ensurethat food stocks are maintained at a minimumrequired level.
In Central Asia, cereal stocks declined in1996-97 following lower imports during the previousyear, due to high costs in the international marketand rising costs of storage as a result of privatizationof grain elevators (FAO and WFP 1997). This wascombined with higher draw-down of stock in somecountries because of lower harvest, as in Uzbekistanand Kazakhstan. Some of the stocks were replenishedlater through imports. According to FAO, 17-18 percent of total consumption of stock is an adequatelevel at the global level (FAO Committee on WorldFood Security 1999).
Total cereal food aid shipments varied over theyears depending on contributions made by producingcountries. According to FAO, the 1998/99 forecastof cereal food aid is 9 million tonnes up from5.8 million tonnes, in 1997/98 (FAO 1999). Much ofthe food aid is in wheat and coarse grains. Asiareceived three million tonnes in food aid in 1997/98,it is expected to go up to 3.7 million tonnes whenfigures are known for 1998/99.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OFENHANCING FOOD ANDAGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
The rising population is placing increasingdemands on the supply of food resources, and therebyincreasing pressure on the environment (Box 10.2)through the growth of mechanization, expansion ofagriculture into marginal or unsuitable lands andintensification of production through chemical inputs(the consequent impacts on land and water resourcesare discussed in detail in Chapters 1 and 4. Theconsequent impacts on food security are discussedbelow).
A. MechanizationAlthough increasing mechanization in the
region (Table 10.8) has contibuted to the rapid increasein food production in many areas, when combinedwith weak implementation of land and tenurialreforms, it has contributed to increasingmarginalization (Box 10.2), landlessness and tenurialinsecurity in many countries of the region,particularly in the area affected by green revolutionin South Asia. The food security status of small andmarginal farmers and landless households in suchareas is largely dependent on their ability to rent
Figure 10.5 Estimated Total Cereal Stock Carryoverin Selected Asian Countries
Source: FAO 1999
Totalcereals
Wheat
Coarsegrains
Rice
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
1993199419951996199719981999
Million tonnes
Cer
eals
Asia
Bangladesh
PR China
India
Indonesia
Rep. of Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
1993199419951996199719981999
Million tonnes
Cou
ntry
a. Stock carry-over of cereals by type
b. Stock carry-over of total cereals by selected countries
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land and/or the availability of wage employmentgiving them the income to buy food. Close to onehalf of rural population in the region are small- holderpopulations whose land holding is less than threehectares of cropland per household. In particular,the landless households suffer from food insecuritythroughout the year or a part of the year dependingon availability of wage employment and food prices.
B. Agricultural ExpansionImpacts of agricultural expansion are
determined by the balance of the available croplandnot in current use and that which could be broughtunder new cultivation. The overall scarcity of landis discussed in Chapter 1 of this report. The impact
of agricultural expansion on the resource base can beneutral or negative depending on how the landresources are managed.
The impact can be serious if food productionexpands into areas susceptible to soil erosion such assemi-arid area with cultivation or long-continuedgrazing, and hill land. Kazakhstan, the largest wheatproducer in central Asia, extended cultivation ontomarginal land causing serious erosion, whicheventually led to contraction of grain areas from 26million hectares in 1980 to 16 million hectares in 1997(World Watch Institute 1998). Shifting cultivationwith a shortening cycle of fallow has also led todeforestation and loss of soil productivity in certainparts of India, Viet Nam, Malaysia, the Philippines,Thailand, Bangladesh and other countries.
C. Agricultural IntensificationRecent years have seen the continual
intensification of agricultural production in theregion, through the expansion o irrigation schemes,increased cropping intensities, and increasedapplication of agrochemicals, such as fertilizers andpesticides (Table 10.9). This trend looks set tocontinue and as discussed in Chapters 1 and 4, willplace an increasing burden on the region’s land andwater resources, with a corresponding risk to futurefood security.
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FORPROMOTING FOOD SECURITY ANDSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
A. National ActionsIn most parts of Asia and the Pacific there is
some conflict between concerns for household foodsecurity and the imperative of resource conservation.Governments have come to recognize that anincentive framework is required to encourage farmersto undertake longer-term investments in land, waterand forest conservation. It is not enough to avoidfurther degradation, land productivity has to beraised to neutralize the current trend which couldsee population growth outstripping the carryingcapacity of the land.
Public and private investments are nowencouraged for technology development andadaptation in critical areas of concern such as newcrop varieties, which do not use large doses ofchemical inputs, new techniques for mountainagriculture, agroforestry and biological control ofpests. Policies and programmes have been directedat poverty reduction, improvement of household foodsecurity, resource conservation, and reduction ofenvironmental pollution through such measures as
Table 10.8 Mechanization of Agriculture in theSelected Asian and Pacific Countries(Number of Tractors)
Per thousand of Per hundred hectaresCountry agricultural workers of arable land
1979-81 1994-96 1979-81 1994-96
Armenia n.a. 64 n.a. 306
Azerbaijan n.a. 31 n.a. 181
Bangladesh 0 0 5 6
Cambodia 0 0 6 3
PR China 2 1 76 56
India 2 5 24 82
Indonesia 0 1 5 34
Islamic 17 39 57 133Republic of Iran
Kazakhstan n.a. 51 n.a. 51
Democratic People’s 13 19 275 441Republic of Korea
Republic of Korea 1 34 14 563
Kyrgyzstan n.a. 44 n.a. 238
Lao People’sDemocraticRepublic 0 0 8 11
Malaysia 4 23 77 230
Mongolia 32 22 82 56
Myanmar 1 1 9 10
Nepal 0 0 10 16
Pakistan 5 12 50 144
Papua New Guinea 1 1 699 203
Philippines 112 277 425 923
Sri Lanka 8 9 276 356
Tajikistan n.a. 37 n.a. 366
Thailand 1 7 11 82
Turkmenistan n.a. 83 n.a. 347
Uzbekistan n.a. 59 n.a. 376
Viet Nam 1 4 38 172
Source: IBRD 1999b
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Under stabilization and structural adjustmentprogrammes adopted by governments of the regionin collaboration with IMF, World Bank and the ADB,many countries are moving in a decisive way toeliminate current policy and institutional bias againstagriculture and marginal producers. In the past, suchpolicy biases discouraged investment in resourceconservation. As a part of the reform process, countrieshave decentralized decision making and taken stepsto promote people’s participation which areconsidered critical to encourage direct involvementof the beneficiaries in protection of the naturalresource base and in initiating community basedmeasures to strengthen household food security.
Policies related to incentives and structuraladjustment present the greatest challenge to thecountries of the region, especially following the Asianeconomic crisis of the late 1990s. Efforts to encourageprivate investment in longer term conservation ofnatural resources have had limited success becauseof slow start with public investment in ruralinfrastructure, appropriate pricing policies, adequateavailability and access to inputs, equipment, draughtanimal and services. In policy reform it is understoodthat allocating use rights of resources to individuals
Box 10.2 Population Growth, Declining Arable Land, and Environmental Degradation in Nepal
From 1970 to 1997, Nepal had one of the highest rates of population growth in the Asian and Pacific Region (2.6 per cent perannum compared with the region’s average of 1.9 per cent) and this growing population had a significant influence upon thecountry’s declining levels of arable land per head of agricultural population, (0.14 hectare in 1997 down by 24 per cent from0.18 hectare in 1970 (FAO SOFA database). Several forces are evident including population pressure in the terai pushing marginalfamilies into areas already heavily deforested and where cultivable land per family is dwindling. The traditional farming system inthese areas relies upon a delicate balance between agriculture, livestock and forestry, which includes the cropping of maize, milletand rice on terraced slopes, the use of animal manure for fertilization and the feeding of livestock from communal forest resources.The communal forests also provide the principle source of fuelwood (700 kilogram per capita a year), which requires as much as3.5 hectares of accessible forest per head – twice as much as that which is currently available. Average cultivated land per householdis small (0.85 hectare) and land distribution is such that over 50 per cent of households operate on less than 0.18 hectare. Since theseholdings cannot meet family staple food requirements, many families are increasingly relying on livestock raising and waged workto meet family consumption needs. More livestock clearly has adverse implication for the environment since the common forestgrazing resources are being depleted at an accelerated pace. If unchecked, it is projected that by 2010 degraded forest, shrub landand wasteland will cover 40 per cent of current forest areas.
Forest over-utilization has been associated with reduced production of biomass, loss of soil cover and increased soil erosionwith serious consequences for downstream siltation of rivers and flooding. Much of the flooding problems in Bangladesh originatein the mountains of Nepal. In many areas terraces can no longer be cultivated due to inadequate soil nutrients, whilst increasingfragmentation of holdings, declining land productivity and limited non-farm jobs mean people have to depend increasingly onraising livestock on declining forest fodder stocks. These factors have led to a cycle of environmental degradation, accentuating analready fragile situation of unequal land distribution and insecure tenancy.
The lesson of the past is to seek ways to balance population growth, land ownership patterns and tenancy arrangements withthe preservation of the resource base. This is clearly understood by all development institutions working in Nepal. The InternationalFund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and other international financial institutions have financed projects drawing uponparticipatory methodologies for the protection and enhancement of forest resources. These initiatives are building on The NepaleseGovernment’s 1998 Forestry Master Plan, which is promoting community, private and leasehold forestry. The future outcome of thisstruggle between people and nature will depend heavily on the success of these initiatives.
Source: FAO SOFA database, IFAD 1990 and Jazairy, et al 1992
Table 10.9 Selected Indicators of PesticideConsumption for the Asian andPacific Region
integrated pest management (IPM) and integratedplant nutrition systems (IPNS). Policy makers,governments and NGO’s have also joined forces withthe private sector to raise awareness at all levels aboutthe importance of maintaining a balance betweenfood security and sustainable agriculture andreducing resource degradation and environmentalpollution.
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or groups would be an incentive to undertakeconservation measures (Box 10.3).
Macroeconomic and sector adjustment policieshave also drawn attention to a number of key areas.These include elimination of pricing policiesfavouring imported food over local crops and capitalsubsidies that encourage non-sustainable expansionof commercial ranching, logging, fishing,mechanization, and mining. Countries have alsoinitiated reform measures involving gradualreduction of subsidies on agricultural chemicals suchas fertiliser, pesticide insecticide, fungicide and others.However, introduction and/or rationalization ofwater charges have faced resistance. In very fewcountries in Asia, existing water charges for irrigationcover a fraction of the costs associated with thedevelopment, operation and maintenance of waterextraction and distribution. In the same way, verylittle has been achieved in the region by way ofreduction of concessions, and imposition of levies inorder to contain livestock production and depletionof woodland reserves. Limited progress has beenmade in the development and implementation of an
appropriate combination of taxes/penalty andsubsidies to promote sustainable fishery exploitation.Some strategists point to the need for a structuraladjustment in the management of natural resourcesand call for greater priority to be given to ruraldevelopment and agriculture through a counteringof the perceived urban bias in resource allocation.
Following the Third Plenum of the 11th CentralCommittee of the Communist Party of People’sRepublic of China, major policy reforms wereintroduced in Chinese agriculture, a householdcontract responsibility system was introducedcountrywide in the 1980s, investment in agricultureincreased and procurement prices increased severaltimes since late 1970s. These factors have led tosubstantial increase in output and rural income. Asfor the future, People’s Republic of China proposesto hold on to the Household Responsibility Systemas the cornerstone of its agricultural policy andemphasis will continue to be placed on increasedpublic investment in agriculture, including fertiliserproduction and research, particularly for improved/high yield breeds.
Box 10.3 Policy Reform and Sustainable Agriculture in Viet Nam
Rice-based agriculture accounts for 26 per cent of gross Viet Nam’s domestic product (GDP). However, the agriculturalresource base is limited in relation to population as cropland per capita declined from 0.11 hectares in 1983 to 0.09 hectares in 1993.The agricultural population is concentrated in the lowlands, and food security and sustainability of agricultural production isthreatened by resource degradation including deforestation, soil erosion, shifting cultivation, and salinity. Over the past twodecades, forest cover has decreased from 40 per cent to 25 per cent.
Between 1976 and 1986, the economy of Viet Nam was centrally managed and much of the agricultural sector was collectivized.Since the mid 1980’s, the Government’s reform programme has resulted in the liberalization of trade, the restructuring of stateowned enterprises and the opening up of the manufacturing sector to the private sector. As part of this reform process, farmers havegreater autonomy in production decisions and have been invested with long-term use rights to land. Although land is still ownedby the state, the use of land was decollectivized in the North of the country in 1989 and was followed by the allocation of use rightsto households. Farmers were given tenurial rights for 20 years together with provisions for the selling, leasing and transfer of landthrough inheritance. These measures encouraged both long-term investment in agriculture and resource conservation as an effectiveland market evolved across the country.
Rural households met credit needs from the informal sector. The first initiative taken to meet this challenge was the establishmentof the Viet Nam Bank for Agriculture (VBA) in 1988. The bank now has 500 branches and 1 500 smaller outlets covering all districtsand most subdistricts. The VBA started lending to mass organizations and to the poor and further investment funds were offered bythe numerous credit unions established since June 1993. In August 1995, the Viet Nam Bank for the Poor took over poverty lendingfrom the VBA and is supported by the credit made available under the Hunger Eradication and Poverty Reduction Programme.
“Decree 327: Regreening the barren hills” is a major Government initiative to restore deforested hills to sustainable andproductive use. People are contracted to protect land and forest and to undertake reforestation. The initiative also encourages theparticipation of the ethnic minorities of the hill areas, who will be encouraged to reduce shifting cultivation through the provision ofimproved living conditions. With 9.3 million hectares of forests protected and 2.5 million hectares replanted, the total forest cover isprojected to increase to 40 per cent.
Viet Nam stands out as an inspiring example of what can be achieved through a managed transition from central planning toan open and liberal policy regime. The reform measures combined with the rehabilitation of irrigation networks are contributing tothe steady growth in agricultural production. Rice production increased by 4.6 per cent per annum over the 1990-1997 period and,from a net importer of rice Viet Nam has transformed itself into a major rice exporter.
Source: 1. IFAD 1993, 1995b and 1996a2. FAO 1998b
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Other policy initiatives that would befavourable to the growth of agricultural and foodproduction in People’s Republic of China includereform of the grain marketing system, elimination oftwo-tier pricing, introduction of water pricing(Box 10.4) and deregulation of inter-provincial trade.In 1998, a special fund of US$4.21 billion was usedfor agriculture. Rural markets will be opened furtherand foreign investment encouraged to upgradingseeds, technology, agricultural skill and management.
In Thailand, under a recently approvedagriculture sector adjustment loan from the ADB, thegovernment has agreed to initiate a wide range ofpolicy and institutional measures. These are designedto increase public and private investment inagriculture, improve production, market efficiency,as well as to streamline agricultural serviceinstitutions to address problems of deforestation, landdegradation, shortage of water, inefficient use ofwater and pesticides, and water pollution. Land,labour, capital and natural resources would beappropriately valued allowing production,consumption, saving and investment decisions to bemade on the basis of a common appreciation of theenvironmental and economic trade-offs involved.Improvement of food security and conservation ofresources were facilitated by the administrative bodiesset at the village and local levels to plan, supervise,monitor and evaluate rural developmentprogrammes.
Lao People’s Democratic Republic is continuingthe process of transition from a centrally plannedeconomy to a more decentralized market orientedeconomy and the government is taking measures tostabilize the shifting cultivation in hill areassusceptible to soil erosion and degradation. Irrigation
expansion together with application of modern inputsis designed to increase cropping intensity, which willreduce pressure on fragile areas.
The Viet Nam Bank for Agriculture (VBA)established in 1996 provides credit to farmers andhas made rural development and poverty alleviationa priority policy objective. A larger share ofgovernment budget is now allocated to agricultureincluding irrigation and flood control. Otherobjectives include increased emphasis on commercialagriculture, diversification, infrastructure (roads andirrigation) and provision of efficient extension,veterinary, and research services (IFAD 1996b).
In South Asia, most countries have taken majorinitiatives to tackle poverty, malnutrition, foodinsecurity and environmental degradation associatedwith food production. For example, Sri Lanka settledfarming families on state owned land within theframework of District Integrated Rural DevelopmentProjects, under implementation since 1979. In dryregions these projects have given priority tointegrated watershed management, including soil andwater conservation as in Kirindi Oya, Anuradhapura,Badulla, Kegalle and other regions. Bangladesh, onthe other hand, has used a ‘food for work’ programmeto undertake rural investments in infrastructureincluding flood and salinity control measures which,combined with investments in small scale irrigation,promoted land conservation and improved landproductivity. Pressure on land has also been reducedthrough investments in non-farm income generatingactivities.
Pakistan has suffered from rapid populationgrowth and increasing poverty-linked degradationof soil in arid and semi arid regions, and waterloggingand salinity. In response, the government has
Box 10.4 Agricultural Water Pricing Policies as Market-based Instruments inPeople’s Republic of China
For centuries irrigation has played a crucial role in Chinese agriculture. Since 1949, the area of irrigated land has tripled suchthat 75 per cent of national food production is provided from irrigated land – a major factor in China’s food self-sufficiency.
In July 1985, People’s Republic of China took an important first step toward promoting greater efficiency in irrigation waterusage. The Chinese government instituted agricultural policy reforms, which invested a greater degree of financial and managerialautonomy in provincial water management agencies, and introduced water charges to cover their operation, maintenance andamortization of capital costs. In general, the pricing structure is differentiated so as to reflect actual costs of water in different uses.For example, charges may vary according to season, and in very dry areas progressive water pricing schemes have been adopted toreflect scarcity. Likewise, irrigation for grain crops is priced according to supply costs without profit, while cash crops may beirrigated for slightly higher cost. The reforms also serve to decentralize authority, making water management authorities moreclosely tied both to operation and distribution of irrigation water. Management is often further decentralized when a local agencypurchases water wholesale and sells in bulk to smaller water user associations responsible for distribution to farmers. These smallergroups strengthen the bond between the water and the supplier who must recover costs.
As a result of these policy reforms, revenues collected by the water management agencies have increased significantly. Farmershave begun to irrigate their crops more efficiently while water use per hectare has declined and crop production has increased.
Source: FAO 1993
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introduced initiatives directed at improving theproductivity and growth of the agriculture sector withemphasis on rain-fed barani areas, strengthening ruralinfrastructure and encouraging cottage industries inrural areas.
A major movement in the Central Asiancountries was the emergence of smallholder/household production in the 1990s accounting for agrowing proportion of food production in the region(FAO and WFP 1997). Livestock productivity hasalways been higher on private plots than on largestate owned and collective farms. In order to facilitateproduction in a situation where institutional credit islacking, government and/or the private sector extendcommercial credit, for example, as in Turkmenistanand Uzbekistan. Another example of thedevelopments in smaller holder/householdproduction can be found in Turkey where urbanagriculture is growing more and more evident inIstanbul (Box 10.5).
B. International and Regional ActionsThe right to food is a fundamental human right
recognized by, amongst others, the Charter of the
United Nations; the Universal Declaration of HumanRights; the International Covenant on Economic;Social and Cultural Rights, 1966; the UniversalDeclaration on the Eradication of Hunger andMalnutrition, 1974; the Declaration of Principles andProgramme of Action of the World Conference onAgrarian Reform and Rural Development, 1979; theVienna Declaration and Programme of Action of theWorld on Human Rights, 1993; the CopenhagenDeclaration and Programme of Action of the WorldSummit for Social Development, 1995; and, the RomeDeclaration on World Food Security and the WorldFood Summit Plan of Action, 1996.
1. World Food SummitOf the international initiatives undertaken to
date, the landmark action with regard to world foodsecurity was the adoption by the internationalcommunity of the Rome Declaration on World FoodSecurity and World Food Summit Plan of Action atthe World Food Summit in Rome on 13-17 November1996. The Summit participants (Heads of State andGovernment or their Representatives) agreed to“ensure an enabling political, social, and economic
Box 10.5 Food Security in Cities: Urban Agriculture in Istanbul
In the past four decades, explosive population growth has begun to significantly change Istanbul’s cultural fabric. Outlyingvillages regularly become incorporated into the metropolitan system; at the same time, migrants establish communities within themetropolitan area, bringing with them characteristics of their migratory origins. Throughout Istanbul, informal systems havedeveloped where publicly provided infrastructure is inadequate. For example, informal housing (the gecekondu) and transportation(the dolmus) systems throughout Istanbul are well-known and integral parts of the city’s fabric. In a similar spirit, urban agriculturecan be thought of as an informal and practical response to inadequate food systems and opportunities.
Urban agriculture is widespread throughout Istanbul, is practised by people from a wide variety of socio-demographicbackgrounds, and is practised by poor with the primary motives of basic subsistence, dietary supplement or supplemental incomeand fungibility (freeing up scarce cash income). Urban agriculture in Istanbul appears to be every bit as cosmopolitan as the cityitself, reflecting a wide variety of opportunities, resources and skills. Economically, it ranges from household gardens to commercialgreenhouses, from harvesting for household consumption to harvesting for sale. The nexus of two very generalized naturalresources (i.e. land and water) and a broadly defined set of social resources (ranging from knowledge, labour and social welfareprogrammes, to the availability and accessibility of imported or manufactured inputs and capital) determine the viability of urbanagriculture.
The availability of a reliable supply of water for crops and livestock is a major constraint faced by urban agriculturists inIstanbul. One question for future research on urban agriculture in Istanbul is to determine the role that water constraints play onsuch things as crop and site selection and how the people have adopted to these constraints. Our particular adaptation that becomesevident to any visitor who veers even barely off the tourist path is urban agriculture – growing crops, raising livestock, andotherwise harvesting edible produce all over urban space. Throughout Istanbul, many local residents have taken elements of foodproduction into their own hands rather than relying solely on their ability to exchange labour and wages for food.
Istanbul is part of a country which has traditionally been a net food exporter. However, as food exports have increased, so havefood imports. As such, locally available foods become relatively more expensive as prices adjust to those offered by internationalmarkets and as imported processed foods replace locally grown fresh foods. These events appear to contribute to conditionsanalogous to what Amartya Sen (1981) might call a boom famine. It is not that food becomes scarce, but that the ability of localpopulations to command access to food is limited. That is, in the midst of plenty, it is possible for large populations to be hungry,sometimes even to starve. Under such economic conditions, it is reasonable to expect to find creative local strategies of urbanagriculture for ensuring household food security, uniquely adapted to the urban resources available in cities such as Istanbul.
Sources: Kadjian, P. 1997 and Tuscon. Sen, A 1981
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environment designed to create the best conditionsfor the eradication of poverty and for durable peace,based on full and equal participation of women andmen, which is most conducive to achievingsustainable food security for all” (World Food Summit1996). The Plan of Action envisages a reduction ofthe number of undernourished to half the presentlevel by 2015. The Summit emphasized thatproduction increases need to be achieved ensuringsustainable management of natural resources andprotection of the environment.
The 1996 World Food Summit also called forimprovements to the definition and implementationof the rights related to food as set out in Article 11 ofthe International Covenant on Economic, Social andCultural Rights. This task was entrusted with theUnited Nations High Commissioner for HumanRights, which is actively undertaking consultationwith other United Nations bodies, governments,NGO’s and experts to develop appropriaterecommendations (FAO 1998).
2. Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO)In the spirit of its mandate, FAO has played a
vital role in promoting food security and sustainableagriculture in order to raise levels of nutrition andstandards of living, to improve agriculturalproductivity, and to better the condition of ruralpopulations (FAO 1996). FAO has been providingdevelopment assistance, agricultural information andsupport services, advice to governments and a neutralforum for international cooperation. In recent yearsFAO has reiterated its priority for improvement offood security, management of food emergencies,operation of its Global Information and Early WarningSystem (GIES) and promotion of sustainabledevelopment. A specific priority of the Organizationis encouraging sustainable agriculture and ruraldevelopment, a long-term strategy for theconservation and management of natural resources.
In light of pesticide linked health hazards,Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has beenestablished as the basis of FAO plant protectionactivities. The approach combines a variety ofcontrols, including the conservation of existingnatural enemies, crop rotation, intercropping, and theuse of pest resistant varieties. Pesticides may stillcontinue to be used selectively but in much smallerquantities. Five years after IPM was widelyintroduced in Indonesia, rice yields increased by13 per cent, while pesticide use dropped by 60 percent; in the first two years alone the governmentsaved US$120 million that it would spent subsidisingthe chemicals. (FAO 1995).
For fisheries, the Organization is implementingthe Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries,
supporting aquaculture development, andundertaking monitoring and strategic analysis. FAOhas also initiated a special programme of assistancein fisheries to Small Island Developing States.
3. International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD)IFAD is a funding agency of the United
Nations, which allocates all its resources towardsinvestments in small-holder agriculture and off-farmincome generation for the poor (including landlessand women) in rural areas. All such investmentshave a positive impact in terms of improvinghousehold food security and protecting theenvironment. Over 1988-98 period the Fund hascommitted over US$1 billion to 21 countries of Asiaand the Pacific (IFAD 1998). In 1998 the Fund fieldtested and finalized a comprehensive set of “memorychecklists” for issues relating to household foodsecurity and gender, also to help with project design.IFAD has introduced an innovative lendinginstrument, “Flexible Lending Mechanism” (FLM),allowing longer project implementation periods(10-12 years as opposed to traditional five-to-sixyears) with rolling cycles of design which should beparticularly helpful for long-term investment inresource conservation. The Fund has also beenselected to house the Global Mechanism of theConvention to Combat Desertification (CCD) whichis discussed in greater detail in Chapter 1.
IFAD is continuing with its effort in the regionto forge partnerships among governments, NGO’s,civil society organizations and other stakeholderswith a view to promoting participation andempowerment in decision-making at all stages ofproject implementation. IFAD is formulating a specialprogramme for Asia with emphasis on community-based rural infrastructure/works programme,micro-credit, environmental regeneration andcapacity building. Working in close collaborationwith the World Food Programme (WFP), the Fundsupports rural public works in order to enhance theproductivity of land and water resources.
The Fund has directly intervened throughproject financing to promote sustainable agriculturein countries in the Asian and Pacific Region, includingin Bangladesh, where the Fund has financed anaquaculture development project under which waterbodies have been leased to fisherman groups whowould now have the incentive to practice sustainablefishing. Similarly, IFAD-financed projects havepromoted sustainable farming practices throughenvironmental protection and resource conservationmeasures and adoption of appropriate technologyand cultivation practices in People’s Republic ofChina, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
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Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.In the economies in transition in Central Asia, IFADhas taken a number of initiatives to build institutionsto promote food security and sustainable agriculture.Two projects in Kyrgyzstan aim to support sheepdevelopment and strengthen agriculture supportservices. In Armenia, food security is beingapproached through a combination of input supply,financial services, on-farm irrigation, communitydevelopment and advancement of market-orientation.
4. Other International InitiativesThe World Food Programme (WFP) has been
involved in 80 countries to fight both hungeremergencies as well as chronic hunger, focussing onthe most vulnerable: women, children and theelderly. During the past three decades, WFP hasinvested about US$7.1 billion and over 12 milliontonnes of food in Southeast Asia to combat hunger,promote economic and social development, andprovide relief assistance in emergencies. Over1995-98 period WFP delivered 10.5 million tonnes offood to 223 million people at a total cost of 4.95 billion.According to WFP, food aid is used as a vital catalystto promote self-reliant development among thepoorest of the poor. WFP resources are channelledthrough three programmes. Under food-for-life,emergency food deliveries are made in a fast andefficient manner to save and sustain life. Food-for-growth projects target needy people (babies, schoolchildren, pregnant and breast-feeding women andthe elderly) at the most critical times of their lives.
Over 1984-88 period, 29 per cent of the totallending of the ADB (US$29 billion) went toagriculture. For 1989-98, the allocation was US$7.8billion out of a total of US$52.6 billion, or 14.8 percent (FAO Committee on World Food Security 1999).ADB-financed projects have focussed on sustainableagriculture through new technology, institutions andinvestments that protect the environment. Of the137 projects currently under implementation,24 projects deal with agriculture and natural resourcemanagement and have a strong emphasis on resourceuse efficiency, environmental protection and resourceconservation.
Since 1992 UNCED, UNDP has been assistingcountries in developing integrated approaches tomanaging natural resources to improve livelihood ofpoor people giving priority to preventive approaches.The primary concern is to ensure that longer-termsustainability is not undermined due to attention toshort term requirements. Given that agriculture inthe Republic of Korea is one of the most chemical
intensive in Asia, UNDP promoted integrated pestmanagement (IPM) techniques through training atall levels including 4 000 farmers, which hadsignificant impact in reducing pesticide use. TheRepublic of Korea apparently became the first Asiancountry to adopt a pesticide and fertiliser reductionpolicy.
Joint action to strengthen regional food securityarrangements like those for the Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and South AsianAssociation for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) hasalso taken place. The ASEAN Emergency RiceReserve is perhaps the most advanced scheme, startedin 1979.
International research efforts continue toemphasize activities such as the use of traditionalcrops, agroforestry, balanced use of external andinternal inputs in agriculture to preserve theenvironment, IPM, Integrated Plant Nutrition System(IPNS), agrometeorology, irrigation management andwater harvesting, weed control, livestock systems,erosion control, and improved seeds and plantingmaterials. Donors support the research institutesunder the Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR) and regional researchinstitutions. In the case of Asia, the InternationalRice Research Institute (IRRI) and International Centrefor Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT) havemade important contributions to improvedagricultural technologies. IRRI is working on newtechnologies for flood-prone rice lands in South andSoutheast Asia. The International Centre forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) isimplementing a programme for the development ofintegrated feed and livestock production andmanagement technologies in Central Asian countries.The International Crops Research Institute for theSemi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is undertaking researchon IPM for pulse-pests. Issues related to increasingand sustaining the productivity of fish and rice inthe flood-prone ecosystems in South and SoutheastAsia are being addressed by the International Centrefor Living Aquatic Resources Management(ICLARM).
International financial institutions haverecognized the need to strengthen food security andpromote sustainable agriculture. However thisunderstanding is still to be translated into action.IFAD remains the only international funding bodyto devote 100 per cent of its resources to agricultureand resource conservation. The trends for the WorldBank and the ADB funding in this area appear to bedeclining (Table 10.10).
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CONCLUSIONS
Although significant progress has been madeto improve food security and promote sustainableagriculture within the region, there is evidence ofcontinuing food insecurity and malnutrition, withsome countries continuing to suffer cyclical famineor near famine. Available data suggest that the searchfor food security for an ever-increasing populationhas depleted the resource base and degraded theenvironment.
Per capita food production has increased overthe past three decades and the prospect is that it willcontinue to grow over next two decades and perhapsbeyond. Increases in yield and cultivation intensitywill continue to account for much of the productiongrowth, since per capita availability of land has beenon the decline. In absolute terms, many countriesare reaching their land potential while in others thecost of bringing new land under cultivation isincreasing. Land degradation through desertification,salinity and alkalinity and waterlogging is takingarable land out of cultivation. Shortfall in productionto meet minimum dietary requirements has beenfilled by net trade and food aid. The GreenRevolution induced the use of fertilisers andpesticides, which have contributed to environmentalpollution in many areas.
Community and national food securityarrangements are fragile while regional andsubregional food security arrangements are yet totake firm footing. Food aid and emergency foodshipments through the World Food Programme(WFP) and bilateral arrangements remain the mostpotent instrument to avert open food crisis andfamine. Pockets of vulnerability exists in most of thecountries of the region and the situation is likely toremain so over the foreseeable future as policyinitiatives to improve agricultural potential, preservethe resource base and improve access to food for allsegments of population continue to show mixedresults
FAO makes a number of importantobservations on the current and prospective worldfood situation (Alexandratos 1995). Population willgrow in the future but at a slower rate than in thepast and, although world agricultural growth willslow, progress will continue to be made in improvingthe availability of food and nutrition in Asia. Globaland regional food trade will continue to playimportant role in stabilising the nutritional status ofpopulations. Many countries will become netimporters of food. In many Asian countriesagricultural resources have declined to low levels andthe trend will continue. A consensus seems to beemerging that food security has to be addressedthrough poverty eradication and the sustainable useof agricultural resources combined with wellfunctioning markets and reliable food securityarrangements at various levels.
Actions need to be taken to identify newsources of food and diversify food consumptionhabits. Wheat, rice and maize will continue to supplythe bulk of energy, protein and vitamin requirementsand the production of these crops will need to bestrengthened through new varieties, intensivefertilization, disease control and irrigation. Greatersupport needs to be given to production, processingand marketing of sorghum, millet, barley, rye, andoats, root crops such as cassava, potato, sweet potato,yams, taro, manioc and oilseeds. Pulses and oilseedsare important sources of protein in areas short ofmeat and fish. Protein present in dry matter of leaves,grasses and waterweeds are potentially of highnutritional value. The sea and water bodies are alsoimportant sources of food and protein with thepotential of converting trash and fatty fish into fishprotein concentrate (FPC).
The key to realising these potentials issustainable and cost-effective expansion andmanagement of land and irrigation, crop protectionmeasures, mechanization, intensification, andproduction of livestock, poultry and fisheries. Forhouseholds without possibility of adequate
Table 10.10 Lending for Agriculture by the World Bank, ADB and IFAD (Current US$ Billion)
Source: FAO Committee on World Food Security 1999c
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production, access to food has to be assured byemployment and income and market supply. Futureprospects for sustainable food security in Asia andthe Pacific will depend on how critical policy andinstitutional questions are addressed. These relate toinvestments in agriculture and resource conservation,fiscal, commercial, exchange rate and monetarypolicies, world trade and aid, debt management, land,water and forestry reform, research and extension,markets, client participation, forewarning systemsand security reserves.
Food security also recognizes that the demandfor food increases over time (in line with populationgrowth) and that an increasing population will putincreasing pressure on land, forests and freshwatersupply. Therefore, the concept of food security mustembody the concept of sustainable agriculture sinceunsustainable practices will undermine food securityat all levels. The challenge for the region, and theworld, is how to achieve and to maintain sustainablefood security without undermining resources of foodproduction.
