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Types of Chemical Bonds
• Ionic bond = bond that results from attraction between oppositely charged ions (transfer of electrons)
• Covalent bond = bond resulting from the sharing of electrons
Metallic Bonds
= metal atoms in a delocalized cloud of electrons• Remember: metals like to give up electrons,
so no atom “wants” the free e-
Bonding happens on a spectrum
• Bonds are rarely purely ionic or purely covalent
• Remember Electronegativity (the ability of atoms to attract electrons)– Comparing the electronegativities of atoms
involved in bond, can determine whether bond is ionic or covalent
see page 161 PT for electronegativity values
Electronegativity difference of 1.7 or less = covalent
• Polar-covalent (0.3-1.7), – ex. H2O: H-2.1, O-3.5, diff = 1.4
• Non-polar covalent (under 0.3)– Ex. Bonds between atoms of the same element
are always non-polar (purely) covalent, ex. H2, O2, N2
Molecular Compounds
• Molecule = a neutral group of atoms that are held together by covalent bonds
• Chemical formula (molecular formula) = indicates the number of atoms of each element in a compound– H2O
– O2
– CO2
– HCl– C6H12O6
Diatomic molecule = made up of 2 atoms of the same element
Empirical Formula
• The “reduced” form of a compound• Has the lowest ratio
• Molecular formula = C6H12O6
• Empirical formula = CH2O
Potential Energy and Bonding
• Nature favors covalent bonding– Atoms have lower PE when they are bonded– As atoms near each other, their charged particles
interact• Nucleus is attracted to e- + - PE↓ • e- repel each other - - PE↑• 2 nuclei repel each other + + PE↑
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
• Bond length = avg. distance btw 2 bonded atoms
• Bond energy = E required to break the bond
Covalent Bond = overlap of orbitals where shared electrons live
How are they related?
Octet Rule
• Chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an octet (8) electrons in its highest occupied energy level (valence)
• F: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑__ 1s 2s 2p
• F: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ __↓
Bonding electron pair in overlapping orbitals
Example
1sH: ↑__ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3pCl: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ __↓
Bonding electron pair in overlapping orbitals
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• Hydrogen (1 valence) and Helium (2 valence) experience stability with only 2 electrons in the 1s-orbital (it is their highest and ONLY energy level)
• Boron (3 valence) tends to form stable compounds with 6 valence e-
– Ex. BF3
• Other elements can be surrounded by more than 8 e- when they bond with highly electronegative elements (like halogens) – This bonding will involve d orbitals In addition to s and p– Ex. PF5 and SF6
Electron Dot Notation
1 X Na2 X Mg3 X B4 X C5 X N6 X O7 X F8 X Ne
# valence e- electron-dot notation example
Lewis Structures = formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner shell electrons; only valence electrons are drawn
• Use electron-dot notation to represent molecules– Examples:
Structural Formulas indicate the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds, but not the unshared pairs of electrons
Types of Covalent Bonds
• Single bonds = result from the sharing of 1 electron pair
• Double bonds = result from the sharing of 2 electron pairs
• Triple bonds = result from the sharing of 3 electron pairs
Bond Length and Bond Energy
• REMEMBER: bond energy is energy required to break the bond
• Shorter bonds have higher energies and are harder to break
single bonds double bonds triple bonds
Shorter length
Higher energy
Molecular Geometry
= the 3-dimensional arrangement of a molecule’s atoms in space
Geometry and bond polarity will determine molecular polarity and intermolecular forces.
Forces of attraction between molecules
Intramolecular Forces
• Forces between atoms or ions that keep compounds together
– Ionic attraction– Sharing electrons
Intermolecular Forces
1. Dipole-Dipole forces = attractive forces between polar moleculesHydrogen-bonds (H-bonds) = type of D-D force
btw H and certain other elements H-N, H-O, or H-F
3. London Dispersion forces = attractive forces resulting from temporary dipoles induced by ions
Intermolecular Forces (cont)
Naming Covalent Compounds
• Use the prefixes based on the number of each type of atom and suffix –ide for 2nd element
1 = mono- CO = carbon monoxide2 = di- CO2 = carbon dioxide3 =tri- BF3 = boron trifluoride4 = tetra- CCl4 = carbon tetrachloride5 = penta- N2O5 = dinitrogen pentoxide6 = hexa- B3F6 = triboron hexafluoride7 = hepta-8 = octa-9 = nona-10 = deca
Only used in naming organic compounds
Naming Covalent Compounds
• Exceptions: covalent compounds containing hydrogen, e.g. – H2S (hydrogen sulfide)
– CH4 (methane)
– NH3 (ammonia)
Organic Compounds
• Compounds containing carbon– Hydrocarbons = carbon chain + hydrogen
– Carbohydrates = carbon + hydrogen + oxygen
Propane
Glucose
Naming Hydrocarbons
Consist of chains of carbon atoms
Name = prefix + -ane
# Carbon atoms prefix
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-
Ionic Compounds
= Compounds consisting of a positive ion and a negative ion held together by the attraction of opposite electrical charges
The overall charge of an ionic compound = 0The + and - ions cancel each other
Formula Units
• Molecules are the basic unit of covalent compounds (a molecule of water, H2O)
• The smallest unit of an ionic compound is the formula unit (a formula unit of sodium chloride, NaCl)
Crystal Lattice
= an orderly arrangement of ionsAttractive forces
btw opposite ionsbtw nuclei and e- of adjacent ions
Repulsive forces btw like ionsbtw e- and e- btw nucleus and nucleus
Lattice Energy and Bond Strength
To compare bond strength in ionic compounds, we compare lattice energy
Related to the energy in the bond = how tightly the ions in a crystal are held togetherRemember: higher energy bonds are harder to break
Molecular (covalent) vs. Ionic
• Covalent and ionic bonds are strong attractions that hold the atoms in a compound together
Molecules in Covalent CompoundsHeld together by intermolecular forces
Formula Units in Ionic Compounds Held together by attractive forces in a crystalline latticeSTRONGER
Molecular v. Ionic Properties
Molecular• Lower melting points(liquids and gases)
Ionic• Higher melting points(solids)• Hard and brittle• Conduct electricity as
liquids or when dissolved in water
• Many are soluble in water
• Some aren’t. WHY?
Types of Ions
• Monatomic = ions that consist of one element
Cl- = chlorideBr- = bromideNa+
Mg2+
Al3+
• Polyatomic = ions that consist of more than one type of atom
(CO3)2- = carbonate
(PO4)3- = phosphate
(C2H3O2)1- = acetate
(ClO3)1- chlorate
(NO3)1- = nitrate
Naming Binary (2 elements) Ionic Compounds
Cation (metal) comes 1st
– Element nameAnion (nonmetal) comes 2nd
– Element root + -ide
Naming Ionic Compounds that Contain Polyatomic Ions
• Cation (metal)– Element name
• Polyatomic ion– Ion name
Stock System for Transition Metals
• Some transition metals (Group 3-12) can form more than one type of cation – Ex. Copper can form +1, +2, or +3
• When writing the name, use a Roman numeral to indicate the charge of the transition metal ion– Ex. Copper (I) chloride, copper (II) chloride, etc.
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
1. Symbol for cation + symbol/formula for cation
2. Write the charges as super scripts3. Cross the numbers down to subscripts
Naming Acids
• Binary Acids = consist of 2 elementsHydrogen + a halogen• HF = hydrofluoric acid• HCl = hydrochloric acid• HBr = hydrobromic acid• HI = hydroiodic acid
Naming Acids
• Oxyacids = consist of H, O, and another nonmetal
H2SO4 = sulfuric acidH2SO3 = sulfurous acid
H2CO3 = carbonic acid
HNO3 = nitric acidHNO2 = nitrous acid
HC2H3O2 = acetic acid
HClO4 = perchlorous acidHClO3 = chloric acidHClO2 = chlorous acidHClO = hypochlorous acid
Assigning Oxidation Numbers
• The oxidation # for any uncombined element or diatomic molecule is ZERO
• The oxidation # for any monatomic ion is its CHARGE
• H is usually +1, unless it’s combined with a metal to form a metal hydride then it’s -1
• O is usually -2, unless it’s a peroxide, then it’s -1
Ex. Ba+2, K+1
Ex. Zn, Cu, O2, N2, Cl2
HCl (+1), NaH (-1)
MgO (-2), H2O2 (-1)
• In binary covalent compounds (nonmetal + nonmetal) the positive one is first and the negative one is second
• The sum of the oxidation numbers for all atoms in a neutral compound is ZERO
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the CHARGE of the polyatomic ion
Assigning Oxidation Numbers