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3/23/2014 1 Chapter three Laith Batarseh Mechanical properties of materials Home Next Previous End Mechanical properties of materials Tensile test Tensile test is a test performed on material to define its strength to tensile axial loads. The machine used is called the tensile tester or the tensile test machine. The main objective from the tensile test is to relate between the generated stress inside the material (due to the application of external loads or forces) and the strain (i.e. deformation) results from the application of the external force.
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Page 1: Chapter three - Philadelphia University · 2014-03-23 · 3/23/2014 4 Mechanical properties of materials Elastic region. We can conclude about this region:- the relation between the

3/23/2014

1

Chapter three

Laith Batarseh

Mechanical properties of materials

Home

Nex

t

Pre

vio

us

End

Mechanical properties of materials

Tensile test

Tensile test is a test performed on material to define its strength to

tensile axial loads.

The machine used is called the tensile tester or the tensile test

machine.

The main objective from the tensile test is to relate between the

generated stress inside the material (due to the application of external

loads or forces) and the strain (i.e. deformation) results from the

application of the external force.

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Mechanical properties of materials

Tensile machine and specimen

Tensile machine Tensile specimen

Mechanical properties of materials

Tensile test procedures

1:- chose a suitable specimen and put two gauge points on the specimen

2:- measure the initial diameter (Do) and initial length (Lo) of the specimen

3:- fix the specimen on the machine

4:- start to apply a tensile force (P) on the specimen for certain consecutive periods of time

5:- measure the deflection in length (δL = L – Lo) for each value of P

6:- calculate the stress (σ) using the following formula:

2

4; oo

o

DAA

P

7:- calculate the strain (ε) using the following formula: oL

L

8:- continuo until the material break down (fracture point)

9:- finally, draw σ Vs. ε to have stress-strain diagram

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Mechanical properties of materials

Stress-strain diagram of ductile materials

Ductile material is a material

needs large strain to reach the

break point. Mild steel,

aluminum, brass and other

metals are classified as ductile

materials.

The stress – strain diagram

for such materials is shown in

the figure.

Mechanical properties of materials

Stress-strain diagram of ductile materials

We can divide the stress – strain diagrams into four regions:

Elastic region.

Yield region.

Strain hardening region

Necking region

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Mechanical properties of materials

Elastic region.

We can conclude about this region:-

the relation between the stress and the strain is linear

if the material is unloaded, the material go back to its initial condition (i.e.

zero strain).

This region starts from the origin (0,0) to elastic limit.

There is other value of stress is in our interest: the proportional limit. The

proportional limit is the value of stress where the linear proportional region

end. This dose not mean that the elastic region end at this value but it will

continue until the elastic limit but not in linear fashion.

In many cases, its difficult to find the elastic limit so the yield strength

(which is the beginning of the next region) is taken instead.

Mechanical properties of materials

Yield region.

We can conclude about this region:-

This region starts from the yield stress (σy).

From this region the material enters the plastic region which means if the

load is gone the material will not return back to its original condition and

there will be residual strain (i.e. permanent deformation) in the material.

As its illustrated from stress – strain diagram, in this region no additional

stress is needed to continuo the strain (i.e. constant stress, incensing strain ).

In the previous stress – diagram, this region was enlarge to explain its

significant rule in our analysis.

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Mechanical properties of materials

Strain hardening region.

We can conclude about this region:-

In this region, the material struggles to strain.

The relation between the stress and the strain is none liner proportional

relation.

The material fight the loading until it reach its maximum strength (σu)

which is called the ultimate strength or the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

We can conclude about this region:-

when the material exceeds its maximum strength, the bonding between

the material crystal starts to break and a necking (reduction in the area) starts

to appear in it.

this is the start of the of the end of the material and the necking continuo

until there is no enough area to handle the stress and the fracture occurs.

Necking region.

Mechanical properties of materials

Fractured specimen

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Tensile test

Practical considerations

True stress – strain diagram

Due to the reduction occurred in the material in the period of the tensile test,

there is a value of stress is different from the one we assumed previously (P/Ao).

assume we have the ability to measure the area through the test ( call it A), then

a true value of stress can be determined (σT = P/A).

If σT is used instead of σ in drawing a stress – strain diagram, this diagram is

called true stress – strain diagram.

In many cases and because as engineers we design in the elastic region, we use

the first type of stress –strain diagram – which is called engineering stress –diagram

– to define the material properties. You can observe that both true and

engineering stress – strain diagrams share the same elastic region.

Mechanical properties of materials

Realistic stress – strain diagram for mild steel

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Mechanical properties of materials

Ductile and brittle materials

As said before, ductile material is a material needs large strain to reach the

break point. On the contrary, brittle material is a material can not hold a large

to reach fracture. Glass is one of the famous examples on such materials.

There is an important note about some types of ductile materials which is:-

there are some materials that have a stress-strain diagrams where the yield

strength can not be determined easily. For such cases, the offset method is

used. This method is shown in the figure

for the aluminum alloy.

Observe the strain value chosen for

the aluminum alloy (i.e. ε = 0.002 =0.0%)

also observe the line drawn from this

value parallel to the elastic line

Mechanical properties of materials

Percents of elongation and reduction of area

For ductile material

o

o

L

L fL

elongation ofPercent

o

f

A

A

oAarea ofreduction ofPercent

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Mechanical properties of materials

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law is a mathematical formula represents the linear relation

between the stress and the strain in the elastic region. Mathematically:-

σ = E.ε

The proportional constant (E) is called modulus of elasticity or Young’s

modulus of elasticity.

In addition, E represents the mathematical slope of the elastic line. So, after

drawing the stress – strain diagram, to find the modulus of elasticity, find the

slope of the elastic line. By mathematics:

Where:

σp is the stress at the proportional limit

εp is the strain at the proportional limit

p

pE

Mechanical properties of materials

Plastic deformation

As said before, when a load exceed the elastic region ( or enter the plastic

region) and then be released ( unloaded ), the material will remain with

plastic deformation or plastic strain. To find the value of this stain, we use the

offset method as illustrated in the next figure

As you can see, we exceed the elastic

region when the stress become 600 MPa

while the yield strength is 450 MPa.

Observe the line drawn from 600 MPa

stress parallel to the elastic line

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Mechanical properties of materials

Strain energy

There are some concepts related to the strain and the energy given to (or

taken from), u, the material when the load is applied (or released). These

concepts are: modulus of resilience and modulus of toughness.

Modulus of resilience is the strain energy density when the material is loaded

in the elastic region. Simply, it is the area under the elastic line. Or:

Modulus of toughness is the strain energy given to or taken from the material

through the whole loading period (i.e. until fracture). Mathematically, it is the

area under the stress – strain diagram. Such modulus is important when design

a member that may suddenly loaded over the elastic region.

Eu

p

ppr

2

2

1

2

1

EXAMPLE 1

The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making aircraft parts is shown in Fig. 3–19. If a specimen of this material is stressed to 600 MPa, determine the permanent strain that remains in the specimen when the load is released. Also, find the modulus of resilience both before and after the load application.

Page 10: Chapter three - Philadelphia University · 2014-03-23 · 3/23/2014 4 Mechanical properties of materials Elastic region. We can conclude about this region:- the relation between the

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EXAMPLE 1 (cont)

• When the specimen is subjected to the load, the strain is approximately 0.023 mm/mm.

• The slope of line OA is the modulus of elasticity,

• From triangle CBD,

Solutions

mm/mm 008.0

100.7510600 9

6

CD

CDCD

BDE

GPa 0.75006.0

450E

EXAMPLE 1 (cont)

• This strain represents the amount of recovered elastic strain.

• The permanent strain is

• Computing the modulus of resilience,

• Note that the SI system of units is measured in joules, where 1 J = 1 N • m.

Solutions

(Ans) MJ/m 40.2008.06002

1

2

1

(Ans) MJ/m 35.1006.04502

1

2

1

3

3

plplfinalr

plplinitialr

u

u

(Ans) mm/mm 0150.0008.0023.0 OC

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Mechanical properties of materials

Poisson’s ratio

When the specimen or the material is subjected to a tensile load, the

elongation occurred will results also as a reduction in the area (or the specimen

diameter). This reduction is also strain however, it is in the lateral direction. This

process is illustrated in the figure.

The relation between the axial

strain and the lateral strain by the

Poisson’s ratio (ν) which is given

as

o

o

o

o

long

Lat

LLL

DDD

LL

DD

/

/

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EXAMPLE 2

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3–22. If an axial force of P = 80kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The material behaves elastically.

EXAMPLE 2 (cont)

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

• The normal stress in the bar is

• From the table for A-36 steel, Est = 200 GPa

• The axial elongation of the bar is therefore

Solutions

mm/mm 108010200

100.16 6

6

6

st

zz

E

Pa 100.1605.01.0

1080 63

A

Pz

(Ans) m1205.11080 6

z

zz L

Page 14: Chapter three - Philadelphia University · 2014-03-23 · 3/23/2014 4 Mechanical properties of materials Elastic region. We can conclude about this region:- the relation between the

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EXAMPLE 2 (cont)

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

• The contraction strains in both the x and y directions are

• The changes in the dimensions of the cross section are

Solutions

m/m 6.25108032.0 6

zstyx v

(Ans) m28.105.0106.25

(Ans) m56.21.0106.25

6

6

yyy

xxx

L

L

Mechanical properties of materials

Shear stress – strain diagram

The shear stress – strain diagram is drawn where the shear stress is the

vertical axis and the shear strain is the horizontal axis as shown in the figure

As in the stress – strain diagram, there is elastic region in the shear stress –

strain diagram and the Hook’s law is applied in this region :

τ = G.γ

Where:

G is the shear modulus

there is relation between G an E and is

given as:

12

EG

Page 15: Chapter three - Philadelphia University · 2014-03-23 · 3/23/2014 4 Mechanical properties of materials Elastic region. We can conclude about this region:- the relation between the

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EXAMPLE 3

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in torsion and the shear stress– strain diagram is shown in Fig. 3–25a. Determine the shear modulus G, the proportional limit, and the ultimate shear stress. Also, determine the maximum distance d that the top of a block of this material, shown in Fig. 3–25b, could be displaced horizontally if the material behaves elastically when acted upon by a shear force V. What is the magnitude of V necessary to cause this displacement?

EXAMPLE 3 (cont)

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

• By inspection, the graph ceases to be linear at point A. Thus, the proportional limit is

• This value represents the maximum shear stress, point B. Thus the ultimate stress is

• Since the angle is small, the top of

the will be displaced horizontally by

Solutions

(Ans) MPa 504u

(Ans) MPa 360pl

mm 4.0mm 50

008.0rad 008.0tan dd

Page 16: Chapter three - Philadelphia University · 2014-03-23 · 3/23/2014 4 Mechanical properties of materials Elastic region. We can conclude about this region:- the relation between the

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EXAMPLE 3 (cont)

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

• The shear force V needed to cause the displacement is

Solutions

(Ans) kN 2700

10075MPa 360 ; V

V

A

Vavg


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