CHARACTERIZATION OF DIESEL EXHAUST GASES EMISSION AT
CONSTRUCTION SITES
NURUL ALIA HINTI SAAD
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Construction Management)
Faculty ofCivil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JANUARY 2018
To Hjh. Salahah Binti Yeop & Hj. Saad Bin Selayman@Sulaiman,
Thank you for your endless love, support and encouragement.
iii
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, praise and gratitude go to Allah SWT, the Almighty, for bestowing
on me with great strength, patience, and courage in completing my program of study
and for the successful completion ofthis thesis.
I am grateful and would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr.
Eeydzah Aminudin for her invaluable guidance, continuous encouragement and
constant support in making this research possible. I really appreciate her guidance from
the initial to the final level that enabled me to develop an understanding ofthis research
thoroughly.
I acknowledge my sincere indebtedness and gratitude to my families for their love,
dream and sacrifice throughout my life. I am really thankful for their support, patience,
and understanding that were inevitable to make this work possible.
My sincere thanks go to my dearest best friends, and all my other colleagues who, in
one way or another, have been part of the completion ofthis thesis. Many thanks go to
them for their excellent co-operation, inspirations and supports during this study.
I am very grateful to all the people I have met along the way and have contributed to
the development of my master project and I am grateful to my true self for not giving
up for this challenge is real. May Allah give us good knowledge that will lead us to
success in this life and the hereafter, Amin.
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ABSTRACT
Construction operations contribute to 6.8% of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions
globally, which is mainly due to the large number of heavy diesel-engine equipment
involved in the construction industry. The equipment pollutants such as nitrogen
oxides and carbon monoxide, endanger people's health and surrounding environment.
This paper presents the diesel exhaust gases assessment at two selected construction
areas located in Johor, The aim ofthis study is to analyze in detail the characterization
of diesel exhaust gases emission at construction sites. The three main objectives are to
identify the characteristics ofdiesel exhaust gases emission produced from some diesel
heavy duty vehicles, to determine the relationship of the exhaust gases between two
different conditions with different machineries age, and to compare the carbon dioxide
emissions produced with the standard guideline of the emissions requirements
recommended by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The exhaust gases
emitted from the construction machineries were measured by using Exhaust Gas
Analyzer. Once the analyzer has completed the warm-up, the sample hose is connected
and the sample probe is inserted in the tailpipe to measure the emission readings. The
relationship of the exhaust gases in different conditions with different machineries age
were analysed. The results show the increasing ofemission can cause by the increment
of machineries age and depends on working operation. The results also shows that the
recorded carbon dioxide emission levels for both machineries in Categories A and B
has exceeded the Short Term Exposure Limits (STELs) for only in working condition
with the highest recorded value of 51 000 ppm for Excavator B which exceeded by 21
000 ppm of the allowable STELs. Hence, it is a must to conduct regular check up on
the machineries in order to control the emission levels which can be consider as
concern of worry that may affect the nearby workers in terms of quality of life and
health.
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ABSTRAK
Operasi pembinaan menyumbang kepada 6.8% daripada pelepasan gas rumah hijau
(GHG) secara global , dimana sebahagian besarnya disebabkan oleh sejumlah besar
jentera berat berenjin diesel yang terlibat dalam industri pembinaan. Gas pencemaran
berpunca dari peralatan seperti nitrogen oksida dan karbon monoksida,
membahayakan kesihatan rakyat dan juga persekitaran sekeliling. Kajian ini
membentangkan mengenai penilaian gas ekzos diesel di dua kawasan pembinaan yang
terletak di Johor. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk menganalisis secara terperinci ciri
ciri pelepasan gas ekzos diese l di tapak pembinaan. Tiga objektif utama kajian adalah
untuk mengenalpasti ciri-ciri pelepasan gas ekzos diesel yang dihasilkan dari beberapa
jentera berat diesel , untuk menentukan hubungan di antara gas ekzos dalam dua
keadaan yang berlainan, dengan umur jentera yang berbeza, dan untuk
membandingkan pelepasan karbon dioksida yang dihasilkan dengan garis panduan
piawaian pelepasan gas yang disyorkan oleh "Occupational Safety and Health
Administration" (OSHA) dan "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"
(NIOSH). Gas ekzos diesel yang dihasilkan dari jentera pembinaan diukur dengan
menggunakan "Exhaust Gas Analyzer". Hubungan diantara gas ekzos dengan dua
pemboleh ubah telah dianalisis. Hasil kajian menunjukkan peningkatan tahap
pelepasan gas boleh disebabkan oleh peningkatan umur j entera dan bergantung pada
keadaan jentera bekerja, Kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa tahap pelepasan karbon
dioksida yang direkodkan untuk jentera-jentera di Kategori A dan B telah meleb ihi
"Short Term Exposure Limits" (STELs) hanya dalam ketika keadaanjentera bekerja,
dengan nilai tertinggi dicatatkan ialah 5 I 000 ppm untuk Ekskavator B, yang telah
melebihi sebanyak 21 000 ppm daripada nilai yang dibenarkan. Oleh itu, pemeriksaan
jentera secara berkala perlu dijalankan untuk mengawal tahap pelepasan yang boleh
dianggap sebagai kekhuatiran kebimbangan yang boleh menjejaskan pekerja di
kawasan berdekatan, dari segi kualiti hidup dan juga kes ihatan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENT vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF EQUATIONS xiv
LIST OF SYMBOL AND ABBREVIATIONS xv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Significance of Study 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Diesel Exhaust 7
2.2.1 Hydrocarbon 8
viii
2.2.2 Carbon Monoxide 9
2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide 10
2.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides 11
2.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission Sources 12
2.3.1 Embodied Carbon of Materials and
Products Used in Construction 14
2.3.2 Transport of Materials and Products to Site 14
2.3.3 Energy Consumption of Construction
Equipment 15
2.3.4 Disposal of Construction Waste 15
2.3.5 Human Activities 16
2.4 Type of Heavy Machineries at Construction Sites 16
2.5 Standard Guidelines for Diesel Exhaust 17
2.6 Factors Affecting the Construction Equipment
Emissions 19
2.6.1 Equipment and Conditions 20
2.6.2 Equipment Maintenance 21
2.6.3 Operating Conditions 21
2.6.4 Equipment Operations 22
2.7 Effects of Carbon Dioxide Emissions 23
2.8 Diesel Exhaust Emissions Control 24
2.9 Summary 26
3 METHODOLOGY 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Data Requirement 29
3.3 Selection of Location 29
3.4 Data Collection Period 32
3.5 Data Collection Equipment 32
3.5.1 EMS Portable Exhaust Gas Analyzer 32
3.5.2 Power Supply 33
3.6 Selection of Machineries 35
3.7 Data Collection Method 37
3.8 Data Processing and Analysis 39
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4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 42
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Exhaust Gases Emission Characteristics 43
4.2.1 Exhaust Gases Emission Characteristics for
Mobile Cranes 43
4.2.2 Exhaust Gases Emission Characteristics for
Excavators 45
4.2.3 Exhaust Gases Emission Characteristics for
Backhoes 46
4.3 Relationship between Exhaust Gases in
Different Conditions and Machineries Age 48
4.3.1 HC Emission of Mobile Cranes 49
4.3.2 HC Emission of Excavators 50
4.3.3 HC Emission of Backhoes 51
4.3.4 CO Emission of Mobile Cranes 52
4.3.5 CO Emission of Excavators 53
4.3.6 CO Emission of Backhoes 54
4.3.7 CO2 Emission of Mobile Cranes 55
4.3.8 CO2 Emission of Excavators 56
4.3.9 CO2 Emission of Backhoes 57
4.3.10 O2 Emission of Mobile Cranes 58
4.3.11 O2 Emission of Excavators 59
4.3.12 O2 Emission of Backhoes 60
4.3.13 Relationship of O2 Emission with
Other Exhaust Gases 61
4.3.14 NOx Emission of Mobile Cranes 62
4.3.15 NOx Emission of Excavators 63
4.3.16 NOx Emission of Backhoes 64
4.4 Comparison with Permissible Exposure Limit for
Diesel Exhaust 65
4.5 Summary 67
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 69
5.1 Conclusion 69
x
5.2 Recommendations 70
REREFENCES 72
APPENDICES 78
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 The Exposure Limits 18
3.1 Selected Machineries 36
3.2 Gas Analyzer Specifications 38
3.3 Accuracy of Measurement and Uncertainties of
Computed Results 39
4.1 Equipment Characteristics and Engine Specifications 44
4.2 Exhaust Gases for Crane A 44
4.3 Exhaust Gases for Crane B 45
4.4 Equipment Characteristics and Engine Specifications 45
4.5 Exhaust Gases for Excavator A 46
4.6 Exhaust Gases for Excavator B 46
4.7 Equipment Characteristics and Engine Specifications 47
4.8 Exhaust Gases for Backhoe A 47
4.9 Exhaust Gases for Backhoe B 48
4.10 Exposure Limits for Gaseous Pollutants 65
4.11 Percent to ppm Conversion Table 66
4.12 Exhaust Gases Emission Level in ppm 66
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Different Mission Profiles in Total HDV CO2 Emissions 3
2.1 The System Boundaries and Carbon Emission Flow 13
2.2 Factors Affecting Construction Equipment Emission 19
3.1 Research Operational Framework 28
3.2 Site Layout (Site 1) 30
3.3 Site Selection at Taman Daya, Pasir Gudang (Site 1) 30
3.4 Site Layout (Site 2) 31
3.5 Site Selection at CI Medini ION3, Medini Iskandar (Site 2) 31
3.6 EMS Portable Exhaust Gas Analyzer 33
3.7 Lighter Connection 34
3.8 Battery Connection 34
3.9 AC to DC Power Supply 34
3.10 Power Supply Used 34
3.11 Display on the Gas Analyzer 35
3.12 Installation of the Sample Probe into Tailpipe 37
4.1 HC Emission from Crane A and Crane B 49
4.2 HC Emission from Excavator A and Excavator B 50
4.3 HC Emission from Backhoe A and Backhoe B 51
4.4 CO Emission from Crane A and Crane B 52
4.5 CO Emission from Excavator A and Excavator B 53
4.6 CO Emission from Backhoe A and Backhoe B 54
4.7 CO2 Emission from Crane A and Crane B 55
4.8 CO2 Emission from Excavator A and Excavator B 56
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4.9 CO2 Emission from Backhoe A and Backhoe B 57
4.10 O2 Emission from Crane A and Crane B 58
4.11 O2 Emission from Excavator A and Excavator B 59
4.12 O2 Emission from Backhoe A and Backhoe B 60
4.13 NOx Emission from Crane A and Crane B 62
4.14 NOx Emission from Excavator A and Excavator B 63
4.15 NOx Emission from Backhoe A and Backhoe B 64
xiv
LIST OF EQUATIONS
EQUATION NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Conversion of 0.01 % vol to ppm 18
2.2 Conversion of 0.1 % vol to ppm 18
2.3 Conversion of 1 % vol to ppm 18
xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AFR - Air-Fuel Ratio
CKD - Cement Kiln Dust
CO - Carbon Monoxide
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
DE - Diesel Exhaust
DPM - Diesel Particulate Matter
EMS - Emissions Systems
FID - Flame Ionization Detector
GHGs - Greenhouse Gases
HC - Hydrocarbon
IARC - International Agency for Cancer Research
IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
LCA - Life Cycle Analysis
N2O - Nitrous Oxide
NDIR - Non-Dispersive Infrared Detector
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NOx - Nitrogen Oxides
O2 - Oxygen
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PELs - Permissible Exposure Limits
STELs - Short Term Exposure Limits
TSP - Total Suspended Particles
TWA - Time Weighted Average
WHO - World Health Organization
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Exhaust Gases for Mobile Cranes, Excavators,
and Backhoes 79
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
In Malaysia, construction industry is one of the industries that play an important
role in developing and enhancing economic sector and also the development of the
country. As the construction industry consumes of various materials and comes from
many sources, thus this industry may be considered as a threat to the environment,
especially in terms of emitting million tons of carbon emission annually, and as well as
the consumption of the natural resources. Among the carbon dioxide emission sources,
construction and building related activities consume a considerable amount of energy
and produce a significant volume of greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Li et al., 2017). Carbon
and pollutant emissions from diesel-burned construction equipment are also of
increasing concern for the government and general public. Many countries have made it
a legal requirement for construction equipment to be in compliance with a stipulated set
of emission criteria. In some countries and metropolitan areas, contractors have to
submit annual carbon emission reports, and the developers have to submit environmental
impact assessment and mitigation strategies in for large infrastructure projects.
2
Among all the emission reduction strategies, improving equipment
maintenance and operations can be feasible, attractive, and cost effective approaches
for implementation in emissions reduction (Fan, 2017). Despite the current efforts on
the part of Malaysian government to curb emissions, Malaysia is ranks 30th in the
world for the countries that have the largest amount of carbon emission. In terms of
sectorial percentage, 24% of total carbon dioxide comes from the construction sector
in the country (Klufallah et al., 2014).
Therefore, it is very important to analyze the characterization of carbon
dioxide in diesel exhaust gases emission at construction sites in order to ensure the
accurate, consistent and realistic quantification of carbon emissions at micro level
thus maintaining good air quality towards the sustainable construction.
1.2 Problem Statement
Due to the increasing number of construction project throughout the world, it
is logical that there was an increase in the carbon emissions, which is mainly from
the construction and building related activities. This grow would enhance the need
for having an effective mitigation plan and drive towards that as a requirement by all
the contractors and construction firms. There are many problems with construction
activities worldwide. One of the most critical problems in construction is the
emissions related to the fuel consumption during construction, which leads to
resource depletion (Marzuki et al., 2015). On the other hand, the fuel consumption in
construction produces a large amount of emissions such as CO2, and N2O.
Nowadays, global warming is one of the most important concerns worldwide.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) are generated from human activities like construction and
cause the greenhouse effect, which is the reason for global warming based on the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007).
3
According to Ricardo (2016), total CO2 emissions from Heavy Duty Vehicles
(HDVs) equal 241 Mt. Buses and coaches are responsible for a relatively small share
(14%), while trucks cause the remainder of 86% (207 Mt of CO2). A more detailed
overview of the shares of different HDV mission profiles is given in Figure 1.1. It
shows that the main share of HDV emissions are caused by long haul transport,
followed by regional, service, and construction. The large share for long haul is the
result of the high share in the fleet and the relatively high CO2 emissions per vehicle,
most likely caused by a relatively high annual distance per vehicle.
Figure 1.1: Mission Profiles in HDV CO2 Emissions (Ricardo, 2016)
Improving the environmental problems such as global warming is a duty for
human being to have a sustainable world in future. More fuels lead to more carbon
emissions and more carbon emissions is the reason for many environmental
indicators. One of these indicators is global warming which is a big concern in
current century because when the temperature goes up, many disasters can occur.
All of these issues highlight the needs of diesel exhaust gases emissions
management programs for construction companies and hence, this research is
conducted in order to analyze the characterization of carbon dioxide in diesel exhaust
gases emission at construction sites near Johor Bahru, Johor.
4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of this study is to analyze in detail the characterization of diesel
exhaust gases emission at construction sites near Johor Bahru. Therefore, in order to
achieve this aim, the following objectives are carried out:
i. To identify the characteristics of diesel exhaust gases emission produced
from some diesel heavy duty vehicles.
ii. To determine the relationship of the exhaust gases between two different
conditions with different machineries age of the machineries.
iii. To compare the carbon dioxide emissions produced with the standard
guideline of the emissions requirements recommended by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
1.4 Scope of Study
The research is mainly focusing on the characterization of diesel exhaust
gases emission produced from diesel heavy duty vehicles at the construction sites
which located at Taman Daya, Pasir Gudang (Site 1), and Medini Iskandar Malaysia,
Nusajaya (Site 2). In order to suit the objectives of the research, this research is
focusing on the diesel exhaust emissions among three type of machineries that are
used for construction work. The scope of this study is to measure all five exhaust
gases emission which are HC, CO, CO2, O2 and NOx emitted from mobile cranes,
excavators, and backhoes under condition tropical climate. The measured emissions
data are recorded by using EMS Portable Exhaust Gas Analyzer Model 5002. The
collected data are rearranged and analyzed through content and critical analysis in
order to determine its relationship between different operating condition and the
5
machineries age and thus to compare the carbon dioxide emissions produced with the
guideline of the emissions requirements.
1.5 Significance of Study
Measuring the diesel exhaust gases emission in heavy machineries within
construction industry will improve the quality of construction work. The study aim to
provide useful information regarding diesel exhaust emissions in specific conditions.
The research measure the exhaust emission emitted from mobile cranes, excavators,
and backhoes used in construction activities. The data from this study presents the
diesel exhaust gases emission produced from some machineries at the construction
sites.
Hopefully it will be useful for future research in comparing the emission level
by the machineries based on its working operation and also the machineries age, in
order to control the diesel exhaust emissions during the construction activities at the
construction sites. Besides that, the comparison of carbon dioxide emissions
produced with the standard guideline of the emissions requirements recommended by
OSHA and NIOSH is also determined in this study so that the parameters and results
can be used by the construction players to estimate the lower emissions of carbon
dioxide at the construction sites in the future.
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