Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and ... · Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons...

JKAU: Mar. Sci., Vol. 19, pp: 95-119 (2008 A.D. / 1429 A.H.)

95

Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and

Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of the Surface Waters for

Sharm Obhur, Jeddah, Eastern Coast of the Red Sea

R. Al-Farawati, A. Al-Maradni and R.G. Niaz

Marine Chemistry Department, Faculty of Marine Sciences,

King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80207 Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia

Abstract. Jeddah is the second largest city in Saudi Arabia with a

population of more than 2.5 million. Its coastal area is under stress

resulting from diverse human activities. The levels of some

hydrochemical parameters (salinity , pH and dissolved oxygen (DO),

nutrients (nitrite (NO2

–

), nitrate (NO3

–

), ammonium (NH4

+

) and

reactive phosphate (PO4

–3)), fecal sterols and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in the surface water of Sharm

Obhur, a coastal inlet north of Jeddah, during March and June 2008.

The distribution pattern of NO2

–

, NO3

–

and NH4

+

showed a general

increase of concentration with increasing distance from the entrance of

the Sharm in both sampling periods. In contrast, the hydrographic

parameters and PO4

–3 were decreased in concentrations with

increasing distance from the entrance. In the seawater in the vicinity

of Faculty of Marine Sciences area, relatively high levels of nutrients

were detected indicating a flow of nutrients through local effluent

from an experimental fish farm. The high values of NO2

–, NO3

– and

NH4

+

at the head of Sharm were attributed to restricted water

circulation, shallowness and sediment water interaction. However, the

concentrations of nutrients in Sharm Obhur were in agreement with

the values reported in the literature for the coastal and open Red Sea.

Concentrations of fecal sterols (coprostanol) and PAHs in Sharm

Obhur were very low during both sampling periods indicating that the

area is still far from being polluted when compared to other coastal

lagoons such as Al-Arbaeen and Reayat Al-Shabab Lagoons.

R. Al-Farawati, et al. 96

Introduction

The Red Sea is a semi-enclosed sea which covers an area of about

438,000 km2, a volume of 200-250 km

3 and a coastline 1932 km long

(Couper, 1983; and Edwards and Head, 1987). The coastal areas of the

Red Sea support mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds and diverse fish

stocks (UNEP, 1985). It is relatively young in age if compared with other

seas and oceans. The prevailing wind tends to be determined by the

north-east monsoon in winter and south-west monsoon in summer. The

rainfall throughout the Red sea is very low (Morcos, 1970). The

maximum quantity of rainfall is attained in the central part of the Red

Sea, due to collision of air masses of the northern and southern Red Sea.

The evaporation rate is high, especially during winter, due to the

presence of the Red Sea being in arid region. In addition, there is no

rivers flow in the Red Sea. This situation leads to increasing of salinity

that approaches value as high as 41% in the surface water of the northern

Red Sea. However, the salinity values reach 36% in the southern part due

to the flow of seawater from the Indian Ocean through Straight of Bab

El-Mandab (Morcos, 1970). The exchange of water through Bab El-

Mandab is the most significant factor that determines the oceanographic

properties of the Red Sea. The connection with the Mediterranean in the

north via Suez Canal can be ignored.

Major pollution sources in the coastal areas principally come from

either land-based or sea-based activities such as industrial wastes, oil

spill incidents, and domestic sewage; all can affect coastal water quality,

marine sediment conditions, and particular organisms, as well as natural

habitats like mangrove, sea grass and coral reefs. In Jeddah City, almost

at the central area of the eastern coast of Red Sea, the rapid economic,

social, and industrial development that has taken place during the past

three decades in conjunction with an inadequacy of suitable management

provoked a great ecological stress on the coastal aquatic environment due

to the presence of high level of contaminants. The most conspicuous

pollution impact on the marine environment is nutrient enrichment,

which has become apparent in many areas of Jeddah coast such as the

South Corniche, Al-Arabeen and Reayat Al-Shabab Lagoons (Hariri, et

al., 1998; El Sayed, 2002; and El Sayed et al., 2004).

The main organic wastes of residential origin along the Sharm are

composed essentially of food wastes. These wastes are sources of

Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 97

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, sterols etc. that increase the nutritive

value of the receiving water resulting in massive development of algae,

plankton and bacteria (eutrophication) that is the increase in the

concentration of chemical elements required for life. The products of the

mineralization of the organic wastes such as nitrogen and phosphorus

species and simple organic molecules are essential nutrients for the algal

production. These cause the organism to overpopulate to the point where

they use up most of the dissolved oxygen that is naturally found in water,

making it difficult for other organisms in the marine environment to

grow; the bacteria and algae are basically strangling other living

organisms. In addition sea water contamination may also result from the

presence of pathogenic microorganisms that can be toxic to marine

organisms and may threaten the human life.

One can easily visualize the severity of the problem if one examined

the global picture. It is estimated that 0.7 billion tons of sewage waste

sludge is annually disposed into the sea (Takada and Eagenhouse, 1977);

this figure is increasing paralleling the world population increase. In the

United States, it is estimated that about 8 billion gallons of sewage water

are dumped into the sea (treated and untreated) in the Columbus River,

Ohio State during the year 2004-2005 (Gomberg, 2005). Canada is

dumping 200 million liters of raw sewage into the sea every year

(McQueen, 2005). Mediterranean Sea is also being polluted both by the

Israelis and the Palestinians, about 500 million tons of municipal sewage

waste is dumped into the sea by Israel during the year 2008 (Liebermenn,

2008). Gaza authorities accept the fact that they are dumping 60 million

gallons of partially treated or treated sewage water into the

Mediterranean.

Fecal sterols are important biomarkers for determining the intensity

of marine pollution by municipal wastewater. Coprostanol (5β-Cholestan

3 β-ol), the principal human fecal sterols has been used as a sensitive

indicator for sewage pollution for the last several decades (Vanketsan &

Santiego, 1989). In humans, cholesterol is converted into coprostanol by

bacteria in the intestine. It is a reduction reaction, i.e. the 5.6 double bond

in cholesterol is reduced to saturated bond. It is then excreted as a fecal

sterol; about 60% cholesterol is converted into coprostanol. Since it is a

fairly stable compound and remains unchanged even after six months

despite anoxic condition, temperature and salinity variations; therefore it

has proved to be a good biomarker of fecal pollution, whereas coliform


bacteria may be destroyed by heat, oxidation or other processes

(Goodfellow et al., 1979). It was reported that the human excretion

ranges from 82 to 1272 mg of coprostanol per day (Mitchell and Diver,

1967).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemical compounds

that consist of 3-4 aromatic rings fused together; very few are 5-6 rings.

They are lipophilic i.e. they mix more easily with oil than water. The

larger compounds are less water soluble and less volatile. These PAHs

are one of the most widespread pollutants, and in this respect they are of

concern as carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic (producing birth

defects); their toxicity is very structurally dependant with isomeric

structures varying from non toxic to being extremely toxic. Some of

these are established carcinogenic as declared by the EPA of United

States. They possess a very characteristic UV spectrum and are also

fluorescent emitting characteristic wavelength. This property is utilized

in quantifying the PAHs by measuring the emission (310 nm) and

excitation (360 nm) spectra with respect to chrysene.

The inner shelf of the Red Sea is characterized by the presence of

numerous natural creeks (sea inlets); Sharm Obhur is one of them. It is an

attractive recreational area excessively urbanized and supporting dense

maritime activities. The aim of the present study was to measure and

quantify the levels of some hydrochemical parameters, nutrients, fecal

sterols and PAHs in the surface water of Sharm Obhur, to provide deep

insight on the impact of human activities on the water quality of the

Creek.

Materials and Methods

Twenty-four (24) samples were collected from the surface water

(30 under the surface) by using 5L Niskin bottle. Water samples were

dispatched in preconditioned appropriate sampling bottles that were kept

in plastic bags until returned to the laboratory for subsequent treatment

and analysis. Sampling locations were selected to assure a uniform

geographic coverage of the area, however, a particular interest was given

to areas suffering dense human activities, such as marinas and residential

areas. The sampling was carried out twice; in March and June 2008 to

cover two seasons: early spring and early summer. Samples for dissolved

O2 analysis were collected in ~ 250 ml BOD bottles and chemicals were


added in the field to fix the O2. Samples were then analyzed upon using

the classical Winkler method (Carpenter, 1965). The pH was measured in

the field using portable pH meter (Orion). The salinity samples were

collected in 300 ml glass bottles. Salinity was measured by titration of

seawater with silver nitrate in order to precipitate chloride ions as silver

chloride (Strickland and Parsons, 1972). The samples of nutrients, TDN

and TDP were taken into a preconditioned 1L Low density polyethylene

bottles (LDPE). Nutrients were analyzed according to colorimetric

methods as described by Grasshoff et al., (1983).

For fecal sterol and PAHs analysis, the water samples were treated

with 100 ml of hexane and 100 ml chloroform then shaken for 1 hour.

The organic layer was separated and dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate

and evaporated under vacuum; the final evaporation (~ 1 ml) was

completed under a stream of nitrogen. The dry extract was then dissolved

in a minimum quantity of chloroform and elemental sulfur was removed

by treating it with activated copper. The extract was saponified with 0.5

N methanolic KOH and the non-saponifiable fraction was isolated by

extraction with hexane four times. The hexane extract was dried (Jeng

and Haun, 1994) then subjected to column chromatography on silica

(top) and alumina (bottom). The column was eluted with (i) hexane (ii)

10% hexane –90% chloroform (iii) 50% hexane –50% chloroform and

(iv) 10% methanol –90% chloroform. The first fraction contained

aliphatic hydrocarbons, the second fraction contained PAH, the third

fraction contained some of the derivatives of PAH while the last fraction

contained the sterols (coprostanol is one of the sterols in the last

fraction). All the fractions were evaporated on a rotary evaporator and

finally in a stream of nitrogen. After reconstitution of the second fraction

in 50 ml of hexane the PAHs were determined measuring their

fluorescence intensity (excitation 310 nm and emission at 360 nm) (Law

and Whinnet, 1992) using a UV-spectrofluorometer (Shimadzu, RF-

5000). Standardization and quantification was done with respect to

chrysene.

The last fractions from the chromatography column containing the

sterols were also evaporated to dryness and converted into their

corresponding trimethyl silyl ethers by treatment with bis-trimethyl silyl

trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA ) at 80°C for one hour (Green and Nichols,

1995). The trimethyl silyl derivatives were repeatedly evaporated with

dichloromethane until free of BSTFA. Samples were analyzed with


internal standards, octadecanol, to aid quantification. The sterol

derivatives were analyzed by gas chromatography using GC-Shimadzu

17-A, using a capillary column 25 m long and 0.3 mm i.d. (Chromatopak

CRA-7). The temperature program was designed in two steps; initially 40

to 250°C at 25°C min–

¹ and then 250 to 300°C.

Study Area

Figure 1 shows sampling locations during March and June 2008 in

Sharm Obhur. Sharm Obhur is located at a distance of 35 km north of

Jeddah city on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. It is an attractive,

relatively narrow creek that extends a few kilometers (~ 10 km) inland. It

is narrow and deep (~ 50 m) at its mouth. The water temperature in the

Sharm varies from 23.45°C in winter to 31.62°C in summer and

generally increases towards its head. The salinity ranges between 39.1%

and 40.1% and also increases towards the head (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).

The tidal range is very small and variable (around 0.3 m) (Ahmed and

Sultan, 1993)

Fig. 1. Map showing location of stations in Sharm Obhur during March and June 2008.

Longitude

Latitude

39.08

21.70

21.72

21.74

21.76

21.78

39.10 39.12 39.14 39.16


The water depth decreases gradually landward reaching about 1-2 m

at its head. The fringing reef patterns of the coast continue into the outer

part of the creek. Furthermore, the Sharm forms a perfect natural

harbour. In the southern side, a corniche was built and developed by the

municipality of Jeddah. In few places, some of restaurants and marinas

were constructed. The northern side of Sharm Obhur is fully occupied,

mainly with private and public Chalets and occasionally with marinas.

Recently, more chalets were built in the north eastern side, on an

artificial area shaped by dredging and cutting. Between 1986 and 2000

the area of Sharm has been decreased by about 800,000 m2, which

represented an average annual loss of about 60,000 m2 due to filling

processes. In addition, the physical and chemical characteristics of

sediments appear to be altered as compared with those in the previous

studies (Basaham et al., 2006). The creek is subjected to extensive use by

public through many activities such as yachting sea skating and other

maritime sports.

The hydrographic properties of the area were studied by El-Rayis

and Eid (1997). Based on the vertical distribution of temperature and

salinity of nine stations in 1990, the authors reported that three water

masses could be distinguished: a surface water mass characterized by

high temperature and salinity ; intermediate water mass distinguished by

minimum salinity with core at 10-20 m depth and a bottom water mass

that reaches maximum salinity. This structure yields a two-layer flow at

the entrance; inflow of low salinity water at both surface and

intermediate depths and outflow of a more saline water at the bottom.

Sharm Obhur is the ancient course of Wadi al-Kura to the Red Sea

running NE-SW. Wadi al-Kura the only seasonal stream that once fed the

Sharm has been inactive and closed at the head by a bridge. However, the

Sharm is likely to receive water from the Wadi only during heavy rain

(Najeeb, personal communication).

The sediments of Sharm Obhur are rich in carbonate (~ 50% of the

sediment content) that generally decreases eastward (Basahm and El-

Shater, 1994). On the other hand, the organic carbon in the sediments

averages 1.2% which is relatively higher than those in the sediments of

the northern Red Sea and the coastal sediments of Jeddah (Mohamed,

1949; and Behairy and Al Sayed, 1983.


Results and Discussion

Hydrographical Parameters and Nutrient Salts

The level of hydrographical parameters and nutrient salts obtained in

the present study are presented in Tables 1 and 2 and their surface

distribution are shown in Fig. 2 and 3. The pH values in March 2008

varied between 8.16 and 8.31 with an average of 8.27. The lowest values

were measured at the head of the Sharm (Table 1 and Fig. 2). The pH

values during June 2008 were slightly lower than those of March 2008. In

June 2008, the average pH values ranged between 8.02 and 8.23 with an

average of 8.15 (Table 2). This makes the difference in the average values

between the two seasons of 0.12. However, the distribution of pH values

during June 2008 was more or less similar to those of March 2008 (i.e. the

lowest values were found at the head of the Sharm) (Fig. 2 and 3).

The average salinity of the Red Sea is 39.2% (Edwards and Head,

1987). The average values of salinity in the present study were 39.28%

and 39.73% during March and June 2008, respectively (Tables 1 and 2).

Fig. 2 and 3 show the distribution pattern of salinity in both seasons. The

salinity increased with increasing distance from the mouth of the Sharm.

This means that salinity increase accompanied water depth decrease from

50 m at the mouth. This underlines the dominant role of the evaporation

process in the distribution of salinity and the control that it represents on

water circulation inside the Sharm. The salinity values obtained during

June 2008 are higher than those of March 2008, reflecting the

predominant weather conditions that support higher evaporation rate in

June 2008. The average values of the present study are in good

agreement with the previous data (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).

The primary source of dissolved oxygen (DO) in seawater is the

exchange at the air-sea interface which brings DO concentration to near

saturation. However, biological processes may produce deviations from

this ideal situation. The surface water of the Red Sea is in fact quite close

to oxygen saturation; the concentration varied from a little under 4.5 ml/l

in the far north to a little over 4.0 ml/l in the far south (Edward and Head,

1987).

The DO concentration was found low at the head of the Sharm

during March and June 2008 (Fig. 2 and 3). The DO values in March

2008 varied between 5.46 and 6.41 mg l–1

with an average of 6.04,


whereas in June 2008 the values ranged from 4.94 to 7.50 mg l–1

with an

average of 6.24 (Tables 1 and 2). Although the average values were in

good agreement in both seasons, the variations of DO were slightly

higher in June 2008. Lowest value of 4.94 mg l–1

was measured at the

proximity of St. S23 close to the Faculty of Marine Sciences in June

2008. The DO average value of the present study was in good agreement

with the previous data of Sharm Obhur (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).

Table 1. The concentrations of hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved

oxygen (mg l–1)) and nutrient salts (µM) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during

March 2008.

Station no. Ph Salinity DO NO2

─ NO3

─ NH4

+ PO4

3─

S1 8.25 39.09 6.22 0.036 0.35 1.77 0.27

S2 8.28 39.36 6.22 0.032 0.29 0.46 0.19

S3 8.29 39.09 6.22 0.011 0.15 0.57 0.19

S4 8.29 38.95 6.22 0.024 0.25 0.37 0.18

S5 8.30 39.22 6.22 0.028 0.32 0.46 0.17

S6 8.29 39.22 6.03 0.056 0.38 0.57 0.19

S7 8.28 38.82 5.84 0.120 0.92 1.51 0.21

S8 8.27 39.09 5.84 0.036 0.15 0.26 0.13

S9 8.30 38.95 6.03 0.011 0.08 0.57 0.14

S10 8.31 39.09 6.22 0.032 0.33 0.44 0.18

S11 8.28 38.82 6.03 0.051 0.58 0.94 0.16

S12 8.26 39.36 6.03 0.060 0.50 0.88 0.12

S13 8.28 39.22 5.84 0.047 0.54 0.66 0.15

S14 8.27 38.82 6.03 0.045 0.28 0.48 0.12

S15 8.28 39.49 6.22 0.047 0.30 0.46 0.17

S16 8.24 39.49 5.52 0.060 0.34 0.98 0.12

S17 8.20 40.03 5.65 0.120 0.80 0.87 0.06

S18 8.16 40.03 5.46 0.184 1.61 1.25 0.13

S19 8.28 40.03 6.22 0.049 0.52 2.06 0.14

S20 8.29 39.49 6.22 0.054 0.14 0.85 0.13

S21 8.31 39.49 6.03 0.036 0.43 0.46 0.16

S22 8.30 39.09 6.41 0.017 0.03 0.57 0.18

S23 8.28 39.09 6.31 0.049 0.71 0.42 0.26

Min. 8.16 38.82 5.46 0.011 0.03 0.26 0.06

Max. 8.31 40.03 6.41 0.184 1.61 2.06 0.27

Mean 8.27 39.28 6.04 0.051 0.43 0.78 0.16

Std. Dev. 0.03 0.36 0.25 0.040 0.34 0.47 0.05


Table 2. The concentrations of hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved

oxygen (mg l–1)) and nutrient salts (µM) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during

June 2008.

Station no. pH Salinity DO NO2

– NO3

– NH4

+ PO4

3–

S1 8.23 39.16 7.50 0.045 0.11 0.61 0.08

S2 8.22 39.16 6.77 0.087 0.11 0.54 0.11

S3 8.21 39.16 7.14 0.043 0.06 0.46 0.11

S4 8.21 39.32 6.41 0.049 0.16 0.45 0.13

S5 8.20 39.32 6.59 0.011 0.03 0.30 0.08

S6 8.15 39.04 6.22 0.022 0.06 0.20 0.08

S7 8.15 39.32 6.95 0.065 0.13 0.60 0.06

S8 8.20 39.46 6.22 0.027 0.09 0.23 0.11

S9 8.16 39.46 6.04 0.011 0.05 0.24 0.07

S10 8.13 39.46 6.04 0.020 0.08 0.23 0.06

S11 8.13 39.46 5.86 0.065 0.31 0.46 0.06

S12 8.11 39.46 6.04 0.034 0.22 0.26 0.05

S13 8.15 39.46 6.40 0.027 0.15 0.22 0.06

S14 8.11 39.60 6.22 0.038 0.21 0.30 0.04

S15 8.14 39.60 6.22 0.031 0.19 0.49 0.08

S16 8.14 40.00 6.41 0.067 0.29 0.32 0.04

S17 8.05 41.43 5.86 0.128 0.93 0.34 0.03

S18 8.03 41.29 5.86 0.141 1.81 0.43 0.06

S19 8.15 40.28 6.22 0.065 0.32 0.59 0.07

S20 8.12 40.00 6.40 0.099 1.07 0.65 0.08

S21 8.09 39.86 5.67 0.038 0.45 0.54 0.08

S22 8.19 39.71 6.22 0.047 0.19 0.33 0.11

S23 8.20 39.71 4.94 0.110 0.78 1.07 0.25

S24 8.02 40.71 5.67 0.186 1.30 0.78 0.05

Min. 8.02 39.04 4.94 0.011 0.03 0.20 0.03

Max. 8.23 41.43 7.50 0.186 1.81 1.07 0.25

Mean 8.15 39.73 6.24 0.061 0.38 0.44 0.08

Std. Dev. 0.06 0.63 0.52 0.044 0.46 0.21 0.04


NH4

pH Salinity (psu)Latitude

NO2

(μM) NO3 (μΜ)

NH4 (μΜ)

Longitude

O2 (mg.l

-1)

PO4

(μM)

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

8.16

8.19

8.22

8.25

8.28

39.0

39.2

39.4

39.6

39.8

40.0

5.55

5.70

5.85

6.00

6.15

0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

0.09

0.12

0.15

0.18

0.21

0.24

Fig. 2. The distribution of some hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved

oxygen) and nutrient salts in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during March 2008.

NH4

39.0

39.5

40.5

41.0

40.0

8.00

8.05

8.10

8.15

8.20

8.25

pH Salinity (psu)

Latitude

NO2

(μM) NO3 (μΜ)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

NH4 (μΜ)

Longitude

O2 (mg.l

-1)

PO4

(μM)

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

0.03

0.06

0.09

0.12

0.15

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

0.06

0.09

0.12

0.15

0.18

0.21

Fig. 3. The distribution of some hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved

oxygen) and nutrient salts in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during June 2008.


Nitrate is the dominant form of inorganic nitrogen in seawater

(Chester, 2003). Therefore, it is the major nitrogen source for the marine

phytoplankton. However, in the presence of sufficient concentration of

ammonium ion, the marine phytoplankton would prefer to utilize

ammonium during the process of photosynthesis. It was proposed that the

new production of marine phytoplankton is mainly associated with nitrate

and the production through regeneration process (break down of organic

matter and consequently production of inorganic nitrogen species) is

associated with ammonium (Dugdale and Goering, 1967). The

concentrations of nitrate ranged between 0.03 and 1.61 μM with an

average value of 0.43μM in March 2008, while values ranged between

0.03 and 1.81 μM, with an average of 0.38 μM in June (Table 1 and 2).

During the two seasons, the concentrations of nitrate were high at St. S18

and St. S24 located at the head of Sharm which could be attributed to the

relatively calm conditions; shallowness and the isolated nature of the

head of the area (Fig. 2 and 3). These conditions suggest that, in addition

to the limited circulation of the water at the head of the Sharm, the area is

at early stage of stagnant environment. This hypothesis is supported by

the data of the other variables as will be shown below.

Nitrite is an intermediate state in the oxidation-reduction reactions

between ammonium and nitrate. The main metabolism processes of the

marine organisms which determine its concentration and distribution in

the marine environment consist of; 1) production during the oxidation of

ammonium by bacteria and the reduction of nitrate by phytoplankton and

bacteria, 2) consumption by phytoplankton and bacteria (Wada and

Hattori, 1991). The distribution of nitrite exhibited similar distribution

pattern as nitrate (Fig. 2 and 3). Concentrations of nitrite were high at the

head of the Sharm reaching 0.120 and 0.184 μM at Sts. S17 and S18

respectively during March 2008 (Table 1). The value at Sts. S17, S18 and

S24 were 0.128, 0.141 and 0.186 μM, respectively during June 2008

(Table 2).

There are several biological processes which control the

concentration of ammonium in seawater (Wada and Hattori, 1991). Its

importance is evident in oligotrophic surface waters of the open oceans

as it becomes the limiting element for the primary production (Thomas,

1969). The distribution of ammonium showed relatively some differences

with the distribution of nitrate and nitrite (Fig. 2 and 3). In March 2008,

high concentrations were recorded at stations S1, S7, S18 and S19 (1.25


and 2.06 μM) as illustrated in Table 1. However, high values were

observed also at Stations S1 and S7. Meanwhile the distribution pattern

of ammonium in June 2008 was not consistent with the distribution

pattern in March 2008, since the highest value was observed at St. S23

(1.07 μM). A peak of both nitrite and ammonium were encountered at the

vicinity of St. S7 during March 2008 accompanied with a peak of

dissolved oxygen. This behavior could not be explained by reduction

process of nitrate. The photosynthesis process is known to produce

dissolved oxygen and organic matter by marine phytoplankton. The peak

of nitrite and ammonium suggests excretion of the two nitrogen species

by marine organisms (i.e. zooplankton) (Wada and Hattori, 1991).

Relatively high values of nitrite and ammonium at the head of the

Sharm, particularly in March 2008, were accompanied with lower

concentrations of dissolved oxygen and pH. The oxidation of organic

matter could be responsible for the production of nitrate and ammonium

and consumption of dissolved oxygen. Another important factor which is

being involved in the oxidation process is carbon dioxide. During organic

matter mineralization carbon dioxide is produced and results in the

lowering of pH. Therefore, the lowest pH values may be referred to this

process. However, salinity may also have an important impact on pH

distribution in the study area. High salinity will reduce the activity of

hydrogen ion due to its impact on the ionic strength of seawater. The

relationship between salinity and pH is shown in Fig. 4 and 5 indicating

the reverse relationship between the two parameters during both seasons.

At St. S23, close to the Faculty of Marine Science, relatively high

values of phosphate, nitrate and nitrite were detected during March 2008

(Table 1). It is evident that there is a source of nutrients to the area at this

point. An effluent draining an experimental fish farm may be the source

of the excess nitrogen and phosphorus measured in this area. The high

levels of nutrients should induce the production of organic matter.

El-Rayis and Eid, (1997) calculated the flushing time for the waters

of Sharm Obhur, they found it in the range of 1-4 days. This indicates the

importance of water masses exchange between the Sharm water and the

Red Sea water in controlling the distribution and behaviour of

hydrochemical characteristics inside the Sharm. In general, in most parts

of the Sharm, the present data suggest eutrophication due to human

activities is still limited. The saturation percentage of dissolved oxygen


can be used to trace such phenomena. The saturation of dissolved oxygen

is equal to the concentration value measured in the field divided by the

theoretical value that is based on the solubility of the oxygen at given

temperature, pressure and salinity multiple by 100. Using hydrographic

data during March 2008, the temperature 28.09°C (data of temperature

not shown but were measured by temperature sensor), salinity 39.28 and

pressure of 1 atmosphere, the theoretical values of dissolved oxygen were

calculated which approached 6.28 mg l–1

. Therefore, the saturation

percentage of oxygen is 96%. The outcome of this calculation showed

that Sharm Obhur is almost saturated with dissolved oxygen. In another

word, the concentration of dissolved oxygen is mainly controlled by the

physical factor rather than the chemical and biological activities. If the

eutrophication impact is obvious in Sharm Obhur, it should result in

either oversaturation during the early stages of eutrophication or

undersaturation during the late stages of eutrophication. The overall

results of nitrogenous species in Sharm Obhur were found in the range of

those mentioned in the literature (Table 3).

The high phosphate concentrations are traditionally associated with

the discharge of different types of human wastes, domestic, agricultural

and industrial (Saad, 1978). The average concentration of phosphate in

March 2008 was 0.16 µM. The lowest value was 0.06 µM at St. S17 and

the highest one was (0.27 μM ) at St. S1 at the entrance of the Sharm

(Table 1). In June 2008, the average value was 0.08 µM, with a minima

of 0.03 μM at St. S17 and maxima of 0.25 μM at St 23 (Table 2). Our

results are in a good agreement with those recorded in the Gulf of Aqaba

and the Red Sea (Okbah et al., 1999 ),and in the South Corniche of

Jeddah (El-Sayed et al., 2004) (Table 3). The distribution of phosphate

contrasted with that of nitrogen species in the sense that it did not show

aregular concentration increase from its mouth to its head. As mentioned,

the head of Sharm is under the influence of intermittent flow during rainy

season due to the discharge of water from Wadi Al-Kura (Najeeb,

personal communication). We suggest that Wadi Al-Kura supplies

significant quantities of nutrients depending on the rainy season. The

quantities of nutrients from Wadi Al-Kura and the in-situ dissolved

nutrients are being consumed by the marine phytoplankton, and

subsequently deposited incorporated in the dead organic matter.

Subsequent mineralization of the organic matter will liberate inorganic

nutrients that will influx to overlying water. Accordingly sediments play


an important role in overall phosphorus cycling in shallow ecosystem,

acting both as a sink or a source of phosphorus due to the continuous

transport of chemical species across the sediment-water interface

(Adriana and Marcos, 2005). Therefore, phosphorus concentrations of the

water column in shallow waters can be buffered by sediments

(Martinova, 1993). It is concluded that the low concentration of

phosphate ion at the head of the Sharm is attributed to precipitation of

phosphorus to the sediment since the flushing time of the water at the

head of the Sharm is assumed to be long, as compared to rest of the study

area due to the limitation of water circulation. The fluxes rate, uptake and

release from the water column as well as their circulation are considered

as the main factors which control the levels of different nutrients in the

area.

Table 3. Comparison between the concentration of nutrients that were estimated in the

present study for Sharm Obhur and neighbouring regions.

References NO3

(µM)

NO2

(µM)

NH4

(µM)

PO4

(µM) Site

Edward and Head,

1987 0.03-0.20 – – 0.05-0.10 Open waters

Okbah et al., 1999 0.5-2.62 0.03-0.15 – 0-0.24 Gulf of Aqaba

Okbah et al., 1999 0.07-0.63 0.01-0.08 – 0-0.34 Northern Red Sea

El Sayed,

Unpublished 0.08-5.1 0.05-0.3 1.0-3.7 0.0-0.08 Al-Kharrar (Rabigh)

El Sayed, 2002 0.54-12.85 0.09-4.21 1.9-368 0.21-74 Al-Arbaeen Lagoon and

Al-Shabab Lagoon

El-Sayed et al., 2004 1.58 0.09 1.12 0.26 South Corniche, Jeddah

(April 2003)

El-Sayed et al., 2004 1.33 0.12 3.14 0.96 South Corniche, Jeddah

(January 2004)

Al-Harbi and

Khomayis, 2005 0.0-1.88 0.0-0.15 0.06-1.96 0.0-0.94 Sharm Obhur

El-Rayis, unpublished 0.70 – – 0.20 Sharm Obhur

0.5-2.7 0.5-3.0 466-1140 44-95 Al-Arbaeen Lagoon El-Rayis, 1998

0.1-1.8 0.1-1.0 33-869 20-43 Al-Shabab Lagoon

Present study, March

2008 0.03-1.61 0.01-0.18 0.26-2.06 0.06-0.27

Present study, June

2008 0.03-1.81 0.01-0.19 0.20-1.07 0.03-0.25

Sharm Obhur


Figures 4 and 5 show the correlations between the studied

hydrochemical parameters in Sharm Obhur. Salinity is commonly used

by chemical oceanographers to correlate it with various parameters in the

marine environments, especially at the land-sea interface. This idea was

used successfully by El-Sayed (2002) and El-Rayis (1998) at two heavily

polluted lagoons along Jeddah coast. The authors demonstrated that the

sewage effluent was the primary responsible for the pollution in the

lagoons. However, in their studies, the variation of salinity was high

enough to be used successfully as a conservative reference. Although the

variations of salinity in Sharm Obhur were very small in both seasons, it

is interesting to notice that the salinity correlated positively with nitrate

and nitrite in June 2008 (r2 = 0.56 for nitrite and 0.71 for nitrate),

indicating possible discharge of nitrate and nitrite from land activities

(Fig. 5). The obtained correlations during March 2008 were not clear

having r2 values of 0.26 and 0.19 for nitrite and nitrate, respectively

(Fig. 4). June is at the onset month of summer season at which the human

activities in the Sharm are expected to be high as compared with that in

March. The correlation of salinity with ammonium was found to be less

pronounced at both months (r2

= 0.13 in March 2008 and r2

= 0.03 in June

2008) (Fig. 4 and 5). Surprisingly, the phosphate correlated negatively

with salinity in both seasons (r2

= 0.25 in March 2008 and 0.09 in June

2008) (Fig. 4 and 5). Strong correlation was observed between nitrate and

nitrite during March 2008 (r2

= 0.84) and June 2008 (r2

= 0.75) (Fig. 4

and 5). This implies that they have the same source.

Fecal Sterols and PAHs

The levels of the different species of fecal sterols were estimated in

duplicate samples at each of the eleven stations from Sharm Obhur

coastal waters during March and June 2008, their averages were

calculated (Tables 4 and 5). During March 2008, the levels fluctuated

between 0.20-2.77 µg l–1

at station 23 and station 5 respectively with an

average of 0.88 ug l–1

for coprostanol. Epicoprostanol was not detected at

stations 1, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 23. There was an average of 0.04 µg l–1

for

epicoprostanol. An average of 1.10 µg l–1

was observed for cholesterol;

0.20-4.44 µg l–1

at station 20 and 5 respectively. For cholestanol the

concentration ranged between 0.02-3.11 µg l–1

at station 20 and 1

respectively. For total fecal sterols the concentration range was found to


be from 0.30 to 9.04 μg l–1

for station 23 and 5 respectively giving an

average of 2.93 μg l–1

for the total fecal sterols (Table 4).

Fig. 4. Correlations matrices between the studied parameters in Sharm Obhur coastal

waters during March 2008.

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

pH

8.10

8.16

8.22

8.28

8.34

r2

= 0.33

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

O2

(m

g.l

-1)

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

r2

= 0.12

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

NO

2 (µ

M)

0.00

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.24

r2

= 0.26

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

NO

3 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

r2

= 0.19

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

r2

= 0.13

Salinity

38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2

PO

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

r2

= 0.25

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8

NO

2 (µ

M)

0.00

0.08

0.16

0.24

r2

= 0.84

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

r2

= 0.19

NO2 (µM)

0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

r2

= 0.19

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8

PO

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3


Fig. 5. Correlations matrices between studied parameters in Sharm Obhur coastal waters

during June 2008.

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

pH

8.0

8.1

8.2

8.3

r2

= 0.61

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

O2

(m

g.l

-1)

4

5

6

7

8

r2

= 0.22

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

NO

2 (µ

M)

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

r2

= 0.56

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

NO

3 (µ

M)

-0.7

0.0

0.7

1.4

2.1

r2

= 0.71

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

r2

= 0.03

Salinity

38 39 40 41 42

PO

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

r2

= 0.09

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

NO

2 (µ

M)

0.00

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.24

r2

= 0.75

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

r2

= 0.19

NO2 (µM)

0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24

NH

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

r2

= 0.37

NO3 (µM)

0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4

PO

4 (µ

M)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3


Table 5. The levels of fecal sterols in (µg l–1) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during June,

2008.

Sta-

tion

PAHs

μg l–1

Coprostanol

(5β Cholestan

3 β ol) μg l–1

Epicoprostanol

(5 β -Cholestan

3α.ol) μg l–1

Cholesterol

(Cholest 5-en

3 β -ol) μg –1

Cholestanol (5

α -cholestan 3

β -ol) μg l–1

Total

fecal

sterols

μg l–1

1 0.91 ND ND 0.09 0.04 0.13

3 1.23 0.30 0.04 0.67 0.01 1.02

5 1.22 0.33 ND ND 0.14 0.47

7 1.92 0.30 ND ND 0.25 0.55

11 0.56 1.10 0.07 0.36 0.15 1.68

14 1.42 0.55 0.08 1.4 0.09 1.83

16 1.38 0.22 ND 0.21 0.02 0.45

19 1.27 0.26 ND 0.08 0.03 0.37

20 1.32 0.39 ND 0.59 0.05 1.03

21 .28 ND ND 0.40 ND 0.40

23 1.68 0.09 ND 0.09 0.01 0.19

Avg. 1.29 0.32 0.02 0.35 0.07 0.74

ND : Not Detected.

Table 4. The levels of fecal sterols (µg l–1) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during March,

2008.

Station PAHs

Coprostanol

(5β Cholestan

3 β ol)

Epicoprostanol

(5 β -Cholestan

3α.ol)

Cholesterol

(Cholest 5-en

3 β -ol)

Cholestanol (5

α –cholestan

3 β -ol)

Total fecal

sterols

1 ND 1.76 ND ND 3.11 4.87

3 ND 1.33 ND 2.15 2.65 6.16

5 1.62 2.77 ND 4.44 1.83 9.04

7 1.27 0.40 ND 0.99 0.52 1.91

11 1.11 0.45 ND 1.71 0.94 3.10

14 ND 0.57 0.23 1.33 0.57 2.70

16 1.10 1.13 0.16 0.88 0.21 2.38

19 1.73 0.47 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.66

20 1.00 0.31 0.01 0.20 0.02 0.55

21 1.17 0.23 0.03 0.24 0.05 0.55

23 0.30 0.20 ND 0.06 0.09 0.30

Avg. 0.85 0.88 0.04 1.10 0.91 2.93

ND : Not Detected.


During June 2008, the average of each of these constituents

registered 0.32, 0.02, 0.35, 0.07 and 0.74 μg l–1

for coprostanol,

epicoprostanol, cholesterol, cholestanol and total fecal sterols

respectively (Table 5). Based on the data of two months, one can

distinctly feel an overall reduction in the concentrations of the fecal

sterols from March to June. The levels of the present study were found

too less when compared with those obtained from the south coast of

Jeddah which registered an average of 7.70 μg l–1

for coprostanol and

fluctuation between 11.35 and 48.0 μg l–1

for total fecal sterols (El-Sayed

and Niaz, 2000). Literature survey indicated that sterols were in high

concentrations when the sewage was untreated (or partially treated)

dumped into the sea. In Germany, in the city of Bayreth, coprostanol and

cholesterol were found in the range 30-180 μg l–1

near the sewage water

treatment plant (Beck and Radke, 2006). Coprostanol occurred in high

concentration in estuary of southeast coast of Brazil. It ranged from 12.3

μg g–1

and 70.6 μg g–1

in water and sediments respectively ( Livia et al.,

2008). A group of Italian scientists studied fecal sterols and detected an

average of 34.5 μg l–1

of coprostanol in the contaminated samples (Gilli

et al., 2006). When the water samples were analyzed in the South Sea of

China, near the estuary, it was observed a maximum of 53 μg g–1

in the

surface sediments and 26 μg l–1

in the water samples near the estuary.

(Peng et al., 2005). A team of marine scientists studied the marine

pollution in the urban areas of Malaysia and Vietnam. They studied 59

samples from the river waters and a maximum of 13.5 μg l–1

was

observed in these samples. Their conclusions were that proper sanitary

conditions were not maintained in most of the urban areas of the two

countries (Isobe et al., 2002). Domestic sewage contamination in Iguacu

River in Brazil was studied, it was observed that coprostanol was in high

concentrations in 17 stations. It ranged from 12.3 μg l–1

to 70.6 μg l–1

and

they recommended that it needs immediate remedification for the

improvement of the situation ( Livia et al., 2008). It can be summarized

that fecal sterols were obtained in the present study in very low quantity

and consequently the intensity of the sewage pollution was very low; it is

not causing a threat to marine organisms or to the human health via sea

food chain.

PAHs were determined spectroflorometrically and quantified with

chrysene standards. During March 2008, the levels were not detectable in

three out of eleven stations and the rest were in small amounts. It ranged


from 0.30 μg l–1

to 1.73 μg l–1

(St. S23 and S19, respectively). During

June 2008 they varied between 0.56 μg l–1

to 1.92 μg l–1

S7,

respectively). One can see that these PAHs were not to be worried about.

If one can take an overview of the picture, he can find that the coastal

water of Sharm Obhur was still far away from pollution based on the

small amounts of fecal sterols and the PAHs found in the samples study.

Conclusion

The concentrations of nutrients, coprstanol and PAHs were measured

in the surface water of Sharm Obhur during two seasons; early spring

(March 2008) and early summer (June 2008). The results of the study

were compared to the previous studies on the same and neighboring

regions. It was found that their concentrations are in general, similar to

those reported in the coastal and open waters of the Red Sea. However,

the concentrations of nutrient at the head of the Sharm and close to

Faculty of Marine Sciences were relatively high if compared with the

other parts of the Sharm. The head of the Sharm is artificially constructed

through dredging and cutting to build private Chalets. The depth of the

water at the head is low (~2m). Therefore, this could restrict the water

circulation at this area. Also, wadi Al-Kura may carry some of the

chemical constituents during rainy season at the head. These factors may

lead to the accumulation of organic matter in the sediment that undergoes

oxidation and subsequently the diffusion of nutrients (nitrate, nitrite and

ammonium) to the overlying water. Phosphate at the head of the Sharm

was suggested to be controlled mainly by precipitation to sediment. The

concentrations of coprostanol and PAHs were found in negligible

amounts. Although Sharm Obhur is far away from being polluted, it is

important to implement good management system to protect it from

pollution.

Acknowledgments

The study was financed by KAU grant No. 253/428. We gratefully

acknowledge Al-Zoubidi Musa and Al-Halawani Ibrahim for their

cooperation to carry out fieldwork and analysis. We also acknowledge

the two anonymous referees for their pertinent comments.


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