Chirhsons uidq rhs AEk ose resme 303 6f rh6r joursy, rhsy 'temhed hs . w dr Famtr justdt rhs hour b,s monlle over rhe ea r trccompa nhd by h,avy iimLcai clouds whhh dk.hafgsd rhen w ery oppo !D'1y or bndins". PrcbablY lh8 1iav6lh, 3r rr's rase jourey 'hbuq,th6Bak- khal' oi lvhich rhe inre,io, p t or rho wearhe, prcve ed them tom iindiie aid rhey Ee,e'oblised ro p*s rhs nishr n rhe qrr." Nezr dry (he sxlh Julyl ddawo rhey dkmbqk.d aid 'whd road (thcy) propos-i 1o tolei, Ma r ode BDIed th 'lhs hu13 aloiq cDqu ry ,evealed quedloi 6s owins ro heavy G tr rhc dr..ms nom ths hillsw o s!ch voluma aid rolm iir su.h violsnr wal?r ion$s,hd even EhDhin6 coul4 nor rord r56m Thev w.Isadvhed the lafd 'dtrte oi Jllv 7, rhev bsumed rhen loumey ]hey !v,s rhey "decid€d 'o b.d ovc, {ho tEo leaoucs ups'eam m lhs roor Ithlikalyrhdrvla que aid his pa Yrakhs Eak khalr moved lf,land aE t'a. as Galan 3, pos,bly $! lin I mir o, Lft oivis.blitv ot ths an hor uril rhe €lephanb com6 uD' rhe elsDhanG, nowdah" 'tullv luhbhsd wnh ma(rcsses tuqs, aid clisionE anl wdll dosed in w h w.rcloh abovs aid cFalnson tlE sids." oi Julvs, whan rhey warB abour ro ra rhen inland iouhey, . man was rlqe,, as la,se as a youns b!11." Aftei a whll6, rha vicum wd rcscEd wirh svre hjd,ies in hk body.- rh* rheY had ro p.* ft w h ouns in haids, oco3sion3ll
Transcript
Chirhsons uidq rhs AEk ose resme 303
6f rh6r joursy, rhsy 'temhed hs . w dr Famtr justdt rhs hourb,s monlle over rhe ea r trccompa
nhd by h,avy iimLcai clouds whhh dk.hafgsd rhen w ery
oppo !D'1y or bndins". PrcbablY lh8
1iav6lh, 3r rr's rase jourey 'hbuq,th6Bak-khal' oi lvhich rhe
inre,io, p t or rho wearhe, prcve ed them
tom iindiie aid rhey Ee,e'oblised ro p*s rhs nishr n rhe
qrr." Nezr dry (he sxlh Julyl ddawo rhey dkmbqk.d aid
'whd road (thcy) propos-i 1o tolei, Ma r
ode BDIed th 'lhs hu13 aloiqcDqu ry ,evealed
quedloi 6s owins ro heavy G tr rhc dr..ms nom ths hillsw o
s!ch voluma aid rolm iir su.h violsnr wal?r
ion$s,hd even EhDhin6 coul4 nor rord r56m Thev w.Isadvhedthe lafd 'dtrte
in w h w.rcloh abovs aid cFalnson tlE sids." oi Julvs,whan rhey warB abour ro ra rhen inland iouhey, . man was
rlqe,, as la,se as a youns b!11." Aftei a
whll6, rha vicum wd rcscEd wirh svre hjd,ies in hk body.-rh* rheY had ro p.* ft
w h ouns in haids, oco3sion3ll
3091A H,sr.ry ot chinasono
wild aiimah ori rhs road. ' soaked by h6avy rah and -erporieicins sre dLff'culrymud" rhcy rea.hed a "culivaed openins', (he plaiihnc howeeirhs two hill Enqes) ar ;hout 4 o.ock. Thev did oor dae to
be Mo leasuos. Thsy en.ampsd ar lhe loori,shl oi rhar niqhr rhsy ws'a lashed by "a
day aid nrshr. Oi rha mohiiq ot Jtrty 12, ihey Eiched rhe
idenrited bv $eedi,106 or rho TGVels ,s Thela.dauns mounrars which ,oh rh.
and Assam tads, likinouo wtrh rhe srsdln Fais8. Ar rhe bds or oa 'rha,l*daune
prcbably ns rbubryi rhe Myo.ka..houno.oi July 17, rhey Raioo aid rca.hed Peroem
rhere rhem'ssonary n,eeu da rd hs fil:l
by Manrique in proleEics ro olhr buies,is noi d'lriculr b o@ss Tho laid roure riom Dhnq Lo rhs a6.
loasues lois. lr ustrrlly rok.s rwatvs0ov4 rh6 disctr.s or "rough mou ,inous
chk6sons und$ rho A,ak.ns$ rogimo l3l0
sw:mps. lo alli rheD w.rc as msnyrhe uBvallars ,,om rh !ihd. on5 w6rhese.rorieridm Didq or chi(aqois drecrlo MEtrk.u (Mrch+uns), which rook Eccodiis ro Man,ique, only "a fsw days"
Manriqus ii his ,eru joum3y rrom araktn rochftsons. Tho seoond was fio laid roure riom chihasois via
which wa! p,obably ued by Pfica Shuja inhk r,oi. fliohr ro AEkli. Iha rhnd roub.id rhomo*ha4-dous was rhat uaad by our sGemed kavst!4 Manrque uidondokhls mis6ion ro Aakai ro pacirv rhs khs and ro Blhin himlromsond is mkiis rorcas ro uprooi rho Po ususss ol chirrssons.
aLJ h.r'a 'Fourh,
rhr rFedd\'-a 4d a*'-of rho prlncipal[ies rhrough which he
6dlon I Doriu€u.3. ac.ivid.s tn chftr.sons durins!h.
^r6k.n€ss Bedm.
Tho Amk.nse ,uts ii chitosoiq wlissed rhe ponusu.$inllraroG, which i5 evident tn lhsn *mbl,shnrnr ot sotomonrsand jn rh8i' misioidry .s woll ae pnagcdl ocriv ri6,
skardar shah 0571-15e3 a D), kins or tudkan "was ravou-rebly dispoed hwads rh6 ponusuossr bs.atr$ lhe la sis bdhyal,o rtu T puE helped him in seinn
siva rhsm msiy racitiries fo. c ryf,s on r.dowlhitr hh knsdom; bur ihs Ia 6rh hishhaodadEs aid disloyatryro rhe Arakaiesa lv.ined rho sood Btaiioirhat had bEsn prcvaliis borw*n rhem, one ponusueso maEudsr,
souza Godnh!, bok up ams .saiid the AG.
'Knqs l6rcr" qr H J, p.3
20J, aho c6mpog, oD. d'.i p. 67
adruges erivi'3 in chiuasois 1312
rhe kins of Pon4al ol chiLLasois b6s€eda royal assir ro buld a Ponusuese lo n rhe potr row. of
rhs lhs ol Po trsalrequ6Ls ol th6 Po uqu*8. The khs also ,uhed down thsPon4ueso ptEn rho tuakaneso kiis.The kiis of Ponrsalsubjods ro ayold an med conflcr wLh iho Iocal ptuc€s tsnd
ro bs p%ceful serlsE.r c'mpoe howevar, r ndsfsulwirh rhe Pc..lhsarsfa.rioi on rhe nesli-gov nm.trr rhar raled ro
2 Th6 .oncl,dton Eachod bsrw6ei fte A'akaicse aid rho Po rsless
Lhlaw cold wde' on rh8 pEposl.
From rhe beqmnins or his rclsi. kins solrm Shah I (1593-
1612 A D) re 6d
welldisposed rowdds rhem rhar m 1596 A D he hmtued rhe
rhBs Dsce .r rh6 durhs rhdrthsy used roEv 3
Iha Potuquese pi icioardn in rhe Ahkaiese klnqs PBsu
Tha ki.s or Po usal i hs le er ro rhe vi.eroy or Po usuesew.ora thd A o o
do sous. Godinha osined rho ro or chdrsro by rorce ol ahsolfore (p milinq Lho Ponu
ouese) to bu ld ,o re$sshotrld be accspred
aid ir wlll bo enorsh ro ruinrain wirh h'm sood I ond6hlp,"H l, F. 203r ale campos, op, (t, p.75
,,Li la did rtu kis kiow th it ths Podusuese had ascrsd
rons in chilEgons aid ai.kai rhay misht h3v6 d6fi3d rh6(iio or Arikin oi laid as rh6y del6d his IlsG ar s6. in rhe
consranr drussler ih aros ln rho no lew yods,
'Klnss loto., q( H , p, 7,"33
Pdnuouce ac'iviL as ii Chiilasoos | 313
sxped rron (15es A D) 1vd rew d.d vJirh coacesson and p,viloss.
Gu€trBi'o wiLes: Almst all lho po (or ch{rasons) has b.sisiven ovs, 10 rhe lile rhere, aid ro whom rh6
(ins h vory w6ll-inclned, as thev haw assedhlm in his w!8,aid havs beoi ol snho ro him ii msiv orh$ wavt. To 6om6
o, rhem ha ha. slvens(peidsomor iiglo finry rhoNlnd crus-
.dos a ha hssdockred hk inron oi or makns oo0 ol lham
b$rlrr ,h. rwo m'$iondlos,he would e aiss lor $eft manr&
them allowame which ha would doubls rhs
Th*s concesions wirh an immone
ihen i3val basos
acco,dno to Guareno, Lha Pontrqu€56 iavy oi
I rreisrh ths Pontrgues che shed
b ba rhe und'spued mane6 of all ftc po s of Beigala 6nd
rn the bsqhiiiq ol the sevenb.nLh ce ulv, !h6 kland olsaodw'D was bDitrq ruled bv kda' nn, ch Br or B3kL Thasre-
dual Mlsh.l e:panslon Binsal rhrc etr8d his
.oitrol ov rhe sland and rc.ordis ro iavdlllah, ho evenru.llY
losr it io them.s ,ho lor looo had an 6vd on
rhis ch slaid rook advaftse ol this stu ion"6 Domrso Car
'o{ vJa Po Lqleta h Bs' !l or ovai ii
6 liay ullah, Ta,i[h.]-akbflormJ, qr E D,
314lA Hsrory ol chiLGqoiq
lndD," and who "was i the soruico of xs&r Fai,-l -rhrcw
of $en brll3ir seivicss, rho kinsof Ponuqal creaEd c valh. aid rrra oi Fidnoos da casa Rsal(i o rha noble, and bes,owed oi rhem rhe
Tha conqlB* olnoso moi ch alirmTho Muslim cou e6 o1 ackai, as sGred by Gu6 e,o, cau[oied
.) Tho Araitaaess k ns dGparched1602 A D, s lleot ro drva our rh€ po usurechef dronshold, l(ccar fiaj, chjef of Bdkla,
1oin6d ths khssot sc6nt ol rh6 mpei.l is aftck look ro rh:n shps and saitsdorl wirh all $cn could nor r.co rh6 sidmyt€nohous lorces. ihose of ch trtrsoig also besrn bescaoow Lhrtun mo$ prccioos
1
)btd,
Gunrtrq p, 195, scB allo iuprq p,240
Po uguee activirid in chitbsong |315
ot chiri.qons,"1 Thaiolnr atrack complotalv rdulcd ths Po usu6s
naw, Man@l da M.nos, fta Po uouese capEli of Diais esdped
wirh his llcer ro saidwp The Po (su6e
upoi the A6kaneso, on Nolombq 10,
ca alho ioio y mado a ds$o upon chi(ta3oio and d6rrcwdfi'Arek.tree iauyanchoriiq ner Lha po Thc sove,nor or Chitraooiq
who wqe rllled ii th combd lhs Ponusu'
esd, how.vs, dled ior Lo c5p1ur. chnkqois immedilElv'
when lhs news of the Ponusu*s mid o! Chirrasons was
cornunic.bd ro Lhe AEkaies' kiis, he hunGdlvse'ran iiforc6m0nr
ruhcd his atenlioi Io ths Po ugu'He disDamEd an !no'm.us rls6l to Sandwp,
wdn ? Pvrhlc vl.Lorv nBvY, aid dhpmed
oi nHrcal acriviLies. 0n ,hs iurrloriry of Gu reno,lr 6 k'ownlhri ono Portusues .aphn aamed Basuan Goncaluez4 who in
His aiqllcizsd iamr is Srb*tan Goizalsn ivo or rhevillaoe or S. A oiio delTozel, ner Lhb.o ando
"m.n.lcbscraexmdion"ror lndia aid otr his , val tharo w?nt tu Brnsal, whera hs t'steNed :s a souio,, "b prc5rblv thG prolD$oi did nor uriouIwcll. "subscquanrly hcombarked in tha srlr tads, bv mdans
olwhkh hs made.uflicisnr to DurcEss asalla (a sftll vessl),
in whth hecir ed a calgo or 6ah to Dlanoa" (Danvds,0P dr'$0. Bs ' I'od Acrodins
ll6lAHlsro,y ol Cx n.sois
@mbindiloi wilh sehhin Godnh:, 'mads h mselr s,.dly laai€d
ii fide oa s ddsc.DdBdyrd ir" li ihcr$3ulr, ho r.aptr:d srly pie.es ot a ll€iy'1Ns D ed oi simhrd{tucrlva acLuiies ii rhe r'.diac€irv'Uases
He 3lso "incnded to do I ks.wis ro th.lo res dch isar",3 uur to w* .."t"a oy mrolloweE ro whom -rhe saux world ba a vs,y porlous alfan.'4The Po'tusEse wss "unwillns ro rsk Lheir llvcr's Ii rho wa'
who -nor bern! rivolcbly dspDropo$l ,id,p6,surded obled io, whch hod6srd
'o ob :r po".s-,o,
bL &ir:!6 nm .,r q .iiqdo-.'
16 c!siiaib, he, in collabororidi wnh Bel.hio: Godinha, mvassdDi:nq. H' a..ompEnhd seb:n an pnro as a leulsn.nr drinqrhe 6i6qa ol SaidwlD AtueNads. he be.ame16 iideo.ideruIe,. ses ruDrc, p. 2a5j aho ses adni,, p. 173
7 D,nu.,t "p.
dt., ,'142
Po usuese acrivirios i Chi'bqons | 317
upon his khqdom, rhe Amkanes3 kin! ord3red a sen*al m63i.rc
batuarclslv c ,ied Poruqucn: Ion tharlives rn rh cold bloodedwdods. wh'ld othe6 mnaoed ro ,ea.r r5en ve$3b and pd our r.seo, am.ns{ whon lvas s.bdho Goi?ales 41
Ths deaih ol Nratr$l ds M ros, ,,lord or srndtva tshnd, n
ndep.nd!n1 Mrslim p, nc pal iyPo rqu6a. h a d'ivo a! d riem h€ pur
all ,h: chrish)i ihab('nb of rh' i:hidrl d.rh. Mon or rheand sdidwip f,!$i ss c.3ied ro Bakb 3id
fom uidq rhe a'rr or rh. Raj: or
ri, fier.e iavil snsrs.m4nl Faraxhan waskll:d by Lho Po uquse, cormanccd bv sotranhn Pinro Thssallant senecl u6.
Th6 Po{usuesr scbcbd GoiztsLs 6s a3n chnl coiz les
Eakla) rhai hs should recaive halr rhc revenues ofrhe htand ir h6would asskr ii rikms , (s,nd!vp).'3 The [hs of Baklj, accordhsly sEDr lome shies and rqo huidrcd hdse. 'ey Mnch, 1609,Gonznos ,ound 5im:alr toay n.t and 400Ponusue$ w h wh,ch hep,o.eeded ro rtr,ck rhe strd " 4 He rhetr
rh: clat:iame Brii.alD? in rDaiv s Io.arcs on rhe wcyq,
3nd id8iired w nrodeh Bharkt onrhe Maltrbar co j. so tur as the m.ssnr irradon scoic*n.d,ths pla.an3he E rcaloa s pos blv rh. wroiq,iprcdu ion
313 rA Hkrory or chinaqono
o, a s:ll.ii doteice by ths Mtrslim$ ThsPo !su,sa, rheicsroMad, ,ebli edin E very ctu6t miis,. AIIrha Muslim nhablkds ol irro istandi a rhousand in iuhba, wsrs
said\,tp m ked rho calminaroi o h6 ponu.. r39.o,. -oo qo..uruc."codtd,o,co.crvs
oi 'he
g(id EoFd ot.o,qtre,ino rh6 wlbl, e6 sn coad oarhs say of sdsal wnh chtrtasons aid Pesu rs bases to, rhsn
Seha iin conzil4s iJled hG htaid kiiodor.!ai r'indeosid6(sove,eisi 3 aid oi,aii,ed a soynimei! ol his own I kins. Burh6 Flicy.doDred by hG rhe policy ot rhs ptui
allesianc. ncfte,ro rh or cDa. coozates ako ptayod rho
rhB 'slaid
wer6 arfi's( sm sd lads rheis, hurrhesconzlas s!5sqrc ly rook
iho khe or 0 ri.,loa ( ? srktrj halr rhe rcveiuas o, rhs klandas hati been asreed
3 sonaror darsT ro r5o Araklnesi K ns. rn rhe earty p rofrhoyear1615 AD, thaar:krnDrcltrids,oororhe sli^dof saidwip. -Gooza-les louid hiDltf iow h 3 pre.arious posnioit ond behq in ieed
to' aid "6 "Hrotrded rh if rhr Vcsoy vrodd orre.ralty sup-po him ie l,ould b3come njblr y ro poruoal, aid pdy a satteon
3
Ioad or rico yearly in .ckiowhdqehoro b5 dslive,ede(hfl aiGoa or Malacca.&d $ "aI he hsd done was rc .vsnsa
( led by e IED)anqa.-2
Po usuese acdvi[es in ch(asono j]O
Goiz,16s, dopaalsent a rleer uids rho cohmaiil ct DomFoxo, who atrvad Ahr.n oi ocrob 3, 1616.3 Tho Areka-i8s kiis ii rh8 meadims, mido ai aliiica wirh rho Durci, rhschiof comps oE on Ocrob 15_ rh6iohr Arakaness d Dur.h rleer tauiched
loE .4 Ttre naval eisaqemeii rhar rolrdwsdinll dsd orear lcsswas k lled by a muskq balt. caspdr de Abreu,anoJer ponleues
wotridcd did d,€d a Jew dar laG,,ssoris $6 revecss, Gon*tes "Dom Luiz de Azevedo who srcc€aded Menezss noxo wilhdrcw$€ ned alDserh.r and dned b saidw,p. ArieBard, h6 larllo' oo ,ni,s rhs \up@1 ard p,oEdion
FrudEred hy rhe d.1mr, c ares r.Lumed b saodwtp br
Ih6 arakai€ss coplurc of sandwp n 1616 A o sh(tsfd rhs
in rhis rcsion. Tha portusue$ detoar, a.cordns ro Daivsd -end6drh6 coireclion or rh6 Ponusu6so wrh rhose p rEj aid Oosrna.
320 | a H,sro,v or ch ksois
ordin y lrh1ory of sebirko Goizalea Iib:o'lEeiis ro'Bd ro Ldra saidwip, Goiuales rook rcruse aL srptrr.
Bui sve,ybody htsd ha dor hh iolorous iam Bnd iobodtrrhere.lorc, c@d ro orrer hlm shelrd lhus h6unLiio nom ph.B ro p1r.sha ull maroly pa*sd ii{o oblNion BoIh hk tueaid ilrl weehEqy,H6 lvsd a very inGchivous bur advedurous Iira uipaiolhkd inrha hisro,y or rhs ol hs tr€,chcrcus acts
rhe ddkes, bloE'2 Fadr y souzs dispdE-
sinsry rcma,ks: 'His $@ssLy pascd !(e a shddow, hhpridswrs humblad and hh vllhiiies ptrn'shed,'r
asaulr or rhe poiruouese basee $srowE orhe, tacLore
lhE rcgjon, rha uiion ol 'he
clowm of Po Ugal
noi iovolwd Po uq:t tn a hosIlirywlth ths Durch 6nd rhe Enslhh w h whcm
was $ef atlaudand this caused
and ov seas colonios. rr 1603 A o, rhe Arakrieso psm trod fi6buldfo ,rcarions
$en he,o ro drv.elsewhsrc we,e Loo heavy ro accspl rrrs olrdr.4
ln 1615.16 A D Lre Durch deriitrelv cam Io help rE Ahkais$ inariackiis rho Po usu*e nro ai open .kshwi,h iha Ponueuee. campos approoriarsly rema,ks, "Tha ev€
( ls' rl -r or o' 5r r ^
aqo ro"Le).,,eal"d r . L e or qoto'._r
2,)
F ia o souza, ll ,263, qr /,{ s 3, N l,Ba oloms coisalBs
and h bed'l whlle rhe t veller was1630 A D (r, rgk, r, e2).
HaMy in ..itids. HEary ofh,tlo, tvll
in chirraqons | 321
in chirboros a. oh.(has wa,e no less evldsir, Ah3ollLa w.iror dh.plhe and laiily or mocL conklburad sredly 'o
lha doc-
liiB ol rhe Ponugusso polvsr. 'Tho Podusuese , wrlre Bevohndryhnnl.al in ii.dins with lho n jv6,.,No
beroE rhs Po usuese '1 Thi.aicired indonalion ot rho
na:ive ruh6,saiisihem aid tho Arakaisebsoan ro lhow favourro rhB Durch ln [a.i, f6udu)ence, p]lndsdis aid hishhaidedis$
PotusuesDtads in rh6 poft .l chiGqons. Bsr
1 . d.dY ol rhsi
Iaityasc,ibable ro rh6ir mhdeeds."2
The Mlghal conqucd ol chtaqoio cdmpkr.d rhe ruii otrhB Po ucuese inrllBros in chirrasons. All ihsr GiiiLo al aidr6de lac LLes thaL they oiroysd undd rhe Arakan66 rulo
wd bIs dstond.d o/a srodq Muqhal sa ison. HcnceloMad, rhe Ponusus$ 6.ssdro bs an iidoFnds and assrs*ivo powon Thsy wqeomployed
D,lm ly as h ed soldiere "Ihe Eerqal
Ninraln chrh atr troops mo* probsblv Po ugussB at chirasons176C.61 whon rLro dis cr wtu hdtrded ovo,
Portuslo.e tr6clic. ol Pkacy .hd ll.v.
slavery and .laE trade in chiuaqons oxsted simulraisu.lywirh thos6 slsswhda ii rha subco ined 8ur rho phdh6 ofdavsry and slavo rcd' did .ppea, in iG wore( roh wnh lho
I Fsv. Lois m rho C n, ll (1332), 35
Abdul Mliid Khan, Ih. rftrsnbr tn B.nedl, p, 3
322 I A Hislory or chi,looiq
3
pon!su*a adiviries in chirhsons | 325
s)aves or [hcn uih3pDyyJh ev could ior ba .movedjrrinucciqives ft6 sama desuiprjon
and th,ew rhem inro $esoa2
loo r r1s r.ov. lrrnr 6,p"dirior olhh compai'oB rs lol6w!F . (io Bsns;l) rhey(re pirares orArBkan chidasois) wouldsrck aid derroy alllhev'lhqDs ard sdrlcme s on rhs baiksol rh6 Gaisas, ro . dtsEice or rwo o, rhree hasuss upn,sam,oid besldes remov io atl rh6 hosr vatuabla rhhss rhey fouid,would alsc hko caprivs any p2oplo wnh wiom thoy crme
From rhe above n raLton rcan bs conctrdod rh rho Fiiisipna@s hok a leadiis pa in rhB slavs hu ns 6:pedirtois, !trdrho pa icparon ol ,ho Arkane€. in su.h sxpediriois was oimuch le$ scala
324 | A Hisrory ol chirksons
Tho Emopean tavsllss, such as Mairiquc, Ednier, aid Manucciumnino6ly da rh il was ths Po uoueso Ftrads who rook rhahadlno pan in plurderns fts coasbt .a and in ddv6 hunrins€rpsdirions, rhs only wkh Lho sh e ofrhd bodry and rhey leh no ie.e$ y or joiiins rhs pn s qho
i 1r3o',s admtcd rhrrrs Po1Lg.6sa rool rho had.o rrr r rh" r:c.o! plrldo'fs:only'ioccrs onally a rew Mash s€lros rollowins in rhen waka..l
Thd pe.ph or nobl! o,eii capr!red rhus by rhs pnacs w6r.in rhsn contds2roo rc hdrer rhan dru -d'iven anih:ls. T:lhrrvrires of rhen p,Lhnic ccndirloi .s ,ollows l
maiy purc and $yy dbom whri, wa,. lompslled ro undssoih3 dksm@ ol elavdy,
i.kedmen. Musl s ui&rMnrruoh opp,.*ion ii I'h iilidella
For isorly hil, d cenrury, chi asotr]] was a breediis srouidol rha pnaLos rvho revssad rhawhoto or Lowd Beisal, d.populiledlr and rtrhed ir ro wlldeiiE$. The dedrucrivc elfecc ol rhaslavshlntiio orpadirlons can h. a.conained ftom rh€ ia aiva of atrinq' ptrr:o h.r tus beE. quord by ldl'rn a, ro'lows
(Wh6i Nawab Shai.r. Kh,n iiqurcd a ruiway Po usue.e pcraabo!r1hen sala,y, rheldrcrEpli6d) our.al y was rh6 imredaldodllo, W€ .o soaao r\s trlol" or E{d'r d ou,j., .
All $6 rw6lvo mo hr of fto yoar ws mld6 our colledioi( i a, boory )wirhdurtoubl6. Wa had nor ro bdh ouElvssabour amhs aid imiis: nd h:d warobaldic6r ro 6nybody Pas6a€a over wdd w4 ou, ( rcld )survoy. ws isv6r shckonad o oirai@me4r ot ou, Dnri
Ponusdesd adivnks in chirlasons I 32s
viz,6ooLy For yoac we havs btuno arBarc or ohk) rcvsnua. Wohoi of rho boory vnks. bY
villase rorlha hsr fony y6rs.1
Trrh dp,oJrcioi o, rewords spoken by a prak h suflicis ro
tow Peisrl eriron, r ralallar o, 16so A D wrtreskind ol sdvdrisnLy
aid osociaring wnh piaros aid h$dr or all na0ons owsdno subj.drion ro ft6n
o..dao:or.
aclivlri6s ol rhe Ponusu.se pErcs rloiq wi(hrtuir Amk ese colhboraloh e ned lor chr,qo,, g,,bls aidlasriio namss or "Masher Muluk and "H mads' Muuuk h
o, rho Maoh Firiis' pErcdl o iviras, rhe proviico sll wasof lhon ac&i(ks.
Ths capiivEs w 6 emptoyed itr sev.Bl occuparionr. Frsr, rhekirsdom of Arakrn w,s a spesely populared aGi, wxlch requirrdhumBi labou' ror ayi.ulruE. A laGe
'umbd ot stavss wsssmploFd ii dg,ictrltural acrvir.s From Monrqus's ac.ouir wa
ah,so nunb4 ot caprives werc cmployedin tho dlLso ot bnd utrd.r t\E Po trsuess kian.y h cartral ctrirk-so.s. "Ths Mashs as $ared by Talish, ,emDloy.d du rhDn capriv.s
ii aoriculLuro aid other klnds or s i... 3
s66idly, ahlo bodiedrh. nfund{i|g shrps. Bs,nier wire6I ,Those whowm iotdkabhdby 6sa, $e piEras koot in rh.n se,vhs, ni n trq rhen upro rhsIov6 or ,obb3ry 5id
326 AUkto,y or ch rdsoio
Thirdly rha capdve tromsn weE aporcpri.Ed s thar as wiv6q
hous6lrold seNa s Amois ths lor rhs Youtrq
andlatrlooklns wo si caprives wss luckv 10 bs h bdrar posnhi
Foll y. aLso
The slaves wda amployed siftd ln domasric s5vi6 as artndant
Pymi wrlles rh upP class sochlv, 'hiva
Fii,ly, a s@ iumbs or rh' ciptivss we,o sold ii fteoFih rel Talsh slv.s a vi" d mcdu ol lho Po usuete solliio ol
SdmE(lma6 rhev ftc Po{uou.se) brousht fte 'apr
ves ror lale
rdmluk aid ths Potr or Baleshw "sale w.s rhis:-rhe wBrches 6od to
n lhcir shloe anchd orishon dhknce
nom rho shoie !lr Tamldk or Bale
local orr"rs fe ns ler rha Pnatss
sldlld .omm I aiv depredarion or kdnappms lhcro,slood on
ol rollow s, aidIhs D racr. lf ths
'ho Dnats look rha moiev and s€it the Drisoids wIh lho
Linschoci, TrE Voloc. rt )ahh HltEheav@rtu Eolr /,d,., vol, l, n. euhell, P. 231
po usuo$ adv tes in Chircsons t s27
mai Only ths Fnitrsi pnaressotd rhotrprisonorc,,.. 1
Talistr's repo s co,oborar€ wirh rhose of Eehior who wrir6 :"Thoy h.d rha audacLy ro ofier tor $te, ,n rhe placB wh,chrhsy had bur dc€ ly ,avasod. 2 Th€ ssvsnr@nrh and oishroenrh
this brural pmc,.6 ol rh6 6nstavsms ot humai vicrims and
Ths Eiditrs w:s pronounced by rtre provinciat couicil ar coa
32e A Hhrory or chirbsoxs
...on th€ |fr, aid Gachedrhe villass of soioraDsrh (From
rhk poil) r rh6y whhed D ptund J6sso,e, Hushli anduP rhs Ganses i, rhoy w:nrcd ro ratdaid Da..a, rhoy
Mrtriqre sp?cilically menriois such pliccs:s rhe p'incip:Llyol J:ssoa, rhe teriro,ies or EamL, solimaivas',2 whsre rtE porrusuesa csred rlran plundqlns oprarons. Tha ravetlff to herwi'6: 'rMy (h! Poruq@$ sl3w htrnrere) usuatly made rhses€1orl a_d(., r L.o, lolr rmralds which weni on mo or ttu year,-3
of nE ,vtrch Friisiopuh0oi aid economy or Eensal
oivesevdcncs o, $6 conssqusic6s ot rhe hoad.hunlins expedrons ol rh8 pnaGs ii Lowcr seisrt ae to)lowsi
ropeded deproddrions rhd wa soe somany rno
'slandsar !hE mourh or rho c6noes, to,mqly rhickly
peopl.d, now eirrclyrhs desolare la6 or ris s aid.rher witd be 6.4
a',ranucci srar6 thlL, ,1hess inhrbirants (ths po usu.rs) ,n icrsdg'eal dairso on rhs hnds or Beisal.,5 Tatish d6q bss rhawidogprsad dssrucrion cau*d by rhs Maoh Fniisipllnds is r.idson rhs delLalc B8isll
ten cou ,y prospsred, and rh€n iuhba' ,n esed. whilasansat doly l)36ma moE aid mor6 do:orars, ts$ lid lo*
.b)a ro resr and hou$holder was l6tr
Ba[a, a pdr or B.issl, Iyns in ftanu:urLpa(h, wEo Lroma'ly) Iull o, culLvaroi aid housrandyElded every )?a . Lqe.mou ro rrE impsial qova'nmsnrasduLy oi lLs bdeliuts.plunder rsd abd!dFn, le ins roie Io
kindL a nre r all rh: ta.Ll
nar lon ol lalGh r caEs rhs axlenr olrh' dsstruc0ve erfscLsol rh3 Mrsh-F r isi plundsinss, whhh p Ec.
lioally depopulaLsd a la,so po on ol Lowd Bensal, Ihh depo-pulaLed a,ea hos s'ice rhen sdduauy bedi traisromed inb ar:.r or Lhckwood and juisl*and named rcmantically as suid -
ol rhs lo,elgn navellsE and somo olc maps
Lhs rhrck sedemc E i^ rha slid4bans.red a.Iire as rhs s{een'h ce u,y. Ds Baaois mspshowsmoy bwns and
.euled plac.s ii i Renielfsmap 011771
A D, the whoi6 ea ol tho sundarbans is shown as a naor.dopoptrl:red by rho Mashs."
Th6 impo alior or rh6 shves inlo rha kiiqdom of Arakatrprodu@d rd ,sa.h ng results. wIh rhe ENranr avalor. la,g.number .r €pdves, rhs szr ol rho pDpul loiol a,akai ndeased conBde,ably. somelmos, rhe impo ol such
wrebhsd vctimE reactud 3uch a sreahese rhri .coordiis ro aisdimalo, "bdwe€n 1621 a D 3nd 1624 a o rePo ususssb'ou.
ehr ro chiLbsons 42,ooo slaves."2 Manrlquo wdcs "Duriis rho
riv6 ye e (162s.3r A D) I speir itr
PeoPIo came to rhB Po s ol Dionsd and
ansaGcrls./3 Eeror6 hisa iv.l ar chirEqono, "ovo, (wonry rhoud.
Po !q ss rtivircs r ch Eqong 3i9
2 Fa$or ftlauiorr, calholic En.yclopaedia', qr
I
3sd /aHiso,v o, CI aqois
rhe$ nons {ot chilasorq).-1 eemd $ysih "ror rho mos patr (rha Muslimror tuakrn-chkEqons) raksiolavee he,e at rrio€, by lhosa FGnoui. {Fi'neisl,"
As o resulL ol rrrr .ornins of slavcs 'n
plains chidaooiq $sDecenEse ol Musl'm popuhrioi roso as hish as 30%ot rhe ioralporuLlioi thouqh in Htl chir$sof,s whe,e rhe crptive M$lmsw4e nor alrow:d ro serJs, ir is as low as lo Lo 15% or ihs roblpopulalon, ln AEr.n prop rhs i,Itrslifrs Bccou'rsd ror io le*lhai ois sixh or lhe roral popuh oi,
Ths MGlift in A6k!tr pDpor aro kiown as rhe Kolas o, K.las,whoaEsuopossd by snA P PhryG ro ba or aBsnsatidessnr,,rh6s.hol& wares or this psopl.:
(rhs A€kanese) 6ppe ro havo s iumbeB ot rhs iih.b.raDc (of Eensrl) inro Ahkao I slavss, wh.ncs arN rhseEsei! (ora (orcrsie, popula0.bour l5% or i[e whola populaion. rhe A6ki Moosulhluispr€6s o rhe laigu:sa oi rhen ,oeroh lor coltoqu6t pu-poses, bur alMy:.lso adoprad rha d,ss or 6e cou ry,
Th6 iumb, or rhesc Kola peorls senliis in the veu6v or rhe
(rhe Klladro is naired aner rhe K:tos or rhe lorcisiaG.
Nsedless ro say rh{ lhs slaves surere.r lnhumai c alry aridrarion prcdoce rod hooy
(he Po usu65. eiraca) haLne or rhs slaves rhus obhined w* mos cuet."3 Tathhw -
"Maiy hrsh bom p.Misand Sayyid!, m ywom.n, wqo @mpslled b und6G. rhs
Podusu6ss ac vit,os o chirhsons | 331
dsq,aoo or slov y,ssvtc. or coicrbiiase or Lhc.e wickad mer.-ITalkh s,aph 6llyslaws rcsivod rom rhsn cruol caprorsai alen coudry,z Hs (the stavs hLnrcE)omptoyed rhe rew hsd.lyed eprvesrhd suruiead (rhis reahs tin rillago aid orher hlrd csks, accordiis Lo rhe, powu, wrh sEd
3videnc6 6r slav: iDsfr.cLon ii rh6 kiis-dom or araksn ihousrr sotrrces give indi,6crsviden.s of ihh th P,ncashula du nsh'samed rebsllioi asah{ rhs Aftkonesa kno,or ,e local Mrrim! who,,se modty of staB orisii Thk ibor
caldmiriols ro ,he Mrslms who strrrercd muchar ,hs haids or lhe royil roops.4 Pod alaol allesld ro bs a
rebeltoi w.s onsof rE6urfarere. Th6 succa_$lul Mlghal milir y oFqarioi i. chnaeonqrha open ,evolr or the Muslrms, ,krdnap@d rrom Beisal',. Theyjoitr3d rho vicrorious Muohal my in drrvins oor rh6 Ahkanese
be admnEd $d ior all lhe slaves w sBubjacr ro ill trearoBn! norwus thay to,ced ro lead a hmilialiigliro I k ro bs r6m6mbrcd ihar th6 orod{xL Eenqalea ooorofrho svenree h cE Uy wrsorioFally a shveqho in his boyhooddays was kidiapped by the Po usuEo manh! cu dunns a b*rioumgy wirh his rarher A role ed m,D a5 tu w3s, Alaolsoon
l of tho loyal bodYguald sa a,,Hjs1rch,y s€niG soon arhckd rhs nonc6 or lho Muslm nobtahstrol,hs .oy3l cou uide' whoss rrfuonrhl sdppo rho posL wror
1
6a,hi, p. 114; slso Ahott works
332 , A Nisrory ol chirhoois
l..rion 3 Portusuo.o Softt.h6nis rn Chirtssonq
Ahois rhe EroD.hs, rhe po uqk!6 werc tho nd ro eshblsh*rl6me s in chilacois Tha Eason of rheratuadioiror chnh_sois is ior hr io s€ek Herc rhe po roup6e iound I coidirtoi
,nlerruliand sNkrDj in LE smsdnecrioi rhe h Itsor p.nue.t and ch aqois 63:rudcd; rhe cti aEo, chirbooio h hlc{ F i ot rhe coashl
Ths iarivs rule,s qeiqiltv showedtavotr, ro rher yrled 116 The oood hrbdu.qe facihy of rha
iD or Bensdl aid rh^ paronEsgor rh. hdivs tuk6 orfqed rhem a rcalv uiavotd.bte oDp6 uiryroi.oloiizalioi. Trr6ss ra some os6lscrrdrhh pla.e aq $sneiLh, p_qmined or rmpoEry restdu,us.
Bul ii was nor iilabour 6ishcen Fac l.rer rhai rhoy lv*e able ro e{ablsh a fadon/rhore. lr may rr3 rec.llcd $dsurrai chrysuddin M,hmudshah,ih6 hd sulran or dyiasy, our or necessiwpehited rhs Fon!eueso ro bJild r:crorks in chirheoos. Foldw
ons Ntrio Fa and!, FHs was appohEd ?hict0r rhs cusrons hous8 ol ChirLasond He was ior onlv aE ad. pi6ca or land wirh manv houses bur was c irlld ro collecr
al.o snrirled rd mrnyorhs privlhqshs 'hepDpb
rhss dsts
1 Anofier ierarktsble pssomliry was Do antoiio da Foza owho durins hh boyhood days waHs w:s broushr up and Lrer on .onvened by rhe Poru€u*3
F,om rh rime chikroiE b6.amo.io ol rha chkl Poirqu*q
PonuqFss iamed it as ?ono Gi.ide orIh6 q,ed pdfr and somdlmes'ir.'. dd 36rr.ld o, r.6 c / or 86!"1 .
thEUohour tha .ixreonth and rhe iidqua er uf rhs seveiteen,h @dtrry, rhey ii,q@ lv soased rhn
msalves in btood/ wrs aid EvolG aoainsr rhc n4iva ru16r. A5
s rcsur, rhcn setlBmtrrs in ch Msois sulrsrud
l.om rims ,o rime. Po usuess rcbellioi w3s
mercils$lv nur down by rhs A,.kai6s krns. h is Iopo ed 'hev.i ,lie .hildrei,
as sii huidred Poduoua$ 'n
Diaiq alonsfta akk.nase kho su,h
toublors eveNsrhe Poruqua:3 .ol.rnl e ablissmrG in chircoois. r: re dle1o then o'xn loll is thar hey railed 6edablish a pqman6 .oloryii chirrasonq beto's
Lhe lo,eiqn rav4llcrs oivo evidenB of then5aih. Br' h tr6
AD, ddes rh aha Ponuluesr . € a lews6 I.n3iE ii rhar kinsdom (Ahkai) and slvd:l dwall risrc, wh lsr
setrlemo s aiB oeosirlvoi rh' sea shoa"2 Wr havela nr rhdlha nume,l:rlstrsnsLh o, $l
2sri0 Poiu@se and $sn des'si,. ?kai."o Guereno noLc6d ii 1602 A D
rhd ,blmox 3ll rhapotr (or - /i"ois) has b%i ovei ow loihePo uqrsss w5o live rh6B, .nd !, whom ih€ khg u v6ry well
'nclnsd. ...Ho shows th6 Po unuess rhese Gvou'snow, becau$,
334 | A Hilrory ot chihasdis
ihoir ssrvices hs k aixtous ro co snr 1h.h."1
corsr ol Bensit.,2 Tha uava 4 rcas6 ro a po trsuss. advsdurs,
Portlsuese sorl6m6 s r chiLksoio rid D ans aid sm6 sm.Uarseolome s ii somq dstri.r. He atsowriros
bilahs or isnrlaids in rhs 6sc6$la (chakash) ddricr.,4 on rh6$ha au'ho,hy w6 hNo leami thn rh. Pdnuoues. had. R6idencyii Dhio, "rh6 lo.al cefue of chturaniry,'5 rid then 6d eh€nr
Th. cl6rsyman n querlon rdhsr wirsskino -ro.otled all rh6
d'rr6'snr pans dt rho kiisdom aid $ lr rhom
ssvsEl Ponuou6e s rte6, a sG idhhar otcrrisron st,v.e o, hal,ca . po{ususe, and orho, Fuiks coll6*
e worltl ..Tha kiiqo..upyas4pod causd ch lsoi, and made rh,m sEnb ofland./7Mrnucclspsaks o,lhoir ltourhhino serlem6nb n Chnrdsois Es foIows: "Ths kisdom ofArakan adjoiisrh of Bsnsat ro fto Easr andon s bord€6 h.s as ic
Iivad rhsrc, mei or varrous narions, prnc-
po uouese acriyir 6, ii chi asong 336
"maiy FL,inos' who "lived happily ar ch4saoi,2 und4 rhoAmkai6s6 rurelrse The Arakansso kins, ac.ord ns m him, . ooo-sldered ,he Fi i€' pnaLes in rhe Iishr of hra s6iva 5, and rdok
ras hs sh a).,3 lr is norichbls rharrhouoh Lhs P. usuese esrablsh6d a hw se l6m6nrs in rh6 aB.kan6sE ktrsdom, rhey showed iturl' alles 3ncs ro rhs Aiakancs
aod sold u leadss ro Iook arrer s iicrssrs, To locare deprcseirsiGs ol fiese colones h undoubcdty a dlrcuh hsk. 0.6 orrhoso coloiies was siruarsd in Drais whtrs rhs ponusuoss aEsaid 10 livo in rhst placa rill rhs rirsr &cada of rhenrnerssn,h
l,lnq,o.zal, Ihsrhd sdl&manr mishi be m modori Jamal Khao, a municipal
rovn. Accordmg ro a documerbry evjden6,Lldys Asuhprion s me oisd as arJabat-
calda, whch mud bs Jamal Khrn (Jamal Khrldh') n6ar chi(asons,, we do nor know whsi il was sE edri6 Bssid6 rhs66etr.
rill rhe end or ie Mushal rule wislhat or rhe vill,sa
dr 00.m, piMnr by Elm KaseF,r a veq nrl
uentbl Po uglese zami^dar and mdchaf,t ramrlv surrm;J s Dd
Batros ws lrlfs m th villaso dmins rhe lala Mushsl F. hd
lr is ii,po:sble ro srds rhs iumarctsl drcnolh ol fio Por
Lusuese popll onrhei n!m6i" srcnsrh
sread ly dedea*d du, os rha laE MuEh.lp,obablo 6ure! ol lher ralL n poptrlaioi
Amdcrn colo es.
o'Mall?v w,iL* {)at rhe Po usu
€onq.2 Ns loc es
He refe,s ro rhs locrl trldtrroi v,h ch
buccaness bu,ied lhe lon Feie ins 'o Lhc
viar or the$ s.hobrePodtreuese wro hslp.d sultan Ghry'suddn
Mohmrd shah rob! ld a rorncss n ch tasois. Eul rhe sulGn
rcicded t& Po usuess requosr to havo o ml'biY esGblslimenlin rhe .hrt Fo ol his khsdom rhouqh ho rvBsed rhDm wIhnliy orhs privl€qss.4 \/a havo beci nformed by rhe Ponlsuess
Po, 's
aa o, ahlcsonsk'ns I. hlild a to
mr mly pu, 6ld3 $sn prcposal as !'sccepEbla bul advn.drheh nor to iicur d'sphr( c ol ,ha narvs rul.rc by buidios ilor 6r such qpa or ml,r.,y cslrblBhnc . Thc view oJ o'Malley
1 sdrgtn A tcny ?onik ,
3
in Ch raqoio I 337
md campor 6 nor [lauiquo or bvde Lavalwho adually vkirod chkrasons. pyhd de Lavat w,irss ii 1Fo7
"Tho Po uslesa h.vs her6 po o cEid6 and po o pequoio burwirhour lo s and sov6rimenl-2 Ma iqus who sLayed ii ch ra-sons l,oh 162rrod in chncsoie V.i Lhsihobn wrir.s thar
ior pot,c€ as in (po u.su*er rtrda 0hey havo) "3 ri m.y b6ADkaiase roii d r,re hean ot rho
left batrk ot rha rivd (ahaprrulj miehr prcvBnrrhs Po"uor.ld a^. o..td.io Lo m r1,ry eribt. nsn> dywlgrd
Ihouoh thd m.lorry ol rha Po usueso hh:bira s w4, pro-rosidially pi .s and stovs hud6rs, ir sesms rhd $en rehrtoiwhh rhe nariva plopl! dmiis rh6 Adkaf,s resihe Ms seieEllykiendly bur occasonally hdshta rh6 porusueseneely hcrmatriod wirh itriva wdmsi. oi rhe surhoiry of Mamiquar we.omsto kiow rh rhs Hiidus liviis iear rhe p6 ueue$ settehenbbordwed adichs fioh tho Po uquA6 s rtsB the rtms 6f fe$ivals
to rha cBhbrarioi or je Durqipuhfs{ival, Miiiiqus Haarheh lviis ie D.ansaaid o,h& ch'kriai sdllcms s were accu omed ro bo70w fromrho ch,krair silk .loths, russ, jewethry a^d rho I'k€ ror rhardonmsnr of rh6n ldots and alro or rh.n houses.,'4 oi rh6 same
rhar rhh lr6i.ly relarton woutd rum inrohoniliry ir rhe dsm:ids or $o lo.al peoptewirh, Ths unhappy n.id6n, oLed ii Manrtque,s accounrsprevcs
3sB lA H no,y ol chirEsdis
thd $a lo.al peopls w.!ld larally h m aiybody triwLllns ro
pl' ro whom rhs 3rhb Gnhonoi,li.al,ii) and 'kblbo' (plysiciao.
rhs bisoEd d -:^.1howsvsr, had a dmig dbliks or lhe idive reloio's Evensuch
@pscted mksioi y mvoner as M3n que woulc nol coic6al his
ill-l.6lircE ro!, d orhn ,eleions i H'nduism he saw a "falstElisioi,"l ,{alse
Muslihs ln lis ey$, .d!e rha -rollorar or
.v'1 aid,.ls. Alm,ai."3 Ta6 Musl,s ii h6 enim o ura" norollowqs or i 'rak. doctr i' a lr
trhror6t i ituda r.w d
lr caiior be pre.isely r?.lngs rhr Drcva.ileC berween tD
Howsver RalI Frch',s remrL rhri thon Li
rud3 rowdds a iello,tr Eurcp.an would tror b: mrlulnced byriytouble h6 had w$ rhe rh€n sovehmsnL ch+
owins ro rh.ro,n sho .omiis:,ra led b ,o h a well oderud soc,erv.rhe i iva ,ukrs, rhen own recktdssrhemslvas dood n thr wly o, ro.m ! aruqda, and tuarrhy
Portusress ?.ri!res n ch tasoDo 33s
vavellcG, a Ponrqueso peoa)o l,!ed ioiii a cvitized datr bur
eckhss rid tice iotrs tvno, rrray warc nor atro3erhs devod orsomB to'h of 3oda1 life. Th.y rayd cdrh,drals for worship,and
boh Lh,oush the sa ed rcvjviiyns
secrroh 4, Men ond Mor.te
orho roreisn travclte,s
340 A H ory ol chi(aqonq
rhe iitluendal Po uouese malero)k asG vaiously kiown as
'oao'a m', rdalqoj,le$a. Bur ii rcalrys va s aod advsnrurcG. soldoG aid sxcgll
w,s p 6cv, slave hunrlrsUnds th. AEktnesa,sqm6, som8 orlhtm
we,e snntod vLEs or land-asisime s n rhs p,hcipolny or
k bd illustrded in rhe c eer ol John sehsr an conzales,slim.beoi sivei ekewha,o n thh book. Strch
10 Ivo ii a b b.iic splendou, rnd srcwwealrhy on kade aid pluid ed booL,/
in Ma iquat accou is aiorher ryphol oxdm.ple ol +a _od" o' 'r. o' '5a Polrs-c.r .orr oes l.vnq n
,srsr oore6lves nom,6p'oducins a pon'oi
of rrrs pa$dge lrom ou, travausr's €ccou
h $e same vrll.qe o, Aisfficals, b6ro,e
Commaid?r, iamed
osa.l,vsd theE. tre had qu rellcoisequsices to himsolri had
com. h live in ths po{ (aisdacale), rhen but i smau
sdLl.ms . . rhs capE n used ro s6llv lonh riom this placs
w Lh hs soldisrs aid vessh aidftid e k Ldrios otBa.ola,Sdllmanvd, and Jeso,. Emboldoied by rhs
rha Po usu*s commaidds roo
aid Ld hlm oi ro stll more daiseiols en'sDrisos, and slnca
(sodde$ ol Fodone) showercd lavours upon hm uniiu ii .a mo* d iiq aid
H6 lLved n rhk uJay s.v.El ye r admi,ed by rhd world as
p,osp dus .nd rch in rampohl po$e$ione but 60 sngrossd
Po(usue& acriv ios 'i chnLrCons I 341
n ft.m 63 wholly ro rorcd rhingr erehal, sunk ,n.luiury&yoid tha smca ol rha Farhs' ot' Ell lamilros, li rhB lackol spnitual pGsssiois h6 pased rh. sp,insrims of lrh llts,forsauins his obliq ions 3s a Ch,hrian..... So did rhs &vill6ad F T :.rc/ rane, ha woLld od olr rh. acr 30 oson al ro his salva oinom ve o yoar... ..rln hh sick b6d) he wot suroundod
rh. Iat6, s,isvins lor w,ar rhoy had [d]led io obldlnJ
Abour rhe mo,als aid mrins,! ol rh6 Pdrusueeo in lidGaevo.end Lons rcma,ks: r(rhay) haw been such a3 !o b ns rhs
Eurcpsan charecrd Accordris to Ralph Firch,
ofliojal. '3 Van Linschorsn, who dwalls oi Pontsws men and
(rhs Puiusws in Pono G,aids) irve r s manner l]ko wlld
will, .nd ev y m:n k Lord (rnd ma$dl nalth& sdsmBthry .iyrhlie ol Junce, whorher ihs,a bs anv or non6.nd
. EYn. Podusallst dwell tmons $.msoma h'rc, som0 rsE (sarbEd ab,oad ), aid a,6 lotrho mos pa .uch a6 da,o nor dty ii lidia lor sona wlck.
sdnss$ bY thsm con,mncd.4
Adulr€ry ss6ms to bs univ.rsl .hons th. Po'lus!64. Iharavell& w ras ol ts porlisacy ot Lho eo usuose wom6rfol|
Iuruiious aid unch!$s, lor rh.,e dEvay lsw amons th6m, .lthoush rhey b. maiiiod bur rhsy
3 Fosrer, Rorpi rn.l, p. 254 r,*rd4, r, ss; also s* 3 P P, x(915), 81
342 | A HEro'y or chi asons
have bBidesr thoncall.d soldere wi$
'ien lbasu.es .rhscaB n y me nrymBd bv LEmiiy wdm6i o,oushr ro th6r.nd
PyGrd do Loval who ws!rChnLa0onsr 1607 A onorced
3nd liw Iko ndvas or Lhe co( ry; rhcy dursi noL rcium Lo tidu(PondsGso lid4rhiy hov. tro cla,syamotrd rhemi'2 9."i"' ai"pa"g,nsty rem,*",
Th6$ pspls were ch,niais only in nam:; ihe Ives ted bythoh rcra mosr dercnabl!, ma$:dns
Ehdtiiq .vsi rhenroo onan tro beirer
lved wrlr such lawlesnc$ mar rwould tk. much sp,ca ir Iatrsmpred ro rc.od r e I mtsde.ds.
a rrraL ieed riand nasly or rh6 buror mcn.,,4 Ha i! hor
rhsy (r.6 Po s, s..',eichsd rhs very acm6 ol 6vil doing, lr any ona undoiookro spoak ot rhese msn, or fisr vollnca aid of rhen bar,
woutd riid sioush ro I ssv.,at bodksbtrr had ot ir no 00ro
rhin rho name. su.h was fien ctuslry rhat lhev dtd nor
1
Po usu*6 aqviriG ii Chnlsoiq 343
Frysr, a travolh, oi "Tie ErY otsar$lby oU.wed Fo'lugu€sa,
rhe mo* cu6edlT b:* or rll motndb*rdd b,ood lu,[hq ii rho slaids nl(]s mouth or rhe Ga.ss,
P6ach s I'trle sood is said. Likopsoplo like p, 5
b".H ,h.r ,ham-al!a" 2
whD says ihar rha Po.usuese prresc weE' I' le d rrerenLnom rlremselles. '3 catr r naracs: -Ihe hny pL'Dqid n(o all ma E, or vice, and .ven rha .u'ates led a vsry
dis:iracd I re, were.ovclotrs ald sens,tly 'snoatrr
rc a nrdv or rhs ndai l.&lastss.ro rhe devdopm. or B8noali lGEru,e isnororsm3ll quanriry.
Thr Fo us8ess hieu.q*m oice rrr hadins Eu,opsan laiotr-s5lpuarkcd sailo,s or the id s.lrelliis rotrrd
Lh? Po luotriso hrouas6 ve:y popula, .mons Lhs iarives ol ch!qooir :!rr.DI reeroi 6 .rErl?s l..[yar who published his A,
m.v ruslr ho;i rh.y havs esrblish.d a kind of lhsua f6nclm all th,r sea po s or Ldia, or .rcrtlvro uould fid ihlsrobewelrund $ood
344 | A Hidory or cht aoons
wirhour iL.'1 Ham lron wirs ,Alons rhs eacoa, ih6 ponusu.8sa rr3yo l.fr a ya$ises ot fteir taieuaqa:houeh hu.h cdiiuprsdycr tu s rhe laiquEs6 le.m tiGr ro quatiryrh6mselves lor sen*al tunvohe wirh the diifercnr inhabna s or
Th. p d..f r& Poftuouese was ooi6 and wi$ n sono lhsndrcdm or slablshos a rsdiis €hpir6 iid of spmadins chturia-iiry amdis rh6 p.ool6 ot rhe slbconriieir.rh6 Ponuqu.sa licroriss, mllir y esrablchmenk, carh.drah arc rorcmhd us or ften coldurul lrd bur $sn suruivins d.s.end.^bdill ,6nhd us ot ft6n adve uous deods. rh6 Fninsis whomrha pBopla w,oisly call lha Aislo sansalh a6aduatty rh6 d6Edid.nh ho ol
fien B.s aid ot $sr ln.edore, Th.n surn.amss .re nill Ponusussa, ru.hDs S'lv:, n€bsib, Ds ftuz, D. cosra. penh.rc. comB, coisrtvs,
caLhol. church ror4sdno 6dhflo, owes
rDF.ndix I Chkrasone ?rii
J J A camprs whlle payiis tibure or phhe ro tha cily or
'From rh8earlan rimesi chiiEsons was rha
Bsnsal..aid oi: olciri6.-1 almo sll who m3k3 6fahn.aro ih s .lq a,s eloquent ii rhsn iar roi ol rhwiiq tdde,
'a,bd-r la! Ir.!oni.kdolall rmes k loud in his
prai$sorlhis iru{ Don orB6iq;l whila n,yiiq a olouiE tibu16io ch raoons, heramous and wealrhy or Bens:I, oi a.counrol irs pon, at whi.l EeeE thelralfc 6tall rhd arnql,edion ''2s..no ths brishr prdspscr 6id voluh6c.ll ir Podo G6id6 or rh6 sr6ar por itrcomDaison wlh sdoaoi which rhsv.all Po o Peouem orle$*po . ln rhs medisval Dsiiod, t|)e potrofchiuaqois \ras an inGr
rhs Ean ro Po uqsl
so ro BeNar h.anr 'o them ro so o
Nor.ilv ir rhe Po usuoso irino,aries, hhro,lesand ch,ori.lasappEis:|, D I € Pd usuese lE,aLUrs rlso
chlrrsoig wiis hishiiclei or hs ass, hB comratiol camox3 was ona o, the sre&
(c. ls2ar5s0 A o) a very sined podlho Po dsuase Lndh as a cvll ssryrir
346 lA Hlaory ol chlnssoio
i6. liE,ary ligu,as in Europs duins hi. r m6,ot ihs ciry in lha m.,p ol Bsnsal mowd rho
s€o C.rhlsah, aEid rh6 hrshe$ hishrn Bsnsal provriEg, proud o! v hd sroraAbundaoh, bur behold how placed rho posr
shorut'ie rowads
ftom 15s3 to 1570 A D. Duris rhi6 rim. hs mirhr h.v6visirod chnLasons | \li.je En.yctopdtdc a uhtd. t9l3t
I Bu ont trandaron or ih6 fotlowiis vo@ qr, Cahpos,.D. dr.,
vs carhisao, cdad6 dae mthorctDs Bsnsala, prcvinca que ss p@6
olha qu6 6ra ponaPr,a O Aus'o d4ur vGda a .odo.
chi(.sonE drd th6 ciry ot Bons.l. or th.
o rhe si!r6 h and liro6rur6, hl.roricalwo*s, tra4llinsee3lially or lho Po usuae6, thd€ aG lrcqu. rcleGi@r ro aplaco namd BensalB, 6rh& ciry ol Benqol., $s lo..rionol which contues who lail ro rcach ad6n-iir€ mnclusion on iB lo.arioi Iho Bim or 1M lollow,ns d6
h .hould b. mad6 cls .r rhe cdmmsncemenr ol ondlEcussionthar whon &nsala h msanlobo r provinoso, 6rara, ihsn rhrGis no doubr rhar ir srands Ed a nrme lor the klisdom as a whole.Bur whsn s6nsala k hknded ro meri d padicular muDicip.l area
and an €mpoium, rhsn it k lke\ to ha iddntiried Eomarimans oudyins rownship or
discuson b dnodod rowad .$abllrhins
lvlarco Polo rl3rh .o u ) is pobably rh. liBr Eu,op68n rous lho wrd Bansala ro dsnoro a khsdom which hopl.6loi-nily wirh rha kinsdom of Misn (Euha) und$ rhs ddmharon olrhs crcar Kh.i (Kubldi Kliar).1 tr h quirs idprcbrblB ftar rhaMoisolrn sway sxroidod all over Boioal in lho td, qua ei orrho rhinsenrh enrury, Whar appoaB trom a .rudy ol polliel0ondnion dl fto
'osiods in quosrloi is rh rhs pmvjnca ol chl
,aeons w.s uidei Pasm Glso Mhi) co @l wh6n ih. mtshrol tha GE Khdn war lotovorrhsorsa, ThsEtorc, rho pbvticsot chtusons tu cts'ty m6anrher.ro b6 Bgisata by rhs $avsU6r_
1 rht rturch rt r.t.c pdo. rh€ o,ion p@r, p. 204
(1512 a D) wre ons or rh6 e li. Poror Belqila. Ha {' Io.
FuJre, 6r, I:av is rhh F var Gaises rnd rollowino rha coa
rhoy Appeaod ro lhe navslls,. e cr)trbsonqh. pon iowi and a buslnes convo, rh oro,oi ir oico a .acred''eonse6 r6m mriy lends strch s rh6 Ambr Pedanr, abaxis(Habshis or Abysinai, ind ridi,i8 ro e abLhh soilgretrrrhs€,
la,oo iunbil or thee Deoolos airh{ vi.xed 'o o, 'ssidsd
in
merclrins .nd rhsybuilt srL, rha laEhion or .r Middlo E6Gcouitre, 6 qurre applhabiorhs tido and polir.al Elarion belw€n chn! and seisaldu is
travbllr round chjngse Junms'€nsassd in d ryhqon rEn w h
Mr M L D.mes, edtro, ol Ba ross irhe6,y, wanb ro iden.rrry rhs ciryor Beisah w15 caud,3 rha rhei capikl or rha kinsdom or Beiqar. ti roply .o hs algumonrha rha ciLy or senqab, nrav bs olgEd6d rhar Barhosa .rccsdsdlrcm rha mouih oI rhs Grsss (Bhaqirarhior Hust) b rhe,ishr.ida bward
'hs cky ot Bensah rollowhs rho co..r ot *a n6r
Badosa he ions rho nams of rhs ptacs asBsisala aid w/i1es .iry or rho Moors whtchrhsy call Bort4 s ved excsll.nr 34 hrvan., h may bs potnredour rhar Gaud, shich lies emore rrcnwas ai 6xcells !va. a capirat ciry ofB6nsal so rhe hhab:ra sol $s ciry could treva, b..Imerch6nB.ThsB sliould bB soldGrc aid sovs,omsir orricrah of variour Enkiwho mishr b6 osly rccosnizsd by rh6 uavsltcr. t! is rus rhar.ll rre crzens or a ridrns enre tko chirheons could nevar
consist eroloslvelyorh chs$s or paopls rcsidns in LrD ciry.or consde,lbla sze oould hor ply upLo
sithsr by rhe Padma Accodiiq ro rhechnsse t v6lle/s so no va*ol bound lorEonsrl had ro an.hor ar lhs pD( or ch Lasons (Tsar-khis).
hip ussd ,o bord smallt crerrir lh.y wors ro so ro c.ud. rhserorc. I is h,shly imp'obabla
arc or q'e sizs sid carysrcar caEos- could sail oi any on8 ol rho bFnch ivs6 olrh.
cio i ssan ac vs trid6 Elarionro rhe se6po s lyins alois rhr coasr or rhe tidi.i oc6an. Bul
coasr, could hava no such dnecrrchrions ro rh66s phces 6nd rhss waE lirtls po$ihtky orcriisIo.ds nom $sr ror :b'oid.
asoin, Barboss c[y ol Bonsata 6inot bo vs €d a5 ido ]datLhai oo0 huid'ed m es
in rho hrario, p L ot rho cou ry and'rda-haven. sdrbosaqrir6 rhar hs a vad rhr cry ofEensalaali6r a coaslal vdyssa. so, oi rhlssrornd, sarsaoi canoor clojmto hs rh6 siro ol Bsisala. Mr Moretand hotds rhe opinioi tharsa6osa's oty ol Booqrla rslsG to sorarcaoi, a nobble voDoof mldi6vrl Esnsal.2 His view may also be 6!!ted by abov6
rary or Du e de E.ibos alsona idnsrhecLy otsorssla aserly 4 1510 A o, rh6 ravellarspoaks ol Gklns hls +out roi, ds rha ciy ol Baiqala ... oio dtrhs be rhar {rhe rJvelre4 ud hiiho o sean -3 tt
's dflcuh ro
idonriry fta ciry or B,s.la .r % hrmat accou w h aiy pl6.gh Banoal Mo* a,obihly v;4hem! nsvo' vh sd 10 aensdtandcallE rhs whols L(iigdom otseisal by ihe mmo ciry or Bansala,hshould b: roftd rhr nrrher v rhema nor Bilbosa speciri.auy
35ir A fnory oi ch,aso'o
3 Ludovico do vo hem. ol Eologna, Ir€ rUieo,, tans. J W Jone!
Po ueu*. acLvires ii ch lasois l3sL
tr ,s kmodoD or Benqllor sensaL a rhk .:usDs pflphr ty ai,oie mocdi scholaG.
( e cdade ']a
ch isso ald cdad6 de Bansala)
Ln tha o,heis rL.!. Joao de Levm:. r Po uqu*E noblemli, whilarhsr rook pLcD in
Iho subj.d i! rualEr ..mDlcakd by Lhe,"rdy ,.nqalF'
[4anriquo 11030 A D] aid PyErd C! Lavai(1607 a ol, who icru3lly dayed i0 ch fiasdiq, do iot mc 6naiy ph.e as ssir.la. Fdh* crorei,o, who naiQr. rhe cvenLsrhar rook nlaca ii netrricn anypl..o i:medBensala. All or hedion the pon &v/'or chrEooD! as rhe.hhf Porusudmrlacaor sc leme du,lns rhar iime
such as Abul FDl, Shihabu-ddii Talsh, Mua r.reigr navelere su.h as
ii \drDSr a..ouir rcr.Gices ro chiLbsono 3rsromd, callcd chnLa!oise-Anerla cin b3 scen eur all of fiaD rersr!o rhs Ponu0less setledd or lalsht i.c.!nr m:y be ic.ntrred rvirh Dirng, ri? chilt
Tha oerplrxins ralu,e of tha subjed Ieadr$mcmoden sch-obrc 1o (hnk rLd rhe :lleoEd c Ly of e.rc,la ieve, liscd aidif ir h3d ac'd:ltyo"nrelt'. -Je.--
or r ,ets bur no kacls otsuch a ph.s eftr." ilrtrl n is ph.ed ie rh6
rhn irni,/ have b@n ca(ied(? cfss). rn /rmk,rterlommr(D4. r372r
cjon cf rhis oowld .ny.l or H slo:jrmann w.irrs -Iharowi
a'd H;lph Fircb lvrrodei F,ouDk. -Ihs probabiliry, ri3rerore, h lh*
ori oiiuion rogrdne of rhB pla.e: "The namaBdiJ.la is a mqe w0 call a ,siisalow'
1 or Blochmain /,4 s D. xLrlr373), 233
354 I A HhloJ., ot chirksois
F.ve,iid Hosco, 1r6 c6lsbrakdauLhoriLyotr po !ou6sB hhrory,wahs
'ra schol:6 or rhs .orftict of oojcrll rhe flry o! Bensah
a myderiors pla.D ll4 wiies:
hlnlt .nd thkerhss ot ttt A:brr roddI,r de,sqr. Nsw ssies
Jahes rayror, A !r4c, 0[ d. ropac phy ind st hu( atDka,cdlcutra, re40, pD. 21, 92
aorEtrt kitasz, p. 15
Pdr(usu48 acriyiiios n ch (aoonq 355
Th. d,rr'culLy ror u€ trdw s ro kiow Lo whr p Licul,, c ryrh. ravell66 of a p icular pdiod apptiedrho r6rm. Bur rlrhis no ,eason why wa shoutd g,r tmpario and speak otEensala as a myrhical c Ly, or tancy rlrd irw6som?who,o
Lhen places his owi Fonr of vcw as
rr E 6a!y ro uidorerand why Bersala shoutd havc b€snplaced ar chirhsohsPonusuesa $nl6hm1a D and iilr ths rim6 when rhey fruided Husrr 057sa D),10 so 'o B€io.la mus havs noanL
rr rcpded jof. Jr.1oE or HorF,.rors , ord s.m,to \ cwrhouoh h a dirforent way_ Thoy w re:
AEb cuqo6 ol sivins an tmpo .nr roi€ron cily or $, potr
Mr J J A campos discu*B rhs sbj6d wilh som6 etabora-non end rca.hed $s &ms 6ic,usion.
rr may be ralely a$e(sd rhar oll svtdeice Foirb ro 16
,t a s a, N 5, rx(1913) 444
356 lA P no,l or crltrasoig
c,y or a c,ty pcrr afLcr Lhs cor nvy n which
0n aroLre, occs'on, Fevared los:i ida^ines E c y or
-r ..la r ..d o,kamaphut ar s moufi.2 D, H c ribldrdd rully accods wfi
or .ll rh|se I lcal ncl-
ot rhs ciry of Bsnsal6,
ol Lh n!ms,-3 Th6 s?mc vie!, h eJ€iesed by Lhc rcDUEd ioinrod106 o! Mririque! Travels. Acco:dis ro rhem "t,la,sawErhe ris, Poiurtraso s4rl-nsnr on llre gulr or Beioal;heic., b4torcrhey sdrled ar s oaiw o, rlusli, 'ro so @ sensala meanr to
proposriorr c?n Lr: deduc?d.
de BeL€li vTar rh. .hEr,,/ .o e.rqJ ' .m.r.
1530 s, so crlrh-qon0 issupp-
'ic Bensala ot ths .rvor 3,,{,air, aic io so ro Gei0al p,acrrcally nrair ro ihem ro
pEbably, borowed ih6' "ns r'o s..! "lly
imro;rair;ir,), o, a oily Do .frcr,h6.otriry 10 Lvhich ir helonsdd.1l': 1,1 - " 1 rlro.o da. .alco as c.dado do B.is3la by rh3 carly po treu.se .hroniclsrc and carc
Bongrla in Jris i rarivns.
a plqce ormnd ihpo,raica brfore the Ahkai:ss oc.upELion or Ch.!asoi9 i ea,ly 159o's. Bu1dtrrrn0 rrre Alaksi.se eqine (c 15sot.r.65 aD), hD pla.e imporrncs * rho mo
3 r HQ, xvtlrlao),331 332
ihpotra ol L[6 Po usue* $nlehenrs in tirh 'us]oi.
as chi[a$sncriB[ place ol ssdsms , rhs Po us!6e
iow iatrr:iidd hh nama (ia, rhsciryol Bsns3l.) l,om chtrbsorsr.om rhe closig ye s
besan LD [. cllhJ a] c(y ol Beisala or only Beisali. Tlrarpd'od, lmdt silh6rBensala
Tre tavelle.s whor.r.r ro rhs plaD.
su\dn e ro Disnsto (onluson amotrg rhe
sore ot whom veal rlre iane Botrsala as aide i.al, so $B Eumpe.tr w -
mo on 'his
plaE by 4iLher name. The
.orld not.oma mLo dnoci LAlallon wnh lh6:lloscd cly of Bsrsala owng ro iha js:lrus, and hostrlLiy ol
lor fto knowtedso obour rhe ,eoion, r
lrre map ol van den Bbu.k (1660 A D), rhe
omiLs he oamc sjrealaalsr x irm cr i!ii{,) in irs.oreor posilion. Thers1orc, rha @i..llson mc, Drs ,A rho Podusrcss ory ol Bensra durhs
ruached by such smlnBit aurhorns 6 col,r!h, Heveren.i Ho$.n, M' Lu d, [4, J J A C:mpos and Dr R C
6d sriouslv dspuGd, k rs norico.ble rhar oian!romcd oily a pa and Fa,hsr Fahan.
fis Iercr wrtsn rmm oiais on Decemb6r22,
is99 A D larls DGnq a rown (vill6) inrhe ponofchirkgois.rhls b66n rcftiiad ro i. rhs
Po usuaro sBrorie as ,Bsnsuel (Bensal/
nry concludr ou, ds.ussioD wirn rhis 'sm
k thai ftepon roui
, c, traloio r l5/
77i al,o / l s ,, lxl1s13), 433
|,
36d ta Hr.rory oi ahhddd d
La6rs, Mai&lslo's and.urchs,s accouib and ot$6 tab 6ii_rasnrh aid rhe sevoicenrh ca ury mrps, .! Dianq.
CNAPTEN XIIT
Tqtr \IUCH.TI RIGIUE
secri.n 1. Mu0hEr conquoer ol chi(.eons
Tha Musr.il coiquesirha qlorDrs ev?iE ot rh3 re qn of Au,oszb. lr 9iv6 rho.vrdeila or rhc Nlush3l ialsd ro, drarotosdphy and ri,a
ihm6d ab obj4( orrh6 arp6ci'ion ooiGmrLr.c by chslr h6sKatr loon trr apio
of 'hd
Knsdon" (d)j.lso s;3
Chiuaqono und6: Lha Muqrral reqins l36l
New'rholes, rh€ ctrlbiial Bnbirioi o, ihs Mush8ls was rha
chlar morva rh srimulabdsuc@so6 or the Arqhds,rh. Muohils ftouqhl, rhsy hld aialuEl.laim ovs, chitasong, Th3 exphris wiyro bs included ln rha l4ushal 6dnisndivgrh{,1 prr ol B^!:l A-!102'6 irm.d' slr Jr6. hk d_-r'on,,ssolv.d b d6al wi'h tho unlnisird p:ojed or his sEidrarhd,
'tuoriiq chi(asong
Thi ia.k bBro,a Shairia Khrn was lohld.ble nd do!br. Bolh $olird .rd s6a ,ouEs ro ChirEsoiq wse h0zndotrs 10, m chEsol nooDs. Th6 juiqlo from rhe sourhon bznk ot rFe Fonl toni orjnr or crihqoro' r w3s scdcely phdi.abla ro mrch an ny nom Ecisalg lnro
ih3nieb rh.i ifi.Bec! rh6 non(i.rc'1 a *r rcula iivasion also{rDUH rlvolvs qEar rhk. rhs iaJat,;idercd n dill mro d'lriDulr io tr.nsDo ,r hvadns lorce by
"rh! silo6 or rha E.nqrl rtorlh wrcd bo s 6f rh6 f.hq,
,shEd only lor ol rha l3r*, the s.isal crcw thouqhr rhsm
s6Lvos lu.ky ir rh6y could srve ihen livee by lltqhi'd
Bur Shabla Khan'6 spnr and en6,sy Dmved ro be eq,al roihe snudion. Ha dnenBd all his si6rsy ro rhc rcbuildrtro of,ho naval ror.s and lhrolsh rhs caasdlBs orer ons or $. Nawib,
3621A Hrflory ot Chrr.s.i0
ch{r,sois undor rhe Mushal hgims 363
O"q o' a todee s.:!en by rh6 {d.ror dr tjgl ,o r.,6 S r,.
h s &rbrrul vrx.rha, ,hJ Nj:vr6 ou( such a srep 's ro
d ed ro srLavir. L is liGly Ih rtu DuEh
mnrer Ihq Etlsi lacio,s of Benqat unds!
stnd0s riE n6c:rsi1Y ol hsl)ir rhs Ndw3b with mei and
mrLdal, srit ioidlm:tron in 5outhan Iidisthar .u.h asnaicd ro trr N vsb would $uch rufllrer rh8i
n Ee,3rl.2 Eut rh6 Enal6h sdhoririss in sou-
rrrar^ lnda, ar isL. mnrry .sssraico ro rhs
Ihr srlh a.ridolfrsa o: fi: .o.npiy's
n ghr be iivolv.d{a.ro6 thar thev
c.uld asri: Lr dr savs an ui& akinslo r olrP .omo"n/ in
ctu::t b p:y th:n dabls ro [. Eiq]ish 4
Ths ourbEiLt ot rhe Aislo-Durch w bw d rha middle ofsnuaron Bo$ ihe Eislsh
aid da ourch becamr iowobviously in o:ds, b san his rro_r.
riance in Bengll h dly moro than a Yer,re[ cmbmd*ed os ro tom vJhoh or lhs co end Ds pa iss he
would sssk helD. Ir^.riwrrJr, ,lrs slluaLon tooka dn8reni tunaid rre Nawab io loise, felr ii iced of rhoir helpo
Al.ro all Lh, cof,rmporary sotrrcs r isrr rofto Mus-:l uonql",r o' rr L,,o s
5 E F r, 166a 166z p. 1{4
r
366 | a flidory ot chirGsois
hmsir if rhe ra(6r dd ior b,eakup ih:ir Elariois
(The Nawab) $rc eiBd ro oveNh.lmfie pndes ii ijremediabtoruin if th8y d d oor rmm.diaely subml ro rhe Mosol.aurhoriry,,aurcnszab3 isltied in rhe ,esoturon,, sa,l he b lh6h, ,or
chadhos rha kins olnakan, and a Durch rteel roo oowe ulis ar haid. tt
Manucci moE sp€eiricauy shcs l
'hrouqh rh6 h6o .t Anronio dd Foco aEside or Hust,. .rh,s m h chardew a brorhs i;6.d
?
chtbsons uid* rhe Mughal ,a6im, | 36?
sebasiao Gonsalves who was rhashai{a Khai s tor Anbiio d6 Roqo, 3id held a tdig
him. He requAsbd hmrs. ravou, io hdtoof rhe royat .d06. He ptgdsed hh wordo o .sr !1orid b"
aod orhe. zamndrE rtrM nawda as hG ilror,i .toie w h
wjh 40 vossels, jo red rhs Mushat ilsa romak6 Bal\ a rohidbla na,ar o:pecnion.
Tho problem ol p6$ase or rhe ny rhiousr ai iiho.pn.bisIand and (he supply ol €Lom m I € 6dv:i iq amy d€m6rd.dspacial ah6 ioi.Itu Nawab h,d dr.adysancd some kiowledso
que,, Tho drisa loEs aid mtrllnuwould orler a haidi.ao
d rfrcrl7 M I Munazr .otied.d a hroe nlmbd ol axes lor lrnq e cu [o0.2 ih! Niwdb 1,:s €qu:lly .or or. forfis rcoular rupply Lh-a armv. Tatsi imahs:
solri5 (qrai 6,h.lr ol all rh, gra( wrror, le6) brcuqhl inlo D:cc: shoUldjdqr of ill prts of E.irrl !,q4
shorld bed4zarchld ro rre rlpli oi 4 force .sd ei.sllerrom the lreshn ir rll
I' ,r r. rh" N,,abd a oir anl l€rrnothnq ro chan.a Li hstd d,oka6r dplo.
ro rhe Mushah rnd of{erino con.,lLilo,y IavoureGov.rnhenr, - The htrs
msnino ch€r mual orr.*,oid n.r iotodri. p. 1s3nr.
rupe4 and a mtr h,chier capbin (s{k , a\rfiEzih. | , 234)
ci,tasonB und fis Mushsl,ooim6l37l
or (h s .o esroideicarh3 Niw:'ot olrd was ior qiv6i duo
hid was surr riodrly dri.d up o p,ovrdo fac'l rhdor Lhi ,orces 6pe.a ly cavalry. Txs sud.cs olcomD rvrly c6li
rcapho Nrod s!sqesred ai ca,ll,tla inromed s. nawab rh 1h6 Amkliese
had h{h6no €slscredchdoaon atrd rhat Lhe Dlaca could
be .as'ly Eirn i( ir mmsd'a16ty wrhotrr
Lhe iawab asreedro ths. a ioirr ar{k or chtusois by land
15s5, ,br a monerrausprciousro' makiisa beo niins,' Blzu,o rrom Dhaka wrh hk
sboe rhs Muqhal mv wrs d'vid!d, )r wasrcsolved Lhr thc army und rhe di'ed comn'.
was Lo rollow rho varcuad ihalrhe ronr .ommand
was d,sdod ,o movo uo wi$ lbn HuEinaid r3nu zamndar wrh fie fl.d " l(am:13 a ei ot rh6 for
who had ukAi shslsshah J:h]n, wis ,Iso
Mn Nrunda, "wrh a band o, $. M.shs wro tivsd I Dh.(a,th h. wduld be
Bur k war soon discovered ftr a tdqrr Arok.nese ,l6dwas sEyins a, +s Hrrla cr*k.3 ior
bBva\ s.lod aoan+smaller crdfr. The tuakaisse ilier c; e
lna di o,. h '4 ,lro mear rh3 siemys t,rser shios cathd khJrs aod dhrds,,nh
rh5 satbs wrri.h Eachedpray.r. -The rwo I n6s
srood ldiiq lach crh{ ind rhre wrs oity a d a an lery duet,brr io closa, adlo.,
3 Ihe drr:m caitroL rhs ide iried
5 S l.r. A .'g26. rr, :37
chjksons u.ds rhe Mushat bsims l37S
es dins rhlssecoid iaval eiqzqamlnL Janu y 23), rh6 rr.gr' o,] drfere a litrtr w Lh Lhe F,
soon afr*v^rds (ans it nGr n3v,l br 6i, rh3 larsnshtps('dvJw a..buzurs) or rhe lFmy c.ms i sghr, tor a se.ondrim: huohL a tois aid seyqe ris l and suissr ll:d r6m rhs
(anaDrul, aid hh oqi b.sor ships hadhim, re rrrorqhr ii iiadvisabte ro.dvancj
rteer Lo I su abl6 ph.e and pased ih6niohr n keopiis war.r 1
io'n rh6 n:wad 2 1, coI { itr.h rr him$I
shpi .nlrJ srb; sh!rub! ii tho middle.nd,h6, 3 n1., aid lalbas aid ko$s sido bv
Arakanasa tleer enrorod rhs mourh oltho K ntsDhtrli ind ,ea.hed ao cknd in ths md$rcdm (prob8blv
modeh Bakaliar ch ) shrps in lli6 or b te
baweei lhe shnd Husair .voided rashness
.nd wiih Esat caG aid p,udeice lollowsd rha Ankan* 116(,
Ths imoral llesr rcached rhe ,lvs, mourh and block.ded it so
lerr bank or rhe nver, clos6 ro rhe villaro or Fi,iisiband4 (ora@\,
rh6 aak.nese had erecred rhrc6 hamboo stockades, and "llkdrhsm w rh rillery, maiv Telinqas i1h6 tohrhs m€n ol A6kaoaid rwo 6l6phanE,imDd al tleer enrsrcd rhe moufi ol tho riv and cams ns rorhe!.o'.ad.6 h. Ak.rios6 ri ls y rp4hl ll*L h ssoBs th rhe r lring could do lir e'dam.so ro
ths mperial rlaer.he en€my by borh hnd and rvrhe ver and Iaidrd a body or r
.ohr$ aftck slen.ad rher ouns Th8
Ara' s4 sinGon arr r $ubbo,i rloht ibaidoned rh8 srocrades
On rhar day (Jaiu y 24), Fafiad Khai, who had ac.ehre.dhh march row d Chnralone arved rhs b3nk ot rhe (arnaphut,l
o/,le ol^ It t,Jl
Borh rhe ,4hdErn!n.h and rhe Fdhla de rhar rhs appro.,hol ths Mushal my damDoied rh6 spniEison. Accodins ro ths AlonE adah, "rhs snemy to{ h6 rar
rhs rishr dr rha hlamic "'.y 3 T,l"h *,ir.s
rhe to ntohrd rha
app,oaoh ol lhe Mughrl ihy This nsws and rh. soac6.t6o, rha vi.rory o, rha imp,ial rte4
s,rhon rnd sotdis's o, $6 cdufuy, rhartolq6 iumba rhsy eda
Iho aurhor or rhd FdLhra n rat6s rhsrollowinq rh' iaval bnde or.Jaiw,i16s rhs aurh.r, ,reidiis ro rhs ron (or ch eaon) rwo rur_
rhe $ips, wror6 rorh. qiladar,... ,why ehould you idedlssty de oy youbolt andyour family ? Barorc seized aid Ecirced ro
up your ro , ,nd sava your lrs aid piop6ny,,I'o qiladd. la' ,s ,.a,sl , .o..$timo lor sscape, s back rh3 reply $at trs.horld ba srr 6dr6spii6 lor fta nishr he would 6dmn,hem.s Thms €ve s or rha itshr havs alks4he been ,onorcdby lho aurhor or rh8 Ad,sti,nr'
1 ,rjd, p. 2osi Trlish is sile abolr hh a iv"] ar chirGqooo.i
2 ro0tyo, p. zoa. rn" ,t N i" sitenr abour lha m5.ch or jho command.r.ii chlel oi January 24.
chirbqrns !ndo, rh. M!shat rdsimd t379
zamind atons w h hre @mpmiotr; sEEd rh6ro did sor fb adersd soon airsrwar&, indtisd his be ro but ii vain rh. fi. .pEad
as onois ar atoxander,s hado rha dsr,toiuiconquroblo fo'ft6 wom our, h. (tbn Husaii) rsa,o
1 ^
N O,dir, p,2osn He musr hav. b6oi p.so.d6d by rho ad-vaicis ahy uidor Farh.d Khai,
3ao lA H'srorY or chluaeoid
mrk4 lhe qrlad., or charsaoi cap(llaro ro Admnal LbnHdlain'
slvino rhs Nluqhal land rorcs lnrl6 6h a i rhs evs ' on th€
b 116, htsnsied 1o I$ nelshbodfioodw$ poslbla lff him ro reach Lhatotr ot cha!
saon na{ day (J u y 2s1 as lhs Ahng,rd,.h cl6 lv 4n6s
So rhr p ricipaLioi oT $o amy h fis a$atrh or ths ron c'nno' be d sm'sdjounish,.
rh6 ,eal drliculLv lies ln $e icoishkncy in delails. Talish
'hs knd .my ror $6n psrormance ii rh€
al th, AhnEtrdmt
Satkdt, AdlnEnb, t, 245
ahirlaoois undo, tho Mushal rcsms l361
would ior svo to ths irval loEer irs dua cedir' But on
ro s.v rhn lailish h!d. sruds6 aqaind rhe
my oid rhsau,ho, or rho al'mgr&@l, hid D ill-l..liis sqal.ssito vl.M comP iblo bY arqumsnr
:nd somo hyporhlses lr mus! bo admrti.d rhor rh. 8i€as.nairsb w!6 fts arakanssa aid rhe Mushdlt w.r. chieflv naval rh'.hy hlviis oily a scoid y rcla b pl6Y, Th. batla ot rh'Kahoohul de.ded Th6 dola,t di3h6a,si6d
doqrc' rhd rhev p!a' -
callv could orrs lnls rcssanoa b rh€ iiuadins Mushal amv
Borh ths Fdi)o aid fia Ahng)Nncheious laod ensasamg b.Lwian rhe Muqhal and ths Arakano.s
m,.onod rhe ollad who $ lac.d dveEsalL r,onG Th6 advancod my udd.t F.ftad
(han mshr riavs laksi pa4 ii ir' Tha Po udulta uoachsrY rnd
lodl paasans dvolr mads rha rask ot lbi HuaiD !o oary 'hrro, Lhs drivzl ol rh. commandsrin chi8f,
uldd Muiaww Khan 56t rh6 lotr oi lro,Tne on,y rhitrq rha( wrt 16 pull down $€wallr or rhe iort and rc demolish iL 'lho
m.ins ol rhir lon which, 6cco'dine
evei rho Emp $ ol aloxander.
The .us{ioi iow ,emalNi wlry rhs rkmsra,r,h asisiadrh6 achievem.nrol rhs .Epru is or rhe chars&on fotr ro ftaahvby dop vns ft6 iavy ol ir6 dus edh ln rcply, tr crn bo sdthd tho ,ecod kesp s ol rhe D6lhr sovohmdnrwerc no( ii dir6cr
6 '.r wirlr rhe evens ihai had bs6n raklns phce thouoaids or
mllrs away iid rh. imp€rial clpibl. Thev larsslv dopoidsd on
rh6 repons of Lhs ^rfce's of rh6 Niwrb shai.ra Khm who woulddsrln chief 6r rho vicro,ioFamY
ol rhe fotr ol chdsaon. To san . hioh-
etder son m'qhr havo .aoiurcrr hi. lmasiidlon,l
1 rh: Nrwsbt mEitoi wm ruI'lled a. his 3on siinod ulm6r
3dz ta Ht.rory or Chhhsorc
sir J6dui h snk h- daraored a s iour mhrekd ii raLsh,s
r has beei dkcove'sd. A mhkkework h qrire ndu l1
ois or pmbrbly ,s havo r6aDhed rhs
svo,y hns !L nn my orf,csr coutd d6s rs rodaysi v'2., ts rirto, a h,ohEikins m.nsab ai( rhe
ch rLa!ois uide, rhe Muohal 'eoima
1333
Eur. cr8lul eramid'otr cr rhs rooF wIio s ious di.mny
d6c 1s 'n
Lhs ,a,angtr,,n.r.
rhe hcr pEss or rhe forw d move-crn b! aftnqed .hroiotooically. Fonun ety
sou.e books me oi d eswhtrh ,. exkomltvv,llabls fo, day rco d io th6 frarch of rh6
rhe ronowiio ,s
pa(y und4 F hid
J3nu y 17. AcDording
mgrrdn.rr, F:,had Khan "daoio rriy.s totr 6y. and
um€d Khri s rival
.lanuary ?r. Ac.ordiio ro thoHu.ain ieu r(um ia ( say 15 mibs nonr ch.rqeoi ), which dc.or
and wh,e rtu lunsla
ar a pla.aakos oi Farhad Xhan and Mn
Giched som:whe,o ne mods,n Brd! i, abouL (.n mils6 rrcm
Ihirdlv, rh6 sandv rouro alo.o rhe s.abaaoh could na! b6
cova,sd wirh junslo owiis 10 rha sxtuma saliniry or rh8 soilTh. expedirioi v lorcs., borh land aid navy, weddrccred'harrh6y shouldp,o.e.d.lde by sid6li such a m narrh oi. Ehould
not lore sishr of rhr orhar.
Lidly, rha dsr6tBicou,aq.d tha Muqhals
b charcaon. Th 6ld4, nelevan.s oriothinqunusual in th6 iaiiarioi ol tho mov€menrs orlha ahy. Ths,4ldh-
$eclli. aid chronoloqical th6n the dlh.r ln
rclarioi 16 rhis sur such mno, laulb .s rhr omlsloi or dars(J.iuary 25, d6 .Gdir or Tilhh as rhes6..
Sir Jadun h snk ihai cha,s6' rho oficrl hidory (honhmnrl.mdt) wirh rh6 reha* rh.rir"ioiorespa play.d by rh6 Firinsis ii rha campaisi."l I ie tuo lhdrho rrd,Srddhar,) trilik6 tha Forrr does ior slvr coBidd,abla
h lhs dahp:ion, bul ilwill bo uijrv ro $y lhar ir comolaGly ovdlook. then valuoblo.eruicos. Tha /4kngkndnoh, ir IoBt in onopla6. acknowledqas"rho 6rclb s'vi.es' rcndsrcd by rha chief c.puii,whoacd-mpanisd rhe mp*hl ro,.s ii rhhexp6drion."2 ft.anbsrc8o-nably suppB6d rhd rho oflicial hisrcriai dop6ided almost 6rcldiv6lyon rh. rcDo^s $nr by rh. Muqhal olfic.h d Dhaka. Th6 padpls6s wsll as rhs sovskmsnr know 66ss psdplo, who lo,rhola$r5O yea6 mEkiiq havoc o hs ruushal r.rirortgs I was hldly. lo iiqhr whai rh6 PoilusuosD pn roe coiduciod rhair uru.lrid! oi Bonsal vilhs6!. An inr6rya! or only . rEw w@kscould
1 Sa,t<t, tt,ang,to,1u, Ztz
336 I A Hkrory or chilacon!
co ma: old sBsii(r o,4irp.n!,iai.ol theFeocla. rr !:s r dplomnc iE ro.
By ai mEhl od$ chkraqciq w,! ,6iam6d kl6mabad2or rM l:rd of ktrm aid ir was ptacsd lnder dmcr Mushat Adml
I 8ur. A ! (50rh Aii. Pubr.
rha Mrqhil coiqu6s o( chirragong w:s ior mq6ly 6 r6maLkibre milirdv v crory,wrhrheMuqhll hrqu.tr rhs ca uqold isolarioi or thadhLi.r
ot polticallire orIo ai ,Aid. A lons ia,ly a ce ury mddechiltaqdis a p r ra to,y rid ir wdlld havs
ior 1ak.d Pla.s. As aq was asrin unlled wirh Eeiqal
.nd rha lo* or hrnrero^h, ai erclusl-
wirh rho miqtred of chirlarono by rh6 M qh.ls, rh6 dhricrth6 Muqha! rndis !! th rh6 Muqhal coiqus*
r iew culru,a, a new dyla or a,chirc.ruhlchl laiEuaq6 we,o Besldes rh*4 ,h6distict rucBivsd a new nama 0shFabad) Durins rho Muqhat ruta,Musl,n cultuB again becams predomrnoDr,
"Ihe mos sloious ,ssulr ol rho viorory_, ln rhs visw ot'skJ'dunalh S kr, "was the rehase .id ,onoErlon rd homB or rho-oeids of Bonsal pss b who had hosn kdiapped by rhe pdres
ds or slavss becam:trcemoi ov -iiqhl wirh rha
'pDroach of rh. v'crorious Mdqhih. Ecco'dns ro
or rho .laws, in
rhe "mo$ qlo,io!; res!lf ol1h. Muqhal vlcr.4. The mo, qloious
ChirLasoig udo, rh6 Mushal rc€im! | 393
rcsull is rhar il se.urcd ror rhe dkricr rhs much dsi6d ,P6i
lked. Nonhsi chirEqons asan becams poDuldGd Ar Nawab
ri _.oly Io rho smosrcr's
1n', g'' i 4om sr"wl,{l.mar is the @mposure (iamsn) o,
'h.mlndr or rhs [!uslim! pnabs), ws Gan e6ilv
seciion 2 .hirlaqonq Under rh. irush.l aob.hd.E
as Pl.ced unds mllndy qov.rrJnd $.i soi or Naw.b Shakra ftrn:,d
corqusororchnkqonq. w,s .ppo ed mlliBv ,dmin{rdor ol rho
co^q 'erad
dcrlcr.2 rhoush dG(ict oilY l.r a
shor pe'icd his iame .id achi.veme htv€by thc nsme o, a nlaca rEuzurs Lro.dpu in Mn s.rai u. z), r!
my otricq, wrs do0dred ro the no h of chilhsois/'ro,o ruE$rabl's5 s rltrnah."4 Tai Mlana 'wnh hic
folowe,sand a huidrad [email protected] sppolnbd thanadar aid suard ot rh! ro.d iio chnelDn ro rhs b.nk ol rha FBiirivar"5 Mod.ro
rajpu in rlro Mre ? romembhnco ol $6 arct
Muchrl firi.da n thr( Ieo'dn
394 lA Nisrory of chiLracono
wi(h rhe rerum uf iomsL.y r Lr. pL,hlc tr., rr ht,:trryru16 over rho dsrrr cams ro ii€hr unde rhe .ivil:eh-ut-ttlukhoan, lslamabsd oi c r.Joisrdn iauldars or eeng:lciany known as lariir otrder rhs .ub,h or E:;iall r:. h,sbryot chirbsois dc,iis []o [4!ghal rule r.oJs uidaj rEfe]ttrwr!
Ar.kane!o ihcursio,s inro cnirtnq.nq
loi ch !^!ois ro 0E Mr.,als, h'y.ould erDtorc poss,
bilri.s. Ac6rd rs
r*s ,n sourhwrrd dna c.
nass m.d6 a pldrfamity hisro,y or ire hitlt'ns hd 3r.,ped.qThe AEkanse ,atd ii 172a A D wai so inroisc rra r,. Mqrhft
corEspotrdsnce ot rJr: chist ot chnbqois, dL Feb irqr E P P, xxvt 1e24), r5
sa*ar atrtdnsztb, | 241
rlurch rodi, (rnrd8o,& rir,, Iiddr (Mss)
rh tr.srr! rndfl rhc Mrshal rcsms t395
admini5!aioi !,hs dskid lell in coirrseddso,saiizarion. A l6rE.tom Edua Rcynold, J!0d8 , supplios iha
30.000 Moqh sold -s o, AEk,i hod ,nade a dsscenr on chi.uaoono and pluid.red LD rown. Tha d'srulbaNe sD,oad ro
arc5s so rhar ieynod was cohpolled roleare Juodea anc eka sEl,{
'n rhe Eiglsr f.clo,yar Dlcca,
rhr rolldw nc ye (1725 A D), th6 Mash.cJms as n and beeri Dllndr'rs rhe Eiglish tod rifry peF.. of rrn soods ar
arohh,p or Muhommad Baqr,,'3rhe rh:iah or hlam.bad was -b'oken up_ by rheAnkaissa onais
berles borc aid rlkcn away sone rhous:.ds or oeople.s caprivssFnFo, Lernory,"
Murch'd out ,4 airerhisrsm Eeisal, de.ded inmly b dnve alvay 16o Ankaiesa invadedwho we'e dll rovre alons rh6 colsr ot ch rasons and hotdinsirs people e o: und* $e command ot Mntuuhammad !ac5 was rhanahor chitusons,,,
iB€isal Publ c consulhr dns,, Nou.2s, 1125 andNov 28,1126,qr A Krim, Irmsrd Qtltt Khrh dnd Hb 1tn4, p. 58
wrhen by Azad ot Husaitri, k:is srkar, B-gd, Nod5J, p, 4He hay be ide rkd trnr Mrza saqr,i6tbofchkksois,man.
Loned if Himtdullar ftait lisr.
was iMn:o Lurrulah. ile was a son inJawol shujauddn Muhahmad ftai 6nd roceived rho rirte of i0uEshd oul (hm rnrrz, p,274).
5 He may be idsnrted whh rhe naib (7131or tho .ame iamBin coroi's
^l.nofoir?i dtrd in Hamidu ah Kha s l4dth,
Olhd orriceE wh6 acdmprniad hrm w.rc Mrhammad sadlq, M r
whi.h wrs ttu E, bis!(huisah) or fid rhanah ol chrlsaon. 'ai,p]|r .:y thar no on.
vasr mYass,mblsd
itr rd or hlm rem:ined i hld nq in $sn.wn l.nd, aid Godt
3c6 LA H dory or chi[aqo&
E
Tho ,6laroi berween rh. Mrohl qo!*imat atrd the hlLchofs or chuason0 by Lha subm s:lon ol rlro
lar., ro lh6 Mushal sore3,i,e . rn 1r'r a D Jn3l Klrsi, tho
tuliie Chakma .hler (khii4l ln corron
ohalned pe,msron
diiiss.3 The r:do asreaiE was IKhao, w5o in rdd ron ro th4 received t,on Faulda, zlkadr Khan,
laid n rhe Fansun a vslllys lo, whlch scprrare
Gvonue wds paid.4 Backed by rhc Mlsh,l aov me , shdmFrKh.n in.r6as0d hk iilluen.e by d:qcesaid cams ro occrpy ths
of rhe hill trrhs. shdm. Khan died hJahbd Kh3n. his co0.ii €r.ceded him ro
rhs zamrddi and
und€, rhe Mdqhal sor imeit.
I H6 w* p,obably
2ors k, s!,g,r Ni,orr, o a
3 Htrrchhson, op .ir, p. 24
ippoht!d :s irb n chirh
cl,rksonq un.4 rE lvuot:l eeh! .,1r1
Lho plaioe wdo oftoi suuie.rc ro sllri
'n$ ot rha slddei dracks ot rhe hill peoile. rhese aGcksnade rrE lra qid a l'$or w rEn by MrJimo, rr vn. -ole, o'or cr..bq
i cil.unr (Decsmher, 1744 A o), ,apoft, thai(a tr bal le:der) ,mahDi)dd
pa sot fte h'lL rnd loo.red rh3 villaor ol rhc plan.' Ths Ia(* ru,rher repons rhar "oicsm 'h. Mtrshal sovsimanr, duriio rhe rcslduico rereof Mahasinqtron6 huidred n2Lchloik men roltowed rhtsKtun's) s,andklhs riom ona eid ol rh! hlls ro lho orher and
drcvo hlm b abscoid ro Atrscin.'1 Tie Muohrts, howv , ra[sd.'laroidl o. r oi3 .r '\. .ll trbsio
rhs "ilia5's
of rhl(F,h !a,y 16,176r A o) qjras evlds.o or tha ii*crrc cood I or aid,wanL ol dB probcr o),Tho mcrBions ol nE r hssmen.onriiued down ro rhB carly p€riod
rvu:r,h sL!jr.rs
mLi.rkab]3 isarurss in lrro medievalhidory
Dolcy or p mi(iis re ion Mssl'mrh!r own raiLhs _ x s rerlly amazins ro sed
rh rhe tuling soflioi did ne he, dkqula! the miio ry cohmu
rh6 eneuins Arekdi elpedirioi. All on a strddsn, H6arh wihdGwhb padiciparion .id s&il6d away ro orfer hls ssrvicas ro ths ruler
oEveiI dis.losurc ofiho wholsmater, aid
ledh allans @siry to rhs rad rhd rho
pu,po$ ot rho Enslish tade6 with respect
ro sdii ir by d6h0no moaus.
104 | A Hhrory or ch (asois
a basa or nrlha,y MlsLIs oi o;cariois.rhoy wolld rum us of r5e snnit anuiriesol lh6 Ponususrr co&6 lndenu lke essoies woutd n.tu.rally p@voke disple u,a ol ihe local sovehma , wh ctr p4veddsvime^ral nol only b lha iiror€ oi rho Enslsh Lrn ro oh
.1 'J
kr. r.t"it6d ro astblsh a
l8llure in enablsh is ladoras o' sddam. s i chiiasois ar.norfar b seEk. FGLi rs chir.srns !v:s a irwty cotrqtrered Lrovand a toiLier o!rpo$, rhe Mrshal sou nmenr
uide' nicL suNsilhica As a m:ulr, rhe nov:m.ir: or rofu:,,Jrin lhs ph.o was look.d upoi wrhPoonla li d P!.r ro hr, wol d o l/
secoidly, ror sevBal dccrd.sot ['c eirlv pai ot rho Mushrlrcsims, th8 .oas6l pan of l5e
wrose d6p,.drrors.toislr 6rn 1s
B3n9, coasr hrohlydscoumssd rhe Eiol6h aurhoriries froi, u a
btishis a iadory i ch,(isoio. Th, Ackansss 6d oi tho Enqlishfacrory d Jusroa as tire trs 1726 A o, p,ove. rhairhs .oan of
s wfa srmdhii. li[a ,be6 hives,,which could be.ru*!ad whli.vflequned Throusholl !h! psriod,
ii 8'osrt p,osrd:d uids rha pror.d,Dn olMu6hid ouli(hao ani
syn in 1713 A D by rhe Enslirh w.s a
€re srao in sr.r'h1 rica raulibs i, Benoal. Thoy woG allowedro oshblth f,clorlss wha,evrr rhey lkeJ. E,ei rhoi $syw{eior able ro ediblsh a lasrory ii LhirEsorg I rough rhsy mllhl h:v6
chi asono lndor $s Mushat,6sima 4OE
a.r* ot l. r in chirroons. h bacrmo cl€ rhd nejrh alivardi
w'h r6 arakaiosa invad.6,
commercial loohold oi tha pon lowi of chinasorc, Th6 Frs,ch
wss noi altou€dAliv di (h.i and hs succ.sor si,ajudd.ulah.
The Eistishi in rE meairim4 joiiod rhs conspnaoy rsaii< NawabSi,ajldcalhr on A2,il 2i), 1756 A O in his l.rar ro rr, wahh,M, sft,rron susqe ed, rm coss o! Jaid on rho p,ovii@olchi-
ro satrls a lddorv,2 as ono ot rh€ condirioi.h,
106 | A Hisro,y,or chnrasons
would I'ke rhs p,op@ed nsw naw.b tin casa ol sBiuddauhhtdeposiroi) to dcogde. Tha conspnacv was succo$rullv oxsou_
rad io rh3 farsful liald of Pla$3y.
lr caonor bs p'6che1y known how rhs ba le ol Plassv
allscGd a dhbnt sa,k Lka Chilhsoiq. oie ol tho nora,onhY
in rho so,my polirkal sceia of Beisal
E. c.tslon ol Chitt.lons hv ths Mushal sov.rnn.ntro th€ Ealt Indi6 conp.hv
Mi' zal& was s hroiad ln tha iawsbship ol €ansalbv tho
Ersr tidia compaiy. The Comp y in room rccsivad a lump
Bun l,om rho naw.b who pDmiled io plv an vadilv trlbuEdid$is ludarlv. $nlsFe wi,h rhd nawab lrarilidd a cohpanv
lound rhd rho iawab lailed b meer his obli_
ro rho companv, rhesvanco ol wlrich knsw no
6ihauered €ichequar d'd nor p mlr Nawrb Mt zalar
b Ear sly tho insaiiabl. qrcad ol rha Enslish Oi rho orhsfttid'iho mtruption orthe sdvaiB or rhs comprnvbrouqht ir und$ acuto
lhtnohl c.i!h. So thay w.rc looklns for new 'vsiuss
ol incomoro
6dhlv 'h6ir
qrowltrs
rha Gov6in4 in council d Fon h'iuhfr b obrah lbm rhe nawab
tho edsblishmsn(
i4 ,7J5.57,11, 349.i50
'DaEpalches ro Esnsal, Msrch 3, 1753', ql A M S.Eiuddh ThE
8flou. tdf,irturdki of !h. E,{ Inttr Cahl.rv h ahk@Ear' p 13
chnbsono uidd rhd Mrshal res]fr.1407
6'dd r,on rha iawaDl sim!1| Middlalon risbv rho cal.u a councl. Aqha N zam
bs.:!se h s pE wlia l,om Mn zal das3ddrussd ro M:ha sinsh aid.or ro him.r rn Novenb , Ve,els!aid hls counril ar aDs ly ,rar Ash. Nizrmwrs rh,owirq evdy mDed,msir o. then
to Pdmit lha Enqlhh
ro ourchba .ldrh ii his cDuntry."3 RobtrTi.d Epeacdly bv rhs
-a lirrle srrd'hE a/iv:l itr Beisal (ln 1760 A D) v,Nirartalk d
but Nawab Mr zatu, "pos rively rclu$d
Btrt M r zarr would Lo rh s p,oaosl whi.hwould co rhe nrwrb otrs ol rhs mos lsourifrl q*25or Eeigil srs.h.,n hb hond, Mi' zar3' wtr bold €ndroh 10 tu down rE Enslishproposal h 6$ablish orploir ion The nEwab
nor onlv crussd rh-A orln bdr also dech."d rhd ia solld nor
H A Viis ua , ,4 N,iI,l,! ol. tlL.d6B rc.civcd fiom Beisal, Ja
403 A Hisrory ol Chitaronq
iow oicloss you iwo hleD rromrM Nrbob, di perulal or which vou wrlt lind I hav6 ior beeisrcc€ssful in any applicatiotr ro him for rh6 fotrrdeco or chirra.sono aid silh6!, H6 hm acquaiired m. juniow wir rhoresutrol his .oisulrarion yeserday wirh h s mnk1e6, which h a dowi
qhr Eru6a,, all.dsino rhar LEso rwo prov cas hs has .sstqnedro, $a n.inrenanc. or rwo or his sone md Monil.tt acb asfi6kDewai."1 ri rcDly, MrSyk6 inrorhes kar _should bo aiv los roptny r' odld p:v rha same es the proseit posesor dds." Bu!ths n3wah ior only Gjecicd e ,aq!65i bur 6vei prr astdo rh6
!o br'lc a racrory,c.ephbla.2 ( ws bacon ns .le rhd $6 company could not,aco,vsdl wharfi.y wa ed lromthd ir a nsw nawab repLcid rhe p.csitrr ono rh?n i |r,gi rumcolld ba siiiednom $o icI n\.ift rrlr d. .ec.ssrv ol d Lja,xrdrLBo.i.ao prv
B, L ii,s could nor br saiied .o toniii rhs nawrbsh p trrs
Tho ier choics or ,he Eislish w$ Mn o66im. Holwsll,rho succ€ssor ot clive sns,(.d himrelf ir sdsr aranoeme wirhM, Oasim aid phc.d rhs.ld demand or rhe compinv berora him.Mi omim reDlied rhal ,lsLrabad wrs nor in rhe eilL or theDiw ,- beiis a jagir or M. Falouri, Mir
i6o.ria,on, Mi, o im w:s arsu,6d or Flolsh
l6 1730, qr, VanrnE .p..il.. p. 3s
r.en{s re.aived lbm sensar, Jan. 16,1751, qLl l s p, xv /1970,,
H, is! ro Goveho" no dar., 1760 ql Abdul rvlblld (h:i, ip.
chirhsons undn tha Mushal rcgm61409
suppo ii s.inlno rha &bahd6,!hip A s.cr6t troary wa..onclud8db.Mson rhr Enslish ind Mn o.sim on seFromb* 27, 1760 a D.
Ev rho rinh .nicls or rhe rrearv, il w.s o,ooded rhr "ror all chlnand or tho said ahy, aid p,ovisiois lorlha
riold,8.. rha Li.rs ol Budwan, Mdiapd aid chi isong, EhallEuiiuds lor rhd purposa shall b6 w,ilten and
sranEd. Tha Compaiy is E rrEnd ro rll loss8, and rccsivs .llrha p,olir. or ih.s6 rtu66 counries.'1 In oclobar,176c, Mn zrlw.r d6pos6d and Mn oarlm wa6 odalled as n:ib bih.do wirhaU pow66 ol rh6 hzamd Th. prcviousse ertrea,y waspubllcly
By rhi' rrcary, chiikgons was vnrurlly d'smembe,ed f'om rhoju,i.dicrioi or rhe iaw.bshin .id it w.s acd.d 10 rh?t ot thocompsiy lhe Mush.l raujdar was ioplacod by . i4{ Englhh
1a60i r5s CoLIE I r ,o'r fiir"a- tsnpon.cd Haq veElsr 'chisf' ol chnraoonq with Thom.s Rmbold andRBndolph Marior ss mshb . or his councit, wans llitkiB asassisranr ro th6 lacro,y .nd Gokul chaid chosat Es dtwai. vorkt6id hi3 council w s of,missofis chalgo of tho di.ricr otr January 5. 176r, veieln racs,vedrohal .h*s. nom Muhsmmid Feza Khdi. rhs hs M!ehn truidarol chitbqois, "Ths Fa..rul6urrhs Compary's $rvanbsanal non rrie newly 6 hrdiad nawab or eeisal" nalked rhBeidol rho Mushat iul€ .nd rha bssinnins or rhe Bnrish rule over
Soh. AEp6ct. 6f th. t ushar Adntnis-
Ihr whols of chiLtasono a. it ands roday, was nevs.lully
Ahchkoii r@[.J, Ersrg!'46 ,rd sliidr, vol L Anicle 5, pp,
4lO lA Hhrory or ch aoono
.onqused by (he Mughal! Ar rha s ld a* or th6 ,ule,rhe saikha was rh6 Mushel occupr6dd*cr of chnksonE. Grad!.lly. rhs ;ourheh noi[er e eided
ro rhesourlrw d ol rhe capiral (rshEabad)lbod I hy miles b a iver calted cru:.ol\ ro r[a wedwedl,om ths 3rid .iv6,,sourh easr and ean, aid diuda rhs chiu4onq dGricr
'lomrho no h.,.ir h bouidBd by ariver caltod rhB er,ih FBnny rBts Fe ), which smpries irslr
Ths Musrals k or cha,odon, which ats6 tnduded a la,rs po!rion ol mod i chlaNns HlL Tracb coirainsd ai arDj, r.ushty2,s37 !q miles2 aL
.ts i's co.quesr by rha Mushals was plrced uid lndopendeirfauid ry adfrrnh atoi, d,sd.r admiik(arorwas oblio.d 1o rct .s chisr or dhy or occup ion, rtl resuhr
cE ve'y .prly wrissrhar rhs dirtrrcr "becamaro sr sra,iors ror borh rhe mariis and sEndin€ milirarytorcgs orrh.soubah "3 ri u-s a Mushal pollcy ftar rhs whore or rhe conqu4od ro iro,y vns "a$isned, chiorly in Jsse6, ahsha or provhioiror lh! Moobinah (muralenahr mil ri. or oa kotr roops, connan y
Amkai-s."4 Milia,y ourpons had ro be co.3trucrd on rh6 bank.ol rha srikha,5 n rhe sEk roo$itts and atone rhe coasr ro
"Lans kom varehL 'nd
his councrl (dr Fob. 1
Jamos Grant ,An.ly.h'. q Fifrh A+ot, t, 305
ChLibqans und$ r. Mushar resime tlri
prcte.r rhe disuld iom rho ncuGrons o, th' Affi(aies6 rh'hillrbe.aid rha pi,,ss ri 163s,whe0 Capkii He hl v'sn6dchirtasong, h. rouid mo's rh:n rcw't r5. dcd.ass or !' li-e.dF.u. ois inr6
or q soi is noops was aho decre$sdcesion (r760), Lho iumher or mura'yenah
soldieG wds only 3,532 m6i.2
llrr administrdior ol tha southdn nonrie, aid Lhe .o4uLmahdls war made dv6r ro rhs coarmandqi of va o$ hnks. rheyrrad ro ma nu n (oopr asrii{ rha pos'ble lyoads or rhs AEk4 cseand rh3 p d8s. L6id a*isnm€nb c, ,agis werc ora ed m rhem
amons $e orl.aBof hoh runk s.rutrsbound y, rh6 haz 16 or Doharrr came
Thry wsG rcquired,r possibla ro 8tund ( souihward a, rhe cGr of rhs A,akaneehsld tsrio,y. This polcy provod succ€ssrut in rha tons tun aidwirhin ono huidrad y8rs, rhesourheh lmtr ot$e rvtuqhaloccu.pied E o'y exreided upro Khuruskul,3
Besidd rh. Muroy.iiah miriria, r
ralisd a naw4.h or . lloot ot .h6d vsssls for rre prcledion or
Mrrehld Ouli Khan iiroduced somo 'mpo
.nr rcfohs 'n
rh6.ivil aid rcvenuo $e Beiqal subah. Fn$, $Bchaklahi bok rhe place or sa'kft lid rslaDobrd (chtraooiq)b.cdmo oia ol $. rhhr$n chaklahE lnro whch rh€ whol0 0rrho subah w6 d vid3d. The iunbd or p sanas or mahrl, ws
rims ot rha $ssioi,14a pdsanasor varyiis rzs utrds, ch.kl.h,Frsl5mb3d. Socondl,
41' lA H qory or ch iaods
fouid ship was abolh'isd .nd i.bship w.s invodu.gd in rh
placa, Aiorhar mpo ant chdiso thar rook placs uid, MuEhid
oul Khan was lE apporhenl ol Hhdlt in incrcasins numbe, Elhs cv I .id rcvsue Posb
In rhs Mushal civil and land ruvsiue adminGkron lh6shall8 ren o,"l.1. tr E.dlhd rrujr or v b!6. ! 1/ bdof m- Fs
aid rtLs whols of rha disticrws known
du,ns rha€ ly Mlshal rule a5'alk aid in IaB rlnos asch.klah.
The chisf axe.trtve olr@r ot ih€ disnlcr was $6 louid ,
who was PoPUto,lY .ellsd iaw:b. Tho
apparendy ii a riul saiso, rh6 acrual offics hsld bcis th'r
ot riltd ."r Bh admniltdvs hoadqua^srs woE sntrlbd a' Ihc
ander in ch'sf or Ho slpervised rhs.dmi'hLs spschl ,esponsibniry b
mainbin rh€ domo$ic Hs wss also rcspoisibls
Io' rh. .olle.ioi or land ru!enus and san durls lrom th. zamiidds
and pPoplc. Hs oflB w.s known assrd
and allporiblo nJonaroi on laid 'i rh6 loh or.hhirta kha v.ns.aid maiyorh blared documo r
wsrcpreseru.d. ihe la!rdarJ otchirmqois eniovsd €naii 3xclu.i6vad6 p,lviles$ w dh hh ru,isdicrion.4 h is noLics.bls rhar llrs
raujda:s or L[s ea,ly Mughal admiihnariof, wsto holdeE ol hishto rh' sk asic impon€ni6
otrhs dr d aid soms millary iuid'ois rh.t ha was oblrssd to
,he lauld s wsrs 'ppoinGd
nom comp di-
17, 1770', qr abdul M.jed $ai, oP.
ahiuasons undor rho r,lushal r.slm' 1413
v6ly low ruik, Th' frljdrrehlp, .bolish€d by Mu6hLd oull (hanw!. Ginsracd ii 6ubsquonr rine
Iho ier! inpo(.nr orllcs, war ps,haps hi! dopuq or ihenaib Accordis ro rvlv thmidlllah Kh6n, ths pddol naibship
o oolom $mo axocurivoluicrlonsd0ine rhs ah$ro or rrs [aujdar.
Na* b the laujd and hii nrb, rhsor rh6 disuicr. tt rpF.a6
rh ho was tha hish6{ olf'cs' in rh6 rcvenuo dspadma orrhgcivl admiihraro( admhiwarive po$ wa.
wrE rho '?aynfsro4 an ofhc* whosa spacial
dury ir wrsahd ro k*p on accounr of all dEbut$m8nts coniocred
Orher inoo anr sovahmsnEl olriciole ws,6 tlre darosh0-i.naw a or rh6 @mm dff th8 d o€ha or rh6
a illory, and orhd milii y oll cffi. All ol thsm p.a'ved laidol lh€n ss,vlss.
or .'lr mahalr, who ir $6m bsloiqsd moErlv to (h. Po usuess
aid rhs holf.cad. Eo,ooesos. a havildi, o, how.ldar 'it rhg
ofi@r pladd by rha sovsmmsnr ro superlnisnd6nr a lmall vilbse"2Ih. bahrdn wa! anorhd imrro anrofidr wh@ po{ *as almod
llmil ro "a h 6DU, or boab, .idsv6i -. colleoror or pon dury."3 ln fis crry, aLtpolico dutiss, inclu-
H H Wilson, A clos y ,f luckil .id Ro.,u. Torhs,p,49
Rob€r om6, rid6'ci, p. ar EGo Hamsay Mun/ Ir. /'iak,g.fstnkh tn,1ir 11s23). F.28
P.iro0 (o/6p.4d!'a, l, GLoss,v, p. 470, Tho scribo ol a purhi
{.rs thar $s lamily or rha own$ol rhs purhi i5 6undd.do. bahd (r P, p- 177) A'ho/ or mork{ knowi os 'BahoFd hai ,i rhs srbulb ol rhe rdi ot chnllsons oomNmorc@ oie su bahda,,
ll,i I A i.li'o,y or 6hx@dno
dins rh6 trrk ol hainh'nlno public order ind dccoicy werekorwal Ho ere ad
ulban lila ol rhs ciry ol lshmabrd (ch Lbsonr). vllaso porrce
adminiltarion w$ o rued ro lho vilbso h6.dnen, warchhand chowkidar, Pake Oommm) d pyad* (dkpalch bea,soas6 o,isinally sovemmen! orliciah. ln rhs ,at& Mushal and 'irh. edrly s rish p€aodt rhsy b6camB rhrlools ol ths zamlndrsin oppbEslno th6 ryoE atrd iharcby
Du nq ih6 early .rases ol ih€ Mush.l ruls, nod DI lhs h,ohorlio.ls wor.
's.runedfrdm ouEide rhedhdcr Thehish drti.es
wda lillad trp by m.n l,om Dhdla o, MtrGh'dabad. Tlrs rauidao wdo froquduly ai6,orsd l,om ois placs ro aiorhd burhu subodharor ahjoysd lons4 p iodo orrcveiuo olricials wd. rocruiEd lmm amois rha ialves of
'hs
civil rid .nmnal juscs was admmisiercd by rhe l3urd66ii ths oa,ly pa od and rho nabs In rho larerp6 od m rhsad.t rad rhs raujd i(coun) rcspocrivBly lyins in rhsn hsadqu,rsrc,Judi.irl adminkta(lon wa enrudod ro Lhe qazi or judtchl ojUoorappojnled ro he{ aid ry cars in iia@un or ru$@. ln 1727,AI6iandor Hamithn &osot k.sps a cads oriuds6 ii ir (chi'rasonq) ro admiihG, iunioeMohoD6bn i.hrbir.iErl A qdi, ii rhs 6rim . ot omq waeii.n sxremoty vensrarod pah i,2 rha q,.i, l*iue", u"i"s fi,.juds. or oll cLimE of inhsftaico or suocs$ioi, perroh6d rh6carcmo.ias or woddtiss, tunoEts sro. Th6 diwan was .upposed rod6cido c.5ss ,elarins ro tandsd prop ry, rsvsnua colldctrois
kiowi a. diwrfl .datai. By vnru6 orft3n pBnioi in rhs diwaii hiedchy,lha aoltq shiqd s, rshsitd.B, GIukdaG aid $ilisos nduhly.iercssd aurhodry.vsallrcwruo.nd iih nando c!s6 Ev.ry mauz. and paEatra conhn€dsovsnm.nr oltiErs, who per,ohsd rhs6pocrv6 lun tonsrcs
sh habuddin Talish w,iGs: "Whsn Bsng6lainei6d ro Lhs Mushal Emprc -Charsaoi was 6n1ered in,hs p2ods or B6iqal as one or tho dsldultios uiserl.d dis.
'mu6saddis' of Bsisat did not rcaly wishwhos. ela,y wa3 duq rhByeivo him atr
assisimsnr on rhe reveoue or Chaisoon tFehp, p. 1a4.
416lA Hidory oi Chnbsooe
Ths di.tricr 6l chlrEsrno du iq th. Porhai ,ul€, 6luh3 ,drms,s rsvsnu*ro rho provincial a/chsqusr
uid.' ,hros heads 6 o, reiiiro,ial,sahwa aid hr rcm.injns knowi
rh. amou ol rcvsiue rctlzablsnom dirlsre mahh is a3 rollows:
sulejhanpur kommonly shaikhpu4
T.hqaon (or Malqaon)
sai, dues nom sah prrs _'
"vo( i'nF-lac,ly conqrsredA,zk{ or Moos' (qt I R ,{
hir opinion ihar c iuaqono wa.undor akbd lrom rh6 rbr€ ol
A dudy ot rtu cwira and land rsnu,6 sydem du is rha
is sq!,Uy dir(hul, owiiq ro fts lack ol.ou,.B mare al. Th6 synem rcpl'Ed rhat ol
aurhor ol tha a./'dri6r es rhar rho pa,slne
or Nramp$ usd
elpecLally ra co. al tsd was delibe,.bly dspopuhr.d ondbrr b b6 cov6,sd wrh w ld vaqdalion. so, Iifilo,wonu6 couldb, cdllocltu rrcm .r $o pblinc. of chi-Msono (
^cludins mode,n ch osotro Hill Yiscb) was.*sned
ro 6oms chGrs. Accordiis ro Mr M s collh, rheEware asf,myas rwelva ruch chkfc. on rhc aurho',y ol Ma iquar h i. kiown
6nroyed a IaEs' or land srmrs in rtuprin-cpalry or chakdsala phce. obviously in Iisuof ih6n setulces asainsr rho poslbls Mushal
rhd fie Arkam:o admlnilr'arlon in chi(.dono
chi(rgoig ui&, rho Muqh, rcsidol417
wa toa(!red by a mixru,o ot $a raits or Euoo*i feud,t taidienu6 aid Muelr.lro.slqi v:v.lls6, rhar rhs .h€rs o, ch ,a-sois hdd ro ssrvo rhe ArEkanelo suzs,ii wi,h men and m srirl
6ismv, Trr..onr,rmroBry BaisatiDUrhisihe extsGn.s ot hnd hotdets, horr, Hidu iid
Muslim The Musth rirle. such as chosrdhu,y, ma:lmdtr src.,rhar wsF .u,e durlno ft.r rime, indicd. rh3 jntrodrdtoi ofMudim reveiua sy em inrorh6And6 or our kiowledsg, ir h noi Dosbte torcisa a.sunr ol tho lId 6veu. syecm aid ilsoD io. during
iorics ihar rh6 Mushals, su..4soB o,,eoruiss i, $en hid
a unirorm66urem6 or land aid rhe meof th6 Maohi Er ror thsskleme or rlm. m rh. revenus rccol& resrity brh6conrnuancs
querr rir!ehrl 6dmlirstr.rron. tr nay b6 noriced rh lh. Maohi kdni3nd 116 Moqhi Er5 \,46 nor in voquo aiywheE ii Bsnqst arceprin chirbqoiq. Th. mixiis ot rho ackanssB 5id rha Mush:t
rysrem grv. e lii pe.ultarnios ro rh. liid,ev.iu6 admiihrarioi ot chnmsdis
qaiuosoship, aid aon uhi.h rhs elahoGrs
Muohal '(veius
admnnrdtoi sFids ae unto unarolynor,roilable ro us rhes€ vasr mAs ot pwth chhnr, khdjyaB, k chas, F rar mu.h:tkls. s.nads, qabulyds, qabalas orc. h.v€ eirhor b.en delibr.rgty d.s,ovod .t rhorlms ol rhe c6.s:oi, or havo bosi pdishsd wirh rhshsavy mo!!oq,aid orh4 mkhaps, ., have i6r b6ei prsservsd ror whrch rh6soffi p man6 ly lod ro us. Thsbtorc, w6 havo no .lEhdivs6r@piinq to d€pend oi rho Eisthh so0rc6B for E rtudy ot rho
4r3 ta Hhro,y or criraona
Muqh.l rswnua system. rrese $ucssdaal'is criirly w h rh6
coopany'.6arly rcvsnus adnhcrGuoi €veonly t pssiiq rerereiFro th8 6libo,ak Muehal sy"em or isvsnue N06dless ro say Lhd
owino ro rhis acdrot r6voiua duiid
$bl{t rhB 1wob, Ha y VBielsL on Feb'ua'y 16 and Jure
5, 1761 "lonsiruro a iiiior chsrc io Lhs rev6ius hsrory or 86osal".Esids rhsse, Phllil FEi.h's Pd) of r|: rkir! a m$r, Jam6
ot ttt EIt hdlConrory n chht.,\1. 176,.r7al br Dr A M s,.iudd i Ls i userulxo1 dli!ods1
n ilbmiidres [D d lre,ei,as0ecll ol lho M,ohal
rh rhs whole aea
didoly a,r iLs conqres byrhe Mustuts. all l.nd $!s acidircd.
strehl5 4 tasn rhsh,mluer emdl,'no.r ,, smJll alloho s of hid
ktrowi os rdhlha ahshsm. Ih! Emkha ah6hamor ldtrd as.isnnr.nrln milir v prposs eslscisllv lor rh. mainrsnanB or soldis,eii lrre dhricr was or rhred ryprsj n:m6ly, (a) risir huray.rahor Drovhotr r., (b) iaormushrur raui
ri iaon mw a d
urr ueD,o undd the Mushal De mE l41u
nE,iro c ablhhmdi,. rhs soidiere ('i $6lohof Mmkh. ahsham) n lieu or $ipends was re rres Tho .dm'ihr iv.erpsnr?swers nriiMiTlrs co mu6d hold i9 ol $o !a,k , n spre or h.avy d'ahaq6oi srchequer, Bi be jGrithd oi ths qrcuid rh il $rvod €s
$e Muqhal EinPtro As rro Mushtls waaE ds, rhay would nor
allowi h€ pnaLes asah ro moks chirhgois 'hin
bass or pturd asa.
L6 Mqhak nom or 1 er lllo n ch_fte psoplo .l dirlereit prLs or Benoal ro
maks sstlgm6iE n rho distiot. Ths securi,v sivsn bv i l.Qgbody ot roops dd'onod rhs proeped ol a.qtr.nlno land in iho di*d tacLed a larso numbei or llhdu aidMuslim serlerc t,om
'drled w:E known as khu.hhsr'2 strhh. lo €ncou,aos iha
6.{Lms , no Gv3iu63 w6r. colbcGd by th.
rhs pgopLs lor many yaa,s,3 Thus alm. ih' whola ot rha con
ii chirhqdr3 rhai in rnaiy Niid! domrnareddistricb of Boisal Mriy or ths familv riilas$ill ii P.6hn An dcmpr msy bs m.de ro dscuss bie,lysomaot rh6 &rushal rcwru6 orlicrale brsod oD
ps ph or !5e d*c' irerpaqve .i ,aLs'oi w also cuiienr ln ftrpr6vious aDkaies. pe,ioc I h d 6d in a local purhi ih onsJamrher chowdhury by r,6 sovamo,or Chak.*h in vlll.ss Kan.hana durhs tho Ahkiee dsims.3Ths oaly racords of rhe csdid aid coiquered proviicBe showih chowdhu,yr had ii soro cas6 sor up as rrlukdm Iolis
Tno word, Eccodino ro som: o, rh6 holdrs or rho iirlo, c dsivedrbm S:nsk r .haLdrdhtrrn ltr ,our dGdions. Accordjiqro Morcland, hc 'cNft ed some son or Iocal ju,Cdidion,'
\cchbtidP Hkkt.t ot tndh. v. 15t)'vdyaruMd' by sabnd (h!i, qL 5 P LMon3o.n Numb ,1164
B s) p. €a. soma orher nedisv.l pu$is .id rhe E r9!at!fllD4t 0762) havs .l$ ,ererond* lorhn oo .
ch traoooq uids rhe Mugh, rosinE 423
rs sxaouriva ruiDri6ie.l
oncs held .h s6 or rhe lEh6 ot rho seislt fls€r !nds, oB
h.btrr. s6 $s luic(lof, or a d h!& wassomoLhins Ik" a viltroe Leadmrn, a local pod ism.d Er m xa$nr
Fo,,hhdii,4 ll s ilid ol 1f ]kir4 aid rh,iaicht MrrhJ and. tyBrish .uli. The Eo ,rqrqk. R+,r fi762) mr on a ,owhhd
cipldrr \r/. .on6:c,o$ r,s ofold or fiis Doa
lndepardenr Srthidc.Trhsor ,ie col4.r:otr oi rcYlxuls, i,,
Mobhid h rhslnAJ_ jJss. slq
Alco,dis ro rho - he r,m roa h apptrsdh A6bic. to.lorhs !s.d wacr
totrbt cr:tr y )ri]od romthG di5i,
co3m.tr i.ire Fooi' lo, i,Udda,applied ro a br ksr, a cdsh kaeDar, or an orfi&r r Djbli. ssr..blshms.l ror waiohiio moily or butrion,,(r,d)
/ ^
s r, xl(1343), 1c44
Ih6 appo msnrrrc a rst* cr Mawl i Mlzal, shams Botkhi ro sutranGhiyasudd'n p2am shah u s
^ 5. xllt (1es6r 13.r5..
l2r I r Hiro'y or chnhsonq
6mployaa or rhs sov.rinsnrl Th3 t6c.l pod Erim Ks6n 6oiion!tik, Mus.mmad xa*un.s an influoiralpmon durins hi6rme!.z(hr on. Iho orisin or rh6 leh is di iout ro ro@ rhe6
o'. roo rhaorhs Esardi^s its orisin accordtn,J ro one rheory.h€.ssnser chdsed ro coivBy a
,rqu4r or ordsr Ac.odins ro orher, rh.orioti nom kshr, meonins .utrivdionj rharc_
rorc, a ka.hrsir mishrDvr,iins ro as culruro all $r (raseirs of modsh trmas betofs
(d or Keo , accordirs ro Morcland, ir was ih. populor
rcoion-4 ii th. lar6 hsdisval do.!mcnB or [rushal .dhinisuarioi.
Lali. Ihs dsivalon dBri t ty knownrith or 116 kayerhs d khart ii rhe u.P
aid rh6 punjab. Tho hotdoc of rhe lirto rhink rh lho wdrd tsconuor ro,m or sesr r Raji
Mriumd , xr @ 6cr roh s mrimu"4. ti Bsie.ti .nd iiis proiouncgd is mijumd hoantis roklier.
H0 wa3 "ppointod rha accouiror rhs Gvenuacollaorors ii ea.h dhrhr ot a Muqhal subah Th. rc.r war.u,e duriis rhe ! is le,Jnr rroh a pu(ri
' ur, a numbd o, chakaeta sdined the rills
(vul muhunda, rron rhe a,rkaiss€ thllt chakasla5
lyldil k, F,obsbly rh6 Em is '6lakd
ro Arahic word maliko, holdar or mulk or laid. Du'rnd th. Muoh'l and fisearlvsirsh
a larsa iumbd ol Hindu and Muslin hallks iiI J,a r r, xvr 0ssr), 552saP,l36eBs,p.42
at trdb, t\, a6la I ,r s., xv| (ls5t), 5i
' chir.loig uider 116 Mush:t 6sino | 425
Munshr. rr i. 6n a w re,. Tho porr;m.iisd ii exhr€ic6 evai ii rtu B'irish
'osms and rh6 ploelo
who rad some kiowleds6 of Pe'6iatr coutd obran rhis posr aidsurr*qu6 ly urillzed pon as rdmity ratla.
o. cle* -2 the ntr8saddis an.l wsre a$ooiarednoi n,sly wiLh Eveius cdlleciion b(r orhar brench* or ad rniskdrci as wall Ar p.ee sono sdddht$s or rhr dbricr b.e
ai ofrrcial lvhosBequi,€d b/ a diMn or a coll5dor
The po h torerchaDso:ble w{h peshda$.
oaiuoqo.3 A.codins ro phlip Fraicis,
runmi and otur ordhances rehriis ro rhu po-Iicy ,id s)! nme or rhe cou ry-4 "ThBO. hso as rhsram€mple6. w.s a walkiio didjon yor rh6pdvtrljioruks.ndpBc.1i.6s (orun) :nd a
L.rly, thore wdc no bs z: idaks brl i rrr2rr !dre.ot mod de s'ze. dbson.e of ta4az:n.dd
ur by Mr Brdei PoulI w,s rsIack o, idu?l opponui Lyr Tha Ioio hill GisE whrh cre6drho disrciorrered hr,dr.nca b rhe qrowrh or hrss zzmmdx' er .3.
k,nds ot zamrndatus in chiuasons dtrrins$s hr6' phis of tho Nlushal iuk. Fr*, rhas wsr. somj tandhoidoB rhd had ro tha Muohat coj-quesr ii 1666 A D. The Mushah,ro ove h6rv rhe n:likona dn land so lonsrh6 land holdsc .onriired 10 seid
wera Lrs trbal .hctrans d, Hll chirheono.'Ihur by Lh6lwo a!reemdnrq2 beLwccn rhe r\r!shals and rh. rrholchDls, lhe ldtrs held I!.d po$!sioi in tho Mugrt Le irorvlor which ,hey rye,e ,cqrn6d b pay hid rcvdnus r.
'h€ Mrshils,
as o,isitral -mind s Eid ft6nhoidmqs, wrichcould i6ver ba prop(ly surueyed, w a tarser rh:i ths oLh4
sacordly, M!h'1da mw .h,r o, oflcials ot whos6 desdpnonsarc oiv,i nfo,e,
These o,ficah ii rho
rhem ro colled rcwnue kdm rlr€ peoDle.
ro r^ay rhe, collecdoisuaually En Ferchr. ln Eoms c*6s,
Ch (:dois unds, rh, Mu0hat ,e!i-a r a2e
rhs s€dual deey or rho Muqhat pow,,tudEdds (ri:6d4, tor a fned sum,pradically lrsredary nghr and rhoy w edbtdbma(o rhoruwi
lriu'sos wero also zaDriid s r
ai rh,a s!;reso6or fie soldie6, who had beei 3*onedro tjidqd s n lisu ul carh poymenr, bdc
z"a,, t,a u:. trlr who.hd"d o u."1d lotue "o ho.snro(rt-"btL.ro rhsv-qh,t so6nsrcouho.d Erl.ms or rlro squarer i:miliss h wjre l.nd. Thspalch ol laid cls.red nom rhe wi$es
lind hs culriydsd. A rew ycaG lrleri rha land war asssBd rorrax!' on and holde, of D land bscame z.mind wi.rour obtisarion
rheL holdn by coi anr an oachmenk on rho adFtnins wasks,
1 ,n6verua consulr rons, July 13, 1773'
2 ,rames crrr qr Frtrh Fepo^, t, 4s4
'l3o A Hdor/ o, Chlr"sa,0
,hose sho her boctr s,anred
could b6 saiiedpurch:sa. ThB lan rive clascs ol zimind s
in .ompt,ilon wirh rhs orsinal ooes oi
A r6w wods abour rhazdiihd sl rh0mselves wrlndl b6 or (
or placs coNd,ns th6 irlusn.s Lhey brened oi lho .oirempora,ytid an analyrEl udr or LhB p,ln.ipal hid
holdms i:mllrcs or rhr dhli.t dr ns rhs Md0halD odmay!r3
Ths chi€rs or ths h,ll tribes who sho,{ed alleskn.e (o rEMushrl sovahmst o,oiirlzamidrs. oissuch zamind was Sher M r (h:i r tbal chi€l who hdd a
IaG6 6raro h rhs
$at Shs,n r Khanpshisson t'om Fauid zulqrdr Ktrd ro $trt'
wirh his d6pBidenb in rhe hlls ol Fansrnia.2 Dr A M saErtr-ddh siv6s rho followiis decls or rhh chief:
shendr Khln re.sived . sEntor was€ hid in m:uza Xodal{h,le.-o r o hi\r"o
Ei.s ot hi. rollowars ae a zamiid l in rhe
suidso Boy, He was ako mdd6 rgspoi
eible bv ai aqGsms wft rhe raurd ror piym6 ol rhB(rDas Mahal ,6vsiue or rhe hll peopls
Mv Ham dull,h (han in
ram,l.s ii no hon chirEoonq. Ths /ddJ
ot chilLaednq aid rhs
ol rhs E,irish ruI.. Besdes, $s lo.0l puth's sivs ratBrences
1o rome zamind hm l@ rhar we,6 in sr denc6 drhs Musralaid sarly Er Lhh pdiodr.
Prooasdinq. of th6 connirGc ol F€v6nue, Mav 6, 1734, qt
s.Hjuddii, oP. rtu., p. re7
Chirksong under rhe Mushal Isormo 1431
hs iirLeiNo aidol Lho hill tribis.
dtrdno hE liierr. As a rc.ull aner she M*i Khai's aarh
! elsr 6nd hs couicl bv a proclamr'oi
n r763 de.irdd Lhr ldin rurkddoi
l1 apir s rh Ve,shr dilv conrmed rhs clam or rh8 chai r'h! ,n.en€r rr lo,rl luotd d:o
s rhe amifdd or Raiqui'
ciah uidq e rL/lueh3l
sed oi or ,hr hndsd - rd.€cv ol lhe d strtr'rut! msirioi . iumb r or rh i rypr o,
wde Abdulhh (h:nKhai, srcbh Khan,
Mrltim l<hatr r,lla\
oinuiqo nrlbalhbsO6iuiso, Ka kaDta$_d
o.n!(so Billibh Shank oaiuiso
L,im Kstm aives a l$ of.omo bid landorncE or he own
sslmab rlo(h\lnr n the Lrer Drr ord .., " " or al.o (ddJo.' r.7l 2,11
Rxrl n .idhhaiik who had a larss
rbal noF Nalk chaid oi (.nchaioE Sh
ssnluddi, or .n. Dp 1e7-1eai
No. 29033 qr seGruddii, of,
llso Hu.h is.x .p d., p. 24
B, L $ Mrseum Add Lioial Ms
432 | r ' nory ol ch (:ooiq
ynrd or a.n l?) o) and Azim Muqim iAt or rtnimpu,; xamal wirh A!hraIn
no r (?) tsDd ramn m souLh o)i Hushm ali droi,is; Frsr6nAl, (!d ind orrE6
Po li#rF\ rhf , -.o-. qhEAnr
v6lair deede oi hk p ron zrmid,r Batdy:n4h noy or vllaes
sx!6d ii rhe Dh*3 .D ains a poom .all6dHodn ttnBlr Kt i of wo iiflu6nri:t
and rh6 drtrm h R.hm3i
A.oLr, Dlas orof m{chcs tud mlir4ry idylirres or iodhuo hdr whow.e
som€ chrGrian 2rhiidars
Krsem g,ss a d* hd
rls iimls 6 tsketr iiofr ,BorisL Musum addl
3 A P fros I !,d l(1365 B S 3052
chkkcono liJr rheMushal r'smo 1433
oualria! or rhis zamlnd ramllv. Ih6 Dod al.o qiv$ a q6io+looioal hbla ol rhis ,amlly. F,om ihh ir is ktrowr th AidFamad ( 7 And€4Andrcw Femiidsz I was rheladE, or (aloch
F6had ( ? cirtos F66 dp ) who h his lum succo4ded byTiri,ii! (7 riranaiil ). husband of AoE de Btr,os, rhe la:diiq lady
populalion 6r hs z,midd',2s ibour12000souls aid r[o area or h hnded p,ope y
rado. ThE pool hiqhlvin rhis srtoqsi.,rmiid otrhis p6,lod Tha E- qkk. Atport(1762) rc!e,. ro rha damad-A or G
1 ors or '6lsio.ssidowmonrs .id orher clasls ol zr iidrs vrho wa'. ndror smalL
ro .'y rh 5)l rhe z.hi.der w 6 pdlylandholdore rhouqh a lub*.dlal Donion ol rhum plid lxrli trqsrhri . i.w hundred laid r6vanua. ThsE wsr6
llle rhose dr ihs KFansand the Siqhs orDohtz i, ths zimnd iesol z3b d,d (h:i, AoE da BI,osaidrhole of olh s. Brr rhBsia o, th8 bq zmiid ies w!3 so 5m?llrh theso canior b6 lavoo,ablyoi sddwan, K,ishnaia!ar, Din:jour, Rajshahr,olher p rs ol Bsioal,ns ly 3000 zamltrda,iss .an b. cdmDftdEspocr or rhk rype of rrid holdnq. D, A M sd,juddo s ofopriion rhar ,rho iame of psrsanr
Sedoddn, +. dr., p 200
4341AH..roryor c Jsols
prry bnd lDtdjs ,l r,t.,,trh.tss dlL otrh.m mu{ bo crled zrmidns h:cau!" Lhry hj]] rjDr llods no
Thus, rolv d rha closo of rhe Mrq\at nrt!, a h1!o!.i:ous bodvsohl. ndepnd. crtt.rs ro D r. rcv:iu6 ornciats
and patry bluqdaE hrs.n Lo be crl_"d zsnrdrr Apdii. lv,rhoy w6r. rho mrddlemsDn Elarion ro rcvrnua. rorrd rh? ctoF or rr Mlihil ru].,
th6 zmrnddi hrcanr mor or l-i h.red rr !ol inco e wa! r[o .mouiL or l]nd relq ueorvabl. ro 'hi .o1Tsn.7 T,p quhics ioowr allolvM.a, khdrDosrr.r maii'eiai.s 6llomi.., aid i.iior .r ]Jd
or raveirs. ,rrr ;. 0ro rol.rnsro har. seen lev Ec hy a s' 3jm id:r Ln his
Putryi, "Tho ftsL 'Eroimoir
ot rho ai!rEl mir or rcventrs
Eid (h ach Erpmsss or rhs Eid ie vat of a zrmhdar,shad Kh .cF o,\ra/j oi-. ! I t. "d,o ! , " .n aso
.xpenses of ami.d or his cj lccnK.iya kh,.ch rh s ws llvcd on I e
.rponsls or s rui 3loi any orc or hh ieir rchr !fi
saranrimi, a collsdioies ot colkcriis odEr i.dr it s:Dens*.r4
lJesr,xvogro,,zoo2 Thi. was knowi a5 thd ded!fltoii or muscu,.r and sebundy
cu om y mutuc I chaE(s or .ol:cLotrr
L 1r :,4ushaj 4 mo 1435
kr5tr h n. zrmiidrs lrlcs.
q!ittry rt.e, bs siz: rGhe, erc.
pres-rnL ol ,o.d 10 rho 2imtndr.lE ryotr or prlss w-6 Equred 1o
of FUsoial sHVice ro rhe zrmiid s.(hai. A co$ l,yisd bf rha zamiidd ro
Pa 3nr. ^
su prrbl, iL tx3 rhE oi c emoiis: aid ronivals
Iaid L wr hel,l. Thu saiads trcm (ha€ov6h,pow o colled blk on edod! sold
Rahd i or iilaf,d sh has or fstry roltsvera also colhcr!d
zlmird 4jorod a ftee haid in rhB man+sema 6t his holdinqs,rrEd orioiDalry baen ti rhs lar$ ohas, of rholiushal rule, a zrmmdai hecrfre va,y ns ly iidsEidsor ii hisr€sprcrivs hold ,sr Tho ryo€ lvhs i his zamrd i wam lubj6crd ro rh6 whios or the znnhdii who woutd r.ks awav rhol d Lom rhe pe a s ir rh!lfi,r sl€hrtydkplsa*d rhs torms.Mod of rh6 zrmlid s ospo.ially 03 lrse oias wtrhdrcw iionths dnscr mrn!sBmenr ol rh6 asiculLuh, acrivtuks aid abandoisd
oraLilii.Lion 6r seises rho hx burdeisd poorown h s Iand .nd whos6 sra6 or rho pro.siEll, could ior
rrurhhss moi€yleidds "Now:var, all rha zamnda6 cortd ior
smller zmiid s rId ior eno!9hJealouq aid rivalry amoig rho zamindarc rcsdsd rh.m nom
,l3ti A HL,o,y or o,irLaso iJ
oprresiva Govohhs o,fhs,s sraLiorcd ii
FyoB or culrir oF w.ro or rwo lypes; khudkishtaid pa'kas{Khudkmhr IoE wra r,os' who culLivaEd laid in rhB viLase
mGiarory or nonro6idecrlrlvaro6 wiro culrvared laids lor a nipulaLed re'm.
Tho relaroi belBeen (ha zam id andrheryorswrs co .ousdby ce,Ein ,6sul:ions andqabuliy syrem.
on wh ch land wastuld by Lhd Fasrr. a qabrl'yar B a doclmrnr or,ecepr olbid nom rh6 zamiid, Thus Lhs ryors t)Ied rha lhd uide,
rh. mediovrt ocdi ,L
rha bid wh'ch he lllsd. Eur rhe sysrm orcuniv o, h.d some so
Tia rolal latrd or rle disf'd v€s ola$rrd o rwr rypss,abadi or hrila o, crlLlvabh lrnc, atrd khlah or wane landThs [1,l,h nclrd8d all rypes or w*r. bnd i.ru,al aid maim.de. rhe ialutsl wasrs laid consned 6r hills, irncles, m -
The ab,d lfd or ths d;:ri.r was chsri.d undor rhrc6
A r,raLu.r laid or re-ntr.payhq Iaid.
3. Lakhhj or reiL rre lidc. NoaLrid o, ns-ly cultisared land.
ot l:.d rh€ h[hnaj or rsnr n6s landrced: spBirl itrlDrlon, p diodll,T almo* all
ch'rason0 urds so i/uohrl resiiE 43i
rhB land or riB disnici was qiven as renr te6 ro soldEE whowoB p,d, ior io c h bul r iastr
sncouEss ssrlamenb ths Mughal soveh-mrnr ofk6d o,firr of I.id Iiee ol r.v.^uotiom .rh, dnrlcr. iypE or hnd mav bac.llod l.khmi l?id. oulr odmiiEtrd.
fold ngs wers assesed ror raxarioi aidwarcco-nland. A nsw ryps or lakh cj land cams
iro oisenc: ltm or rhese landr o,o
allowaioes lor pre'Prcpher (oadam R8s!l)
o hs pl:c: ordF4omii4toi of waql
o, 's,a of land ,o, a rclqious man
c ro BGrrnris. as bEhmotrar.
LdDls 3s dlvotra,, "g{ ed rorrh6 suppo ol a tampls o, ii idol"l
E, To rvruslrm ,l! ned
ol rha im2r)arGhed old lr ir.s i rhe ro,m or madad.o maash,
F. To rhe ,,elistous pnsoos,, rcbtrves of Hndu amiidaGaid paopl€ or respecrlrls isnlee, who were ol tmired mEns
rho d.usrrLsE o,or do{ry ro rhe wves or (,. Muslm
G. senr rrce hnd A njjor 3id khoroosh ror rho h:inctrEncsior rhs hdmdsads or rh6 ryob; and
B:nraitrnce or mluqdars
r w t"on, "p .t, p. rtg2 P rior carup,r,nnc, . lassa,, 442
,l3d A H,srory or ah iqor(
.r.ls I i dr. .ri p.,t { s" o. , (o,on,.zarion rho Mu, rt,.. l
ssraiuddn, !0. d,., p. io
5 ,",."rd,, p. 6"j ,l"o o(4.ltoy, oD rr.., p. is. The loDalpoerhis v ues a! roltows:
!:ri7r{ axn .,tii .i{ jtr.i.ilIt. i{ iir h.ii 1t.riiml-i a nik tri qFE r j or a Bhatracharya, e,,dolifisal Kotri kthuc, p.1aa
ch traloio lndd r s Mushrt res ms I {30
*s:srho hiids hy rh. mautvir, rird ts u ds(03i.sy,icw, €rs), iihlowr s w.nkrsi snd.'rrc, s!d .creoDh.
v av, ir driol6i N,sialhdsb,ouorr rrir.ulLirr.i r.r rhe ourc.el or l.\yn{rEx on rhem.,/... 0 lj r 10 \.". 10lllT/. .,..r...d,v. 1,hrt, ryre ..isr s i, h 1l'. jsioles. m sia, ind rhs s ie ros onlyir J.n! Ls sN? rha Mtrs\rt aod, he
kct3ndion or 1vi !ro cle qrd sefl!
or r, xr cbared r,onrnoabid riJrq or liid c+o.iJ jor rbiraron
.id nlairr:oi rr. lrqlrs.m:sher, co'!.r ra r,,r ct\art;ics.
'o rc.lsih rrc Ms!5 h;t ro soi, iconmd t' hol.li, th3 Irij rhacori.rwascrhd a mu.ratra
l/e!,Iow:i.. .rhd i:tr:d or Lhrc ia'sof hfd our of €ac) ,rfr wlio hs .d6 clt
A Srhwa A ooDd ahor was collsdsd uidd thish8ad iomtha c.$lon or rho dktrlclws o,isin.lty apprcpnaEd
by rha huzd ar a '.,vae onqtrkirs ror himsslt on iho lsids,'bu, 'l.rer oi .cded ro rha reir.rcll "1 rha n'm coll:ded uider{hs headdUiq\,)l Ese(hdn's admnku loi was 3157! 14.142
3. ,rru'ah (r Thls is i sum ot moiey rouocEd h rho cur,
I LrD plrat rom\ r'o.e.J, i't I.ELI medlkq
bo, lr wae ,eJlly ii mrosl, -levied rn seneml di rhe rcspecrivs
colled rh*e ndm rheir
ro Lr. tr tspecris-i
or o.r*ioial cs, or tariiroo:ed upri rhr specirt puFo.o or undq.omr iicidsibl n.rer "1
ol rhe ,svoouo, oirh.,I om €{oidcd .LnLilrroi or $s hpe or Bumorion or rtieided
im.unr ol assonmsir,n a j:! r, was .omidered ro b. ths rishr
ot,,s $-k..r" m Al .hr - odr'o,o.q."lor ishsrrom conceilmonr irs Galsalior univ6tsauy,
..$ opri assisi.d laids ii irs doad,uhich w:s rhcnrr aLo crlLed r nrrs
ssEjuddn of. d',, p 17
Dnii4 R.rkd5, chnrsona. 1160
chidaoois und.r rh. Mughrl rcsth6 | a.1
F. (ir.yol Vvkor dotines tr ar ,prorir or tncBis ih rh.
ln rha opiiion ot Jam€s GcN, rrrs disrjcr "uido,wsnr th.
c.. Ez.ra hl.dr r.r I is , rn impnsad L.j6tv up6trrh. hotdins! or rhs H !
142 I A Hisbry or chntoons
10 rh. day. or $e lndsp.idsnt srlGn s
E. Fahdni An inland rcll coil..Edchowkies on ac.oun' or ms,chaidhe, sEin aid all rhs trece*o es
D. Gh .id rs v. 'Ihs lbrol me.ilns .l shd s a landiieph@ oi ths baok ot a .!ial, river, aod .ea rl€Ghi cauv' ir 6
on rhs ri!sr b1i[ whto inland taisil / (i6r
.r. Isvdd oi soods aid pasenssG "? Tha Fonishd on rho iv.rFstri .nd ParLEEhna on Lh3 rvar ( naphuli w o rwo p ncipal
ehak l,omwrro,s a coisidrEbls amou wa! colle&d Thera worc
r la,oa iumb, ot sh s on ths naln
$6 (*Mphrli axd tha sankhs and dn s6vo,al rihu iss shh 'rrh. H.ldc, tla lcha ati, rha shrimari,Iha ch.ndkhali. thero w a
il$ , iumbd of shns alorq rho ssaco.n, such as ohot anqar
E. Dhah. Dhah Dtrifq fis Mushal
ps,iod, toU wd colledsd nom rrolh,oush rho dhalas. The 6 lv Brirish do.ums . rerar ro some
dh.la! which h"d ftrn origii ii rroMushal prlod' 'lhe&r a
F tk.hhari. Aidh mank, Hamlchh i, Udalyd, (n al, Dolonii,
'sasors cutohi B akumd chhorkumila and Phoh?i6'
chi asois rida, rhe Mushal roqtmo t443
sr ,in d1d dhdt, wd. ,ro,poztsd
444 | a Hrstory oi chirL'so,iJ
lovi.d on rhos bnds whlDh viglded ro u.n ownoG a @itid 'ble
o,olil A(cord'nc to 66 rrn' onnliol F'D l sszt;am' 'aD
.r * --ur u-
Hou$ or commons in 1773 A D, Mr Varsls! ssrss
1 or ssnruddln, .P. dr'. P. 132 Flfri R!P,., l, tntodudioi, P orrl
eh .asoiq undar fi6 Mushdl reslm6 | 4aE
whs rhar oi sv6ryBordor ot rh€ P,ovince ds${ed bv rho lnhabiranb
$sn hid. Ih6 pr@edrgs o, lh. chirbsons councrL' debd
€sm3!oorvoGlsi, thsquaiIrv ol laid cull vaGd h sbour4'00,000
A htrEl ohm ol
A Au6il Jumma Toomary P:dshahv or l72lirqssr, E o, A$igned l.nds-
1 ! r P, xxvtt (1924), t7
3 or e"a"n powat "p.
ar, r, sEen
446 I A Hsrory or Chhrasoio
Toht Aus) and Ezata (1763r -Wuz. . €dud'oir. jo-4 v-,j-$t ! rq- o, .o.le,.o,\Io'al1er Fev.DUe orchlsari m rhe tool,dhmia\\ pae o oooblq ot co! r . I _
aus r (sa. ns)
_ 35,135
. t4,825
4,050
3,491
44Ol
Say* orcasrfam 7 Ch saD) _ _126 sm.ll p suinrhs Erd slrosdhd ,i rho Ausl1a4 Pelgs-To€l or fteTain,ldeiy s, R, _rowfo* on rho rr'l b4 .nd [,lar ic j:eeerc b rh.ye 1163 A 811756 A D)Ker,ysr sub*qusnrly ro rhe aroremenuondd daro,
HdyiUa CharsamJu03dlahDuc6ncola
N asiisabad, shanabad 6 c.-
chnDsois undsr (he Muqhal reslms l{47
3 35,13t
Dedlcr hrlr sebundv .lMrses or LIE neab $illaduallv in.ur^ n A, i I Ezatu 01 chilusotro ro 1167
ioD'oi mar.lv roaerl accou ol rhseih-
- 'h.,lms {5m 1PE*d ddfl rnslrsh
' Toral. 4 43,91S_1s 14
nr lh:se dillereor fteds ncludes manYverelsi w oerh "sv6,Y ois
.,37,761 1 111
,,33,41I760-7-r4E
rrrd, l, lntodtrcrioi, P cir i
'v3,oLfs lerq b Vaisra f qr Dhra F*u?s' (Jrdogar'' 1700
443 i A Si.rory ot ChltuCois
nd,Iet ftlr N hEIl ot $6 Froduco o' riD tard. rh. amtid,,,sd rha \ql otrti,k w.E io. oitv o.mpcd f6m p.yhs riroout ,hs/ o,r"n aqoysd va our rvp., o, rarhi j ho;i;o,.
lpp.rdlr 1 A lllot. on th. Hdz6r,s cf ChittaEono
Th6 Doh:z i P.rsaia ds v.s ir! ,ams iot trom rha hc( rhai
rr was rha jasn ot aiy manslbda, or rwo 'housid
zd acco'disro rh6 prevahd manshda,isy{em, wrh th6 o\cdDrior or Buzl4Umd l(h:n, rhe ft ,aujd, or s k Ch oaon, all ohs' raujd siiom Nutullah Khai ro s bulind (han 11694n7t0 A D) wr.holdds bdwsen r,rEen huid'd zar and :s tow aE niio hund'adz . rh6rc was liulr
m labdr ma'ely 6 r.o i.rhrid . or less,rh€se haz,i. ot dohrz T had iolhhs 16 do wlrh aiy mnkot im.pe,ial mtsisb. ln Hlxy, rhr nams Dohdari s d.,ivid ,rcm rhdplac. ol ldioiiins ,4ideicss or rho rwo so .nhd h,znir, oi.
sid iio w Mushm uhamodKhli (now
onr or rhe ai.esrore ot rh.Hindu slishs crma non $aU r Prad6!h (ii Iid.) .id oll6md hit
suad oi rha rohi bank ot rhs slnkha, Therehe acqut.d ta.s6
zamiidari and nlsndod ro s6rh rhoE. Thh ran ly hd rtoi wltheb u, ii ass ahiil rha o oin or rhs
'j(t' ot H:zari. rhe Hindu
B!iduqchh. s6nohllly kiowi as Baks iy0rd'Jric\ or B-a-. w ec ed 6irhs, in dsa.ior
or ii .oo{s8y r. H6zrk. This was 662!d * ! ebud tamil,riLla by rh6n d6coidanrs lk6 osnuioo .id shiqd4 by EsnealtHindu lamllra! wi6o loundob onc. ,/sro .svonua olliDials holdiis
lr i6 ior kiowi who .hois lho aic*roGot lhoprclenrstisht
Dame b ch (rodne 'id wis :p2oiicd nodter w dei w th ai aEi
oihrir or 3 la{o zlmttrjri rd' subsdetrca, \ru,nd a Hhdd sei alnam.d Fill s,bn shoh sisodia (h6p,amp s ie\ h:tonqed) in rh6 tra,t or rhe vrcLorious Mushrls 1
.n .-t7 'olac o. | . : -,sly mr ionif,q his nrie. aiorhs
chirrroono (17i3r753 AD) Burhs b,t.nredsirh* Lo Lheskhya .lN aid he wrs an ,m lrc,rbts
si.i,7ol're h,aiis I is saidr]ar ha rerherotrdy ez.rd lirhrtu,bule so{allar ,.zris atrd ssirlhsm all prkoi 6 uidq !rndro Mutricabrd only td f.i! r,e laal sid. nrf.' mr r. hs
sdLl.d rr a lrica kicwl
or rh3:i oron rs roi conr,med
srae \rl,iL',i,o,+a,onh:. bsoi supolnr by local plLh:s inda pu'h! n 1.o /o.^,,
'ro r", a.o d o-rl'.h
MtrFhr Ahc!l (arrm sahrya vshaiad rheyb_"loioed r. the MuqhJIp.pqs or ,ha .rly E'irsh tuls heiriotr the
iams ol Lrcrrmin s ooh ar oni of th6 promii-A.! rnr id sofcr-(3oois. n rha E (rqrk. R.p (1762], wcor rlni Sirh l,ino in oo1rr .4 T,s ,oveiui orp,s 6r lh, h,.eioh'€6 h c.n,ud or 1,o !,tr.ir;l,ri
ar Lha rmo oi tho c€sson. As hr as 116rci or lou, L,orsaid bu'q!ril!$es
450lA B roru or chirkoonr
Ot 0'fr:lley, oP. .,r., c, 35
PP,!p 172-!73. Th8y hav.sbcbestr minrionod by Hamidullah
./ r r 0, x o3ir3,, 1015
Chirkso,s uidsi rh. Mughal resims t45j
Lhar rhe ancenor or Nia6 Khan ioii€d rhs
lsEiuddio, c, dr, p. igoj Dnftr R(ud,
by Nourzsh xrran, ql p p. p, 3e9. Ttis purhin hGs rho hnBticidl deeds .t rhs Khan fa6 y.
sBrclddin, aP dt-, p, 222
6
Mushal invadins lorcls uidd Buzu,s U 6d Khan as a mililoty
o(cs ii 1665- 66 A D 1 io malo iEsue ridsavs hh only daushE, Nu, chlmnr P haii ln matrassio K am
Al Khai. Thoy $us aid rook Fad AIL Khtsi
rta I ro'no z"a n-
dm du is rha Mush, aid rhe BrnEh psods Thatwo rzrissrabs conq$d a srbrrnLial poil on or modeh Pariy, atrd Sarkiia
AE disrii.r ndm 6e rwo Ho?ri hml'esa ha faza hm'l€r or !.z ibh ol ch(3sons rowi. lr s
ol Ka o naz (Ana a Sish ol ch Fqonso, no o,dy &lons€d ro
'he lamity orxa o
H.z, r, sdv is m notr{ommi*on:d orlcer,oif6,sd b phce soo,elly undq
'lre ddcr on ol h s Brileh oltrc
rh- !r .p o' c"i2lVr1' Ba'd.liolB-,m1Ir6 sum a sBiorl irhamohrs
our ol cuiiosiry was olsmnios th s hindsdnads whsi l sud&ilybusr aM k'llsd rhaL rercwiEd qeieGl de.idiiq ,hs rare or eumaIhi! fazai wa. s!.n erEnevo zam ndd n Crrirbsons whicL'
hh hn'ly eijoyed undd B,rish ruls.
Th. H:z C or Ch asois srew so much pow,lul drinoths lard pa or ,hs Mushal IUls rrrar they oFnlv d€l'ed $acrvll admiiistr ion lid besatr ro $trle arrlnsin lhen own&vro puihh rhen (raclorna:s Fauid Mahasinsh rook rocoursa ioiniisue. He inviLsd
'ha l*dirq hsz i Lo hi! cou(
"id n.a-
chdoudv capturod eiohl or rhem aid
Mu6hc.bad.2Ihus he b,oko rh6 powsror rhs Haalis:nd.o aiily
452 I A Hhrod ol chtruqonc
C G H Allli, F or relu, of ,rde 4 ot chtbs E, P- a]
stn.t dd ntkr.lL tt rhe
ahhr.oons undd rhs Moshalrcsims a53
!d lr a. .tr .smpl. b lh. likominded landoMsh
Th. ..rly 8fihh Ewiuo p.pet aid a B.nqali puthi wilknby Nawajkh Kh!n, a local po6l montion srll anoLh.i lirllenriolhauli, 7.m idd idmily ii chnaqo_s. TT ram6 o' I\e F.7rid$ Mangar Fam. Aooodnslo lhs purhi, tdnsdFan wd81he
owmr ol an .nsisivs rucr ol culLivabl. land and erabl'shed
. v'lbs. named ahq him.1 rho naha or Mansd Bdm Haza
rind! n.dionsd ii rh. .arly e,irkhriisui.h.d H.2 i we. J.oar Haz i shos6 oams occurs in th6
.arly stlnsh .svonu. ft Mans nam Hazri.trd Jqslr na' i waG Elarcd ro oach orh . ris lra$ o bud
ol 1776177 mon,ionr nad and Tsj sinsh
r zamird r bsloiolno ro rh. 6amo p iod.3
1 .l.rFln clo Efiff s€rFr,qi {r.ll ai irt {ltfl htrs I I
Accordmo io 1972 census, mora rhan .ishry parc.nt of ih.popura,ioi profe$ ro ba Murlimt
Haminoi, oP. .n., p 119
'Purch4', ql J l s s, xLn(373), ?30
453lA Hslory or ChiMsoio
rha slEhde e jod, rhor6 w.s onen a kip,rirs srruqql6 amoiorh6 Muslm sulEis or Beisal, HnCu najasof Tripm and Btrddlnkinos ol Arakan ,or rhs po$6$ion of rhs d ,i.r The chrhrianPo u9!660 warc also adlva durhs rha$rEcirh snd sevr eeiLh
or Mudim popul,rion 'n
chn dsorsii.pno ot such nolLi.dl rumoils E ssnr,c.nr.
lshm G srppossd io havs boen roduced inro chi(agoioby rh6 A,ab m .hairr and coloizss much €arriar rha! rhs rrrMuslim conques of rha disri.t. whelhor rtu A'.b trador showod
rhE r rclietoi ]s d ,.utr b sev \rhh more probablo s rhar ihs rslamrzaroi or Lhe dstrr.r oso.inom rh6 coiqud by Sulhn Fa[hiuddi Mub ik shah A..odnoro lbi B lub, Lh6 sll'an was a dovod Mustim tsnd oatroiz:d
a hqr nrmed shaydJ
oiw d, rh. ftrtrdim popul oi iicre6*d ro so . h sh d.oree rhdrhs dhnhr b3o8me ulLimnely a fu:uslih mlorjLy dres.
srowrh of rh. Mlst,m socieLy h oln*lya ,ibutsd ro ssvahl t:cro,s th6sa aro (a) a p roiase otGhm by rhs Mtrslim tulercr {b) rh. p,ololy zhs acriliries or ih.Mrslim s'inLs: rc) irE co rbulioi dl rh6 Muslim .d10)aE aid
mars3l Foilownq or the srclyrh of Mustiisoclely durris tho msdi6val p od
Throushour rhe rud eval psiod rho Muslim qov ^ots aid
hish Efkiis orrrcss oava auriva hotp ro rha hhmizd,on o, rhad ,id. Fakhruddin Mub{rk siah, rhs Musln conqu or himssll led lho way ro rhs p roiass ot Mudm socisry. Th6 sulbi
S'ciely in rh6 medigval psriod 1459
ot mosqurs aid tombs n rhe disrld rh6,uhs or which eiisred rlll TalGh s rim6.l Durhs rho ru16 or rhalndepsidBnr srthoab,the &nqale6 Mrslims ro a,abla lor pllsrlruse.? sullai Nushlsh;h f said ro havs Gk€n an acrivo iirsrcn ii sorcadho Muslimculu,s in rha dttrcr Tha ,al,sious buildiiss coi rucred by rhe|Jusllm ru1e,5 drhg rh€ sutranaLs psod erhihir ,6tisioE zealor
'ha Muslim rulere. i rho Muohal pdtod rho Muchal orlco6
aid zmind&s conrruckd a lalgr iumb ol rcliglous buildins$rho q,.aLiumb- ot mosqu6s, shrh* and .omnsmocrive bdtd nssarc rha dne.r evideico of rh6 relsious aspirarions or
'hetulercrhe people who u.sd tham rh6 lnsc,lprione.dnd adnrois relarris ro rhen .oi.tucrrdi ep:ak
rha Mu.lim 'uhrs
aid h,loe ial orrlceE and
Th. .oriviri.r of th.rhar so s small commuiilies ol Arab os-
chants lvsd in chi rsois muchby sulLar Fakhruddrn 66 mddt6 ol fta rour_
rsl.m as a p,ose,yririig rorc. appsred oitv!.n',Y. tho qo*rh ol .sar:s'n rhs nan
du. b $a hbolB or th€ suripreachers. Then coitriburon @rho 6p,6ad or Muslideocisry ismuch s,o errhan .iy olh racror,
chirhsons has kdirlonallv beetr kiown shc rhe medhvalrima 6s BaE Aulry4 Muuuk' o, iho ho\ abod6or rwrlvs aulivas,AuLya, accordins ro rho au$or of ths ,ahr A6ad, ,1s tho arab cpldral ot wal which ssniryns ,n.ahe$ bywhi.h h inEnded spnirull proxmiry.,,s Ths srlivas were, rhus,rhe rvluslm mynics who by.x.eprto.al holnsswon . h'qh pbcs
460lA Hhrory or chttrreons
in h.av6n aid v.n6mrioi on srrh. In chirL.gons, rh6 wods artiy.pn,.id buzu,s (pdsdi ol sred*hd rnowldsa) a,o almon idonllcal ii sslso Ea.h or rh^Dwods bocamo a riLlo ol honour aid ths ctrll or sa is bitnsplblEly @labEkd on rcliqious occasloi. sohs Mu:lim s s.ho b'd .uch ho,o'c rirlEs asshahid aid qhrzt. Atl ,co m"ij
k his ny iBq ded
Ilraral n"r rs or . %o '. Iils loio qilqsl6 asr i rho iifdeliry aDd lives a viiuors i fs.A .i.hl'J is ons who ror parisErca r hLri:l.irh. Ihs aul'yas or rhe pts hos,ly belonsld ro surismw,ichphy.d ai ihrcnanr ,oe in rho lorm on el Musl'n .o'eLy
suli.m h rh6 disricr ssvxet ordds or'r.riq.., oir. wayO. Pder Muhamtud Mlqim €'vos .vdri.s orihowidssprcEd iirl!once ol ch sh(ya b,anch.r sutem ii ctrtrcqons,lAll n6j. 116ss-1730) A D), a Iocal poe' wrirs a pden nlmedlrso Qalardu on iho mysric aDods or Lhe oBtand jva, bnirhol !ul'rm. Ths 3xin6n.o or rhs sh E,l bhr.h or sul'r n
wdk n.m.d or&z Lnrlir, wh ch ,0166 or shah ch bullih, a
dBcrptaollain( nuknuddio
A liroo numb6r o, Mlslm sainiswsll kiowi or urknown rofada sith, visiled ro o, s?trbd ln ch tr6sois durns rhe mldBvolp.riod. ThBs Muslim sa s bolonoed 1o rrETrdtrlon ,slaGs rha( nany or rhsss sah$ .ama lrom hs m ddlo
r dl,'did orr e 15.6 nrrEr{F q:ilq fi fri3q i nL
fp, pp. 99-100. For Lhe o gin ot chsrnya oider,!e.,4,i, In, 397i 402. Fo, a d6cu$oi ol Ch shrya b6nchot suhsm sss sayid A A atzvi, A Hhprt of s!tunh to,
Fo, a dhcussioi o,oaland*lyr !6cr los Alzvi, oD. qn, pp,30l 321
sociery in rho m6di.v6t peiod i 461
by s6a. Ths myrh or rhs so.callsd,rwslva ruliyis' orioinaies tuoh rhh advenr of Lhs sai6 Eutrh6lir6 .1ory .f e:cr or rhe lwelvo aul,ya!
'l hksi mro b numr.al
n'eanins, k slll A wrlt.kncwi loBt ooet,iamod r\,1trhamri:d Khai wa5 rhs in ro neirlon rho 60.caltedlwolve arliyrs'1 Th.occomDl;hm,ds ol (ad3r (han Ghallrhonamssor lris elevon compairctrs, lesl ir would brdotr h6bookF.oo rre pedlsra. or rha poer ,\4!hasmad (han ws come ro rnowih Pr sid,, KoJal Khan c[rzi ad hs dleven companons, Mlh
hall bronsed Lo Lh6 m?perod,we m;y Plair rhen
rm6 ol ILvme n tho r hal orMuqrn anoLher loEl podgiv* a l or some €ainrsr in hh w6rk6u'.o,rowol An
ro fis ode. ot suftsm hdr re.crirly been bDushr ro lqhi by th6 Dopan'n6 ar HGrory, u0i-
Tho ,'$ o aimcallsd'rrv6 sains" lwslv. aulyat aidorh cdesores Thess I$s of hdly p'Eotraqss a's iiv,luabre for
Fo, rh6 rake or ocivsii3trco, br us l6L oive ' lho b'os@phical6korch or somo ot rhe Mudrm saha of chirhqois.
Ah,l sultan s.hisawar. rrtrhhrwar or tvtahi AE,wd miyEngrish ar rider oi rh. lsh. His o'is isl nd"D
raiiil {.4I <i!r rui. f{E3 ldl6 ,a,ikd. 1s7{ s s, pp, I r2r,
4621A Hkrory or cnhr,soic
G nor kio,,n. Tradirion daes rh ho cam3 ro chirlasoio ridttrron tho back o, 3 rish wh6n.o h6 cahad ,s namd Ma,i Sawar.rM la.r of rhe m rr is rharths shipo ot a lkh or which a po ciror n5h was dGwi. This h nol impdbabh as mBdrev.l s6ad3l'ws,6 builr afl, Lhs rashioi o, peacock ( cr, M.y! pdkh ), swe,5hrk, lsh aid o,hs anim,ts. Tho MtrlrErw radnion is k6prpEssn/ed in rho by pod (luhamd.d Khan,wrro .l:ms ro ba ,he des.eidaqr. Tho vadi.
Thei my for6Grh4s, I bow ro lei My an.ssor wis M.hltho Sddlqtrs,am y, He v€s vnruous
liks Umai In modery I ks osmln shlmgherr i. wisdom tikeAl; ln cMrly lks ljk6 Hamza; and rhsspnitual gud' Irke rha rce yieldmo all d6res Msb orall .,ns and ammunnioi hs was bdn in Lho 13id o, aEbh. Wh la in his plomurc rp all ov6r Lhe slobr wrh FrHali (ral'], he.rved and pur on I'on's
ol allah, a lch sw,m upLo them atrdorf.,ed ,h8m rs b3ck io sir oi, Bslyino oi God rh€y rcds
siLuared on rhaKadal Khai Ghr, sho wrh hrs ahv..,oamins jcyrully in rho country ar rh6r rma, camo ro,wdd
Bad Alam whou.sons lolt lr mselr of H,l Khalrlr all
Lhem ot rhoi hElp,
MahiAsaw wh 16 waide,ios o rhar laid saw a daushGr o,fan a. a iymDh b6w c[me ]i h smlB
and hoviie 8,es lk3 r[6 pqals or Iorus. seeiis h& Mahi
Asawe besqed or rhe
coor of rh3 Ach yJslho Ach ya on second thoughlolf,ad
his datrshbr in ma hsa ro him Aller a happy matrted fislor GoN rme, rho siinr wr
So.l6ry ii rh: mPdkral poidd 1463
his illudrrous wfe s:va binh ro a ch Id..1poer sivas 3 b,iar ds$rptioi or rhe hdlyFa is cd ro bo a co emport,y or BEd,
Alam iPk 8ad, wios.llm laint ot ci,iLkgoiq. lr Badl ALm, rhe coibmrod,y o, MahiArawar is ids.rted wirh pir Bad. o, chhors d sah or Bthar rhen
Jir$ harf of tha riie6 h
rhs 6aii I wihess,t (h6
a NiLies .r Kadal Khsi Ghazi aid hG comprlions n' chrtrasois h cin b. i^rored thd sllrai MshiAsaw ,
i, 8ic, and K,d,l tivLnq r rhe s:me prodii ch troqois mishr io1 raks pla.e ai rho
D, cohsl us opr Laid,
''e h dolio.ly o,wherh*h3 wis a ,ail hsb cat psreoi hr becn Lrr uisotrod-3Dr opr Laid rhxksftoHindu myLholosr thaword Nrahi A{w ir his view,ervnoto,sically ,ctaGd ro rwo Hiodu i6mThe ntrr oie is or Lod Siva aid
'hs s.ood
ris in. narioi.,'4 Atrq aya uino Mahi Asa-wnt tadir oo h or laqons aid ehowrrerc, hs r6achsd rh, coi.tu.siox th4 the pereoiarry ol lh! sulbi h butr wirh ra3(urctborow€d r,om rr:L
ro bs . symbot o, khm, vhrorious evsn whenn as mtrch 6 he symbotses rh6 hLhirc ion
of rh6 reqron, h6 k also rhe impeGoiifcdioi or rh. pEopte whorh6 iow rclisioi adcepred by lhen ho b,
.arli ro4o.pr
2 !rthl ,&ory, pp, ss s9a I ,r s r, tx {le6a , 37--as
may D3 rho dsspelhis of shah Kadal. Accordrs ro rjotoE.ltad ron, irc vill.s: or Kadslrur ln Brozri u. z commcnoEEsrha holysdurkso, rhs sin( Mtrhammad xhan 6 na(dionsuss6sGrh Krdrl Khan Ghjzio, shah Odhl phyad ai impo a rols h $o
Tnitx€d ltum lhs pa$aq6 quoEd in 0 5 lir940), p 626
srirl and d.voGd hrmett ro rhodi*ici, which w,s rhan a p6do.h rlso msnroned ii rho Arabic
h hs comhendrbls codribution in r € l n 5 p, ! r(!so2r, t7-ol nB 'al\, .,a. H a, a P\a Y a|
iirr- ri.i ni{i; iz qr4rr
4ii;i1 1lF!> F?iil rii.iliEtt qleiqrdri,
rriftr 1ri'.1s qt@ i6Eci
socbry ii rhe medhvit p6jidd 1466
Tha lesend .t rhh
shh:budd;n Talish, rho emiaenr Muoh:l hisroran o! rh6 mtd,6sven,eei,h ce uy, ch6 ro rh0 sspuhhhlholv sa nr on rh6 oD or a hL|, 5irrnL.d
P Esda,; rh3 a€rdi s or
DAUId WAZ E:hNMrh6 rorl, ot Pir Eidrr in oi. n, h c
466 | A Hisrory or ch :ooio
aid plac* i, n s idrirnriwn6 rrd.,rrthh.Muzammil .no,h id.rl loc?l rrlr s,nrior 3 lrr s :hi Erda
rudditrl tss his reacher, !r,rios: oBor coisderiis rhe tr,nD ,Jdor, lr k ns iiihl,/ /m;,ro:ail. rh
Pir Badr and sharE Badxuddtr uEharaks rhs hole sdivn€s oi s.i s aith::d:cri.li i nniv!otGhazii bur sdLl3d ar DB n
Tha chl(hsois r:di:ioi or p I aid, 6as ar 8..,d ioLi:c otsoma nlneredh ccnrury Elro'rnsihr s6il or.nLiras Ac.ordiiq rd Beate's or.,ur sksqrhkat D).rq y tt E.tt .
. Musul ,i sahr whosr ronb i6 ar c,h. m i B-iq]l airir evrdenrJy ol s!m1 on,iqriry. rr,B i. o srri: :,rp,C iilo
5l!o anorhei bea, io an
le illssiblo. Th 6 rhi Lonb rtLr i 3tibot sknne, b:drins an !hstrh nsnpLon, rrpap ly (rom
rho KuEn. Ar a sh.i dhrane is rra m@ld of r.rulrrm rdYasiu wirh an iisc'rpLion .oivoy ns (he y. ot rjr lj30
Accordirs (d John Bermes. ths ,utt f;m6 oi Lro .ainr w,sBid uddrn or "lull mod. or Lho G Lh , r$ r.ioj,ild orcnctisrrk.roher tho caro or rho saiir a5 roliovJ;l
H. it aho caUed Bidii.l-Alam or flll irootr or rhs vrorld.Boh ai Maad 1rn rhe u p) he t:d rhe ua h,il lro orar6qn a,d w6! p'obabtv arradid ro E.i.it Hs lved tor alors rima ar charoanw whda a d E,h or aniie, h sirtoiaol $t ao, (oispcro-! ,rd \ero arod p.acs or r lq -,ro
I2
3
!. h d ro hne Iah chiroqoiq shotrlv
bcfo,o hs ,ielh and sarhd ii
n ,ro med'evil pdlod 1467
ELlrd rhns hB died in A t1
somo liyporhdical vi8ws in h,. anomF
llre sory ol rhe sr .
lr :s 's
h lrlf prcbrble soms Bdd uddln or orh camo roir as is rlro hislrly probablo,
of rhe .h,xiqon!. Fiv.'. wh s.robrbh, h6 swa and waded
s Frscisly thal whici s commoi allsr ris or suproaLural h.inss, beti?ved iiby
rho ,ilk ires0ectira of rten p ri.ular foh of protessld bo-Ior ...,!, 5 p:3 snhotrlly a Muh,mm:dan sahr, asoidariLyrh sanr b6sr kiowi 10 rho b!1[ df fi6 Muhimhadatr 14r.rins po:ularloo,
rre c!l! .l Pi, B h h dn obi6 or much dsvorion .monothB rural a d m lLhre folk of chturas.ns, who b'tavs rhar rha
namo ar th. siiL is v. y auspi.io6 and d r Lheir wo,k, sooft andHo B rlro su3dan sainrol
r o !rlo5, .n ' ror.o b1 .la udr. ss IoGr.d bo nsni:r'H.
pa '!, or Fl o.o. 1\:n " rE" 01 . ounsv ov sea o, riv6ras lollovG ,tra 6 bd child;cn. r
sss Riv6r h on ou, head, o tive sh1s, Ohr Bada Badd, Bad ,"4
1 I a As, 1394, pp s4o-341
4 Ths . tha Eiilsh ,cndeiiq by Dr A IG,im ol th. lollow ns
463 | A Htsrory or chtlaoono
hi! word0rut hmpon alt srde. r aid near. Tha evt
?.opl.) betevs rh Lhe ishoor rhe ddrlcl (ch i{,€ma or ch jsaoi) war doiived rrcm rh,s
qFr qii! 7 rP if"t 1 1.i n.. -::pi.
' Tho l.q.'odysupeiiaLu.l powqs tsid acriv Lhs ii rhe dlricr havo bsenn ,ared by a iumb ol wrno6 such as Mv Hamidulah Khan&P !r.), Jimes wisa (Nd4 m r/r ro45, .o .t and krdns
sofloy h i e mgdBvat pfl,odt46e
(chakaia u. z.) Dadmkra {coxr 6az oistrrcr) erc. owa lhenrha rad on ot ri6
ehommsdais by Lho rhnre€nrh cen.srm ro Mot,ya w Lh rhe cullus
wr ,h a 6ur th6 shriesTrk,Badar [rokan, or,hs
b0no p,fomed in $€ dGtricL oi 0ra 29rh n;mzai or 6voryyear3
AirsNdds, when Lhs
s ro 11 6at,(s owi w.h,evoahdin a drcam, ro a vtLea iamed Bdhlhappsi8d to be rcbu,ed rhere.
rhar rho rcot h DEdc ot rhrches o w d s,a$ Ths k4on
o4the ot R!th.! HLbtr, a sa
M, Forciammer. lL 6 reproduced i fis /kFrD6uacoz4GliHanqoon, 1917. vot. t, p.40
th6 ca€4 includiis rhe supdiail.it aclvir,ss or !ho sahr har
4701A H nory or ChtuGsono
bshind il ir sald rh ii mo al I to th6 si m l€d a vcry simpla ihand sxDrc$od rris
mBnr should be ercd.dshjii. is rha rh,jrhrLchen.oor has stn'e sirty
rim,r b$i resulary reDnred dnry by $clo.:t sav.i H idu ramil!s. Ir is srd rh rh6 saint t!t! m!.h disk.$!d aL r5cn.ots:ica
llahica 10 'epiir
rhe sh ine. rr.r.,rrre, ha /rp': ed ii a drsamsrioutd be .drusrdd ro
llre Iocal Hmdu5
Hhdu fah,les have brcn p,lohinq rh5 iob reqularv.
vaulrs sde by side, Lh, wensn vaul( isrh.i or ihs si , ii rhe middlr r
vaul is rh or N rsh.n .r sLonol sirins onwhh, h6camorloais D cn a.r.n! s eill Dre*rysd ln rhe shriia
shsikh Fand. The s nr G roPularlyor FoiJ s,aL;.e. .oiilor form or slekhFa duddm cait i.Sh.kk:r. Accord nq ro 1re r'r.r Akr,n, hh birrhplaco tus Lhs vill:le cr Khoovil ierr Mu En.2 alrrw ds, hs
jouhey ro oelhi, $/rerc h6 sas "in",uc-(aidah , s:srai,
Frc' of blesrr0s Ho bado fatowilt ro rhislldor,q ao.lo or r\. r r ol 1:. .ar
1
. .6rr Io1 %!../ Q!,rJ r r s ,,nr
h llierh d /+, in br,rdlh md h or bhckh ..m. h.fo wri ,n in arbic burcah
nor budeciphdBd olrns L6 ir. .crEcqr condiLion. prob.bl,
h 65 ^ ('64snamed N zatuddh Arnrd who ..lls h msel a de6cip{e ofKhr.ja F idlddin caij.i Shakr,.vida, A flahimi op dL, ti sb).
slpordural acdvnes s* E Naq ,{ Hbiorypo 239 243r Hizvi, oP. dr., pp. 133150
472 | A Ni'rory or chthqois
./rsP,xt 1e67,e6.esrrrd. p. 93. rh6 carss or rh!
d.Lar bY t\, M N€q, Fizvi (qpHdq. Brrs. sutt hohhuo, p. 112Dani tttr\ttn archkfture
oi, has bsan dkcGsod iid., pp.3ls,3r9) ,nd orh s
Sociery ln ihs medlsval puLod | 473
in ir. coract lo'm shdrld ba srlci Barad dr ahcm sisbmwas a lamols towr in m6disv,l reaia Jd $e saiir was born rhe'rAccordiis to rhe popuh, b.lsr, oe saht Js:rid ch traqons ford.vorloial erdcisrs. Mv Hamid!]hh Kh, rcrucs rhk v:dntonEnd opiiss rhar rh6 holy p €ci3.Ja o3fe, visired rhis nljdsl
sh.h Pir or sh.h Parr 2 The oa 6 or ,ha sal o.cu,s,nn E l* ol pod Muqim. ThE mrzar
ol e enr h locared h rha Sarkaii. u z Am ker.athd Dansuppd.ed eirhd b haE
be.r ro-ids loy 'to rslq'o-sserviursor ihs $h1. M3ny piprbr bel.rs abour Lhs supdhunan pow.Eor rha satnr o,sa sdion oI $e royal houss cf D6lh. h hk ld.r I ro he savsup aU wortdly eir6ym6 aid dovored him:etr jo dssp meditaiioi.AnoNads, h6 vkired ch roons ric rade ur hh m'id ro 6s 16
mado or oia shdh pn
Jahan buni a arsoterm saiir belonssd brha shdnsri ordd p€opto mGspall hi,iamo d shah P . Ai o,r.sho@ istind namsd
, d{otro1n o.e(ie,comnemo,aEs rha sa ed acririries of rhc$lnr.
shah ch.ri6urr.h.3 the hro,malion rc0.'diDq d,6 lr. rdrh s .elsbn€d sainr ir prcssrued in a medi,
Fo, rhe nadnion r Blarioi ro liis cneer ard supemduGt ac -
\r-Rtcato2s\-)56For dera led id,irioi ol cares aid relstous adjvtuie. ot rh€
saiir se6 Dr Abdul xaim,s anicta in rt$ ./ A s p, xll1666),73 30. Iha rclevr po{ron or dre
^k,r,z is raislared and
quored by Dr Abddl K im
474 | A Ht.rory or cir kosoio
aval rclsi,us work eiriltad Mrl,. Rrk,i or d€courx dstve,adAhmrd s\a i, durinc rhs p?iiod ,rom i6s2
1705 A O, whhh wx. co@tdd by d,o or his dsc,ples. prof najsr tn rhb book ir
chdb....nB or rh6 dsciols or sh6ikh Huktrudd tr...lss brriedbaik ol rhe rjvn Phjn' (Fo )." In rhe ouu!,
or hh ralk bsro!. h6 rollows,s otr rho 3cLvtLics o, hs disc,rt!.'he (. noknuddnl hmslr sard lh,r ho (shah Gh rq w4lhs mbrah rs€ids.n) of ouriz (han Hsri rh. hesni ns or prto.e D a sh icr when
lvas dsr€5cd. h6 Fuh Allaf) snd o ry su.siLs dma 6 Akh'abad (AsG
ll'ts.rmeir showi o rrf darsakdallah's miid rhd hd renoriced Lho
worldly I'ts ind 6mb,aced th. wrnduins I're ot ai 6.eic. "Forsom6 days ho roimed Echhs rhs pta.s(? Palna) hs,levetoFd a, dhchna rorrhssrhr Shah Huknudd,n) Lill I rsscrEd b'tnr a d.ciple -lre vEs
ro rM publi' s6rv c6s sid kd su.h a hunbtalro rhar 6v'i th! lo{liesr wo,k su.h as ctsailns larmssw.. iorIookod upoi wnhh rcd by rha6riit, prch$iois or aly I dd hrdli ls valt ro htm Duris. pdiod ot his w.nd hqs he .otrld
cache,. The sahrrohrsd all s,! c!s wirh devoriotr ! lr€rh, dEvo:ionat dorcaronPGvailsd upoi hihour or rha place (wenr away lrom Lris ,lac.) Lka . mad tiLB dlapD"'(o lo-sd.6 r.'6
uould ro .a ,..osris d rs ,. r :
Btnqalah. hur norhiisnaws reacho,j rh rherc (ar ch raoon€) h, was kiowi asshsh
a..o dinq ro o, Abdul Kdrm, thB dara or Rurr Athht kioun_chs rhe w6rld and 6ccapriis an m6to I ra may bB prt i bewlsio,as .airu,6 aid r''vat ar osthi, i6, rh borwesn 23rd Jutre and
.haiq6 ol his nam6 r.om Ftrh AUahro chnib All.h is prob.bly d!. ro hs l.:dinea Door dau$arelre and ro, rhd sEme rsasoi rha iamo cha blllih was s vei roie saitrr by tho paopls or chhrasone.
Ih6 dais or sh'h ch3ibullah'6 ,ivol chr,gois hds norbsei *kd ii rhs r'/orfuz. Accodiisadval oghr hava kksn ph.a loms rime ai(er rhc Mustul con
in 1666 A D. Civi0o 16 dde or dsmiss orrhe sr Dr abdrlGhmbulLh is darsd lrrh ch ibultor, mrrhave disd broE,hs dars bsoauso rha dkcouE re,ec b hk de h
n tha fi,r[,, ir h srardd rh rhs sriir tes burhd ii chiof rho rlvd Feii. Btrr rh€ o'siial m
ol us sa trr cannor ba (acad. P,ohably, rhe m5z rEr rhre ei6dro be destroyed by rhs violenr flow or rhs rver sid rhe coflii
reruBii toliowds ndh rhe orisiat siE roa h'll.rop or oamp a n rho io hsh pa ot rho c ry,
B6sid6s rho above ms ioiod sainrs, rhers w o a hrge nuh-baroi holy peBoi,se. who besi immodalizadoily by rhs ciraroi or iam6s n rho msdisv.l wolks. Theqenea.loqcal hble, doibiEd in [luhanmad Khii s wolk and rh6 I]erot ssiirs co ansd n rh. AEbc mriurcripr
shill sharruddn.s'ared as an inlm e ot K.ddl Khpodgrco,614 b fia mi,acotou' acrivirn6 ot Shah Hij Khilil,a
I J,4 r p xl js66r 73-so
Maii sarv:; and Ead Atam Tho Arabic mtsnusdipr olso co a ns
+Bdrdvo, and ihosund , BoLh rhs pedisre6 and lho AGbi.
air iamed Shah p.Di, Bur rh$omrch lohr on srEr rhs c eff or rhe
.criviss of rhh ojves oily brisr meiLoiofsainr shah Zlhid. the romb or Lhs sahr lies in Mreed u. z,Dr Eiamul Hrq pu.
or rhrss saiE h rha rclisous reldbdr ir was d1l lrearer tn rhe socisl sphsis.
actrviriss rhar acclsrared rhe prcsiess orrslamiz.rron. rha hsrhods oJ ca yiis oi mh:iomry acriv iosby
saia kind. someILko Kadol Khai Ghzzl vrho orldro humbls rho non-compliair hrrdels rhe Mahhawar hdirton,prcsdN6d slsewh,e n Eensal tso drows hm 10 bs 6 miliianrhisson y who Lvould hko rhld ir ne.sssly
n ot druos oway rhc evU epnibEynholizes his elfo E ro conv,1 d,k ):id ol irfidels inro rhe
laid ol skm 8ur p*sudon ro applicaw iiinq 0e poDDls o!e' io rhsn i: h
473lA H srory or ahioaoo'o
Tha saiirs cxo 3.i a qrcor iirileico upon rho Muslrmsocierg
ol Fed,sval ch daqois. Ths places ot their Dutuk arc .omms-mdrardd by buildlns asana, romt da@ah,
Iollowo's !nd oitur rclisious minded psoptg
huildnss ded cobd ,o the memo'y ot lhdse salnc .ai b6 rouidsainG trslped orc5rty tn iho
dsvslopmr or Bensrl lchrus ,s mon or $e Muslim pooE
ol modiav.l ch bsons had iot oily rh.n epniru.l suides omons
1 E Frq A HBbtl ol sqt,i tn B?e.t. e. zr9
so.DLy in rhs medtsval perod 477
ihe contribtrrloi or ih6 Muslih schoh;s aid wriLeB i dtssemhdhg Mlslm l6mnq
'nd Ets.n is ro less imFo ai, ftai
0ie orhs r,clo6 qrcwrr of rMuslm so.ie1v.n h8disval Fsrod a sood nu,ber or i/uslm poes or chirGso uw,ok a laGe truhb- slorr'c oi or rha treand holy acriv tres
rM!slms lha l{sois or rh.tr s tplurat inec..d !, ', i-" .ts,.i.s
popu,ariry amons rhe Mud i' .ommln ty o, rhs districr. lr is
all Lhc avaitabta ktlhchava been wr tren n nsdevil chnksoig. A
by rhe pods ot Lhe
distrhr surrrc.s ro prove rhek 16m xs. rajb aid rrtushamr deslwrh Lho rclo,ous G iiq h 3]am. A
N.n,hor M!z.mm I discr:sssrhe r Lesaid d!riesol hen aid iomei n ovuyday ln', ths rnuals ro be obatuedii conn8clioo wirh and rre buitdiiqof new hou$s ald wtun o,e eicoun€B rhe lame, and rhs specalvi,rues inhrenr ii ca rn days or rhe week and ce(ain mo hEsr.." lowf, or Alaol dBals wirh rhs jnponanca or rha rel e,outsinjurc oE which 6 oblsarory ror 6c Nirsums i rhsk dalylte. Qfoyd,ll- r\o h or shakh Mublbr,&hs, plorimase, alms oiviis c. nddiri ( ,b ol sheik, Molatjbprc. rbE rcloious duLies 3nd oslsdioxs (ddd? &ob or sh. khPrhn slEs a des lp,ioi or lsrtm D injuoioh. Doirrt4, Boq&q orsayrd Nu,uddrn deals wi(h rhe slamc mtuncLiois which rh3 Mu*Lms md obse v6 darl,rho ussrolne$ or p,ayer. iha slbFd ol orsor Muhammad ali h a work on El€ otrs hsurcroisror Mustms
knd a Rq,r u, Qm!6 orSayid Nurudd,a,
^l6io. No,ioh ot rho $m.!lhor.
470 | A Hhbry dr ch daomd
on tsLnrh ,ires 3ndbjo!,hplrical sk .h or rho poprer oft& ndrr
ol ssyrc sulLai ,; a seni hi6rorcn ..cou ot rho dsdh ot prc
or ihe!6 purhis h.va be6npa s of the dkrtc(
popuh,ny or rho slbFct r\dJ o, rhs mo iokble wo*s on rh6Rdglsjrnyofsabd(h5n
3nd noiur Bii,y oJ Jsiiuddii. The$ ao*s a,e embotdqad wlhndrrour advan(r'.s and erploiG or rh6 prophBr or stam. Aiorhei
rhh cdsoory s sioi-r ritr.j or sayid suttan.i his work sb,riEr Nasrullah xhai w trshh .dmmun y aqaiin Law of cdd. Hs quo.ke a F-nbs or ,,1 l"rions and prohibiLions or r5htr ad urqsd rho b?tev s,o abdsby rhom. He also clrts upon hk .oiial,oioiisr3 ro ab tsh riomionnsbmrc acrlyiri4s fiom rhe betidts .id cus_tons or rh6 infdsls (Kifirsr He uroes rhe Mrdims ro observerha Drincjpal End. of rhs hlamic rairh did encou,.s* themro abidd by rhe s. ioiural hws a)oia rhssa schohrc aidwir.rs
.moiq the M'slims. Th6ysiimularsd ao inrere{ ii observrnq sc ptuhtsprcad;no a kidwlodeeor ol ranstalioG aid
condhuGd r. rh! prc_ponds'i.a or r\,tuslim ponuhriotr tn rh6 diski.r wa, rhE hrcs scat6.tr-s -i, , "5 s .o r D,n,s 60..at oo!.on
or rha backw d Hmdus ro tam and rhavftarv 6hbrd od .h6 ndw -lrqo,
The Mash-Fnhqi tirsr hal ot rha $van_r@ h .anrury huirod a Isrq6 iumb or M$tims ,rom rhc coashla'aa3 or Bsis,l and foGd rho unlodtriars vicrths ro .atrts iidill3Enl p rr ot rha kiisdom or tuakri. This zls [email protected]
lo, rhe predomnaido ot Mtrsl,m pdpuhion o chircsotrs.La ry, the comiio or a t se ium54 of Murm.etrlersrrom
Lr r,ituohat la albhslped 16 briiq 3bour rha predorn oiica o, Mrslm populafon i
Muslm hm lies lorL
Noakhal aid comlla b selre in ths EBrwh ts dslapslarcd ,n.!s
ch beons uiJtr 'hs
Muqhal roo ms 47s
daY Muslimso.ieLy se Ab !l
ilhb of n.orl. or srydonoin as 30 ,Hunrer, op. or, o 141)
Mustms .a]l 'hsm*lvcrPa'hai6 (Htrnrer, ip. n,., p r4t)
rhoush Lhe Mld r ro orh- .ommun
'ies as a homoseilors bodr, s,
'n rcit Ly. a composb c.nmui lv
Mrslims or rh6 dn,icr ars sri aly su0posd
Mughils, e*reh idiai Muslims. Ahkaiess aod tu so calladBeigdl6e Musl'ms Ths s,vidsz ctsiir jhamselves as d:s.enda s
peopk of rho holy laid ol A.bD the r,iLF.ns:rd []e Mushatsoics form..r (he ,ul i9 .liss of rtre dstric" for which rEy s$ll held rn es@srn lr rhe so.ery. co nl
e woioty iidcd!d uider rh€ Muohalswho a'a acrually lis n!,dy aid wn, t€
comp.srrs rlimenrs n prere
iao rA H.rory 6l ch(csono
Ths iirlur ol ean,o Lidisn Musllms (locally call.d GaudiaiM6lm, ii rh6 dhrrcr is svidsnrrn rhadrahd.l ac.o'dnq topoe, chuha/, on6 or his aic6 oB alons wirh his rchrivB l6irGaud io serle in chltrasois.2 rhs ArrkanEss iso-Mudms such tuRoh:is M!.lms, ( iichis erc. li!6 mo$ly in ths south6n lionristof (ha dkrlcr. Tha Kamanchisa6 supposed ro bo rhsde!*ndanBol rh6 loll vr, or S :r 51'jr.Lid and se(hd ii anr.n aid A,akan-chltrasons bods aGa by
wlmei. rhe$ 6rx clasBs or Mrslimswsrc crierly Iorerrnas and rhey Iosr dowd upoi rh' s3nsale6(locally c.lled Erni3l) Murlms who io,m r[a seve h .hss ofrhe Mslim socieLy or rhe dikicr rh' Bonsaloe Muslims coi-shrs or such E.i6l e,ouDs as rhs Khambha,sy., Kuh.ha Kanhar,
Ha,al,ya, Fhioi, KrrouasrioDal s6ups as rhe Jol., Klm . Kam , reli, Malsnsi. rur.n 6'c.3Huidreds or rh3
ptrrrs nom Lown Beis.l.id aneM ds l.6sdbv rhe Mrqhil! conribuled drciLlv rd rhe lom rotr or rhh class.
6aiy Muslmsor hrocrcriclosr rhan o,oiml $atus and sor lused rnro 1116
so called Banssho Murlim! Th6 Muslim comhon peoph whoamiq,ared inro the disx'd rom ih. ioishbou,hq a,eas wda 6Ed
of pilgrimago to Sitakunda. Barabkunda and orhor places relatcdto tho cults of Siva and Sakti. Tha Rot'omglo refcrl to a sacred cpotnamed Falamatiswara which har bcen identified with Sitakunda.lThe Buddhist shrines attracted many pilgrlms Devoted public olall communitleo journeycd to the tombo of the Murlim saintl in
rearch ol the dcceaged saints' lavour or in eearch ol patdon.
Yo get a sight of iaol and to acek divine favour wero the chiclmotivas ol Hindu pilgtims.
Belicf in the contlnued life ol thr dead ie evident in romc
rites and practices of Hindur. Alter the death of a percon, th6
neal rehtiver of the deccased olfer watcr to the dead for somosucceosive days. Thle ritc is locally known lr 'Hainch panl'.
A great mejority ol the Hindu-Buddhict community still perlorm
a rite known as 'prcta annat (locally crlled 'paiccar bhat' or food
oftered to the deceascd). On thle occasion, materiale ol food rnddrink as liked by the decemed in llle time ere placed at a aui-table epot near the homectead ao thal tho deceased may take
them They believe that thc deceased pcrson comes in the form
ol an animal, pailicularly dog, iackal and crow. ll the otfered
lood is not taken by any, thc noar rclativee think that somc
favourite item or items to br oflcrcd have been omitted and theco
muot bo cupplied.
The beliet ln lile altei-dcath givcr rice to thc belief in ghost.
Medieval people caw ghort ovorywhere. lts habitual plcccs ofresidence were tho cremation eround ol Hindus ard Buddhistc and
the burial grounds ol Muslimr and Christians. Ghorts were be'
lievcd to reside on bankr of latge dighls, on hill topc, in bamboo
bushes, in branchos ol largc tlees. A pereon who commits cui-
cide, a murdered pstaon, a woman who diec in prognancy oI as
a result of chlldbirth will becomc ghort at drath. With thc pro'gresc of modern 696 thc beliel in ghost hrc reoedcd, butthe namet of variour ghostr and ghort atoties ctill survive among
lhr rurtic folk.
1 lee ruprc, p. 161
554 I n Hlsrory of Chlrragong
Belief in supernatural beings was an important asp.ct of $ocie.religloue life of the medieval people such supernarural beingsas 'deo'(spirirst,'dair'r ? dakini, a demi goddess of sinisrer forcesr.'pari' (nymph). ' jin' (fairy) etc. had great inf tuence upon themedieval lrfe and imagination. The 'c!eos' lived everywhere, in thelonely places. in the deserred homesteads, in the forests, in srones.in trees in water, in rivers and springs. women atfectcd with hys.teria or other mental diseases wcre thought of possessed by ,dain.
oi 'pari'. Persons of mental imbrlance wcrs supposed as possessedby 'jins' or some other kinds of spirirs. Some ritual acts wereperformed by the witch doctors to force the evil spirits to abanconthe body of the percon who was thought to have been possessedby them. This act of domination by splrits was known n. ,rrrr..l
Medieval prople strongly bel ieved in sorrery end witchcraft.Magic practices were emrloyed nct only f ,r thc beneficial purposebut also to injure other people. Btack rnag c, a form ol the invocation of daemonic or malevolent forces was r;ractised by uritchcloctors. Such ceremonies a; mtrriage an,J Liirth were safeguar-cled by magis3l pracrice.
Superstitions of va.ious kinds g2in-^6 a slronghcld on tho mlndsof the common neople. the sneezing at the rime of deparlurowas believ:d ominous. Dropping oi a ltzatd on different parrs ofthe body was interpreted differently eirher auspicious or on,inousas tho case mry ba. Hooting of owis d,liirrg rhe night in theneighbourhood of a s!ckbcd w rs considered ominous for the Iifaof the pati6nt. Seeing a s€ rpent on the r;ght and a jackal onthe left was considered auspiclous but in rhe opposite case it isconsidered 6qinous, certain plants and marerials were laid besidea women in childbed to ward olf evil fr<.rm her. Medieval peo-ple attached a great importance to dreams which were consideredvery meeningful. Some animals were thouglrt to have superna-tural powcrs.
I For itlustration of rhis fact GeB A ,, pp. 35, 37, 38
'Nasihat Nrma' by l'lzal Ali, qr
Socieiy in the mecjieval period I 5b5
fhe curing of diseases played an important lole in medieval
social lrfe. lts effect was believed to be the credit ol sorcerers,
witch doctors and priests. The art of healing eonsisted in magical
ceremonies, puritication, incantation of mystelious mantras and
meditation. Epidemics lrke malaria cholera, emall'pox etc. w€re
lampant during medieval times Tney took heavy tolls of human livec
GVery year. Village after viilage wele swept away by thece dlseasss
in thoss days of ignorance in med:cal science and public hygiene.
Persons aftlrcted with small-pox and other contagious disaases
were forbidden to make any connexion with others especially the
strangers. The people thought that the deity of epidemics entered
into the body of the sick men" Vlhen a dieease attacked the
person, a worship of the deity was arranged. Meoieval people
rhought that all ceses of sickness were either the works of an
evil power or the anger of the deities and the pati€nt could
be cured only it the deitios could be appeased. lt was a common
practice that tho witch doctors (ojhas) should be invited to pacify
the angry deities and to ward off the cvil spirits. The priests
also took part in those rites. Pt ISonB af f icted with such incurable
disseses as skin disea:es, asthma, canccr, Ieprosy etc' were con'
sidered as ,accursed' who could be cured only by the gtace of
deiti€s. Sometimes, the causes of illness was assigned to a rela-
tive or a neighbour and the sorcerers were employed to identily
the harmlul person Death by lightning also was considered as
a curse ol god infllcted upon the victim for some sins commiltedby the pelson.
Medieval people believed in prophetic utlerances, foretellingof luture events and fortune telling. They believed that the wholocourse of life is ptcdetermined at birth. The Ganakas or professi-
onal astrologers werc invited to cast a horoscope at the birlh ofchildren cspecially the male oner. Peoplo cspecially Hindus wouldconsult the horoscope and the almanac on the major occasions
of their Iives.
Belief in the oracles has given rise to a peculiar religiouo
ceremony known as 'gacha'. The villagcrs of Chittagong havo
56 | A Hisrovy ot C6l116goit6
since mediaval pariod been performing this cetcmony with tho ob-jcct ol finding out ths particular w;shss ol tha deities especially
Ma Magadheswari Il can be perlorrned rt any time ol the year.
For the performlnca of this coremcny the service ol hcalthy males
is requisitioned. The viliagers assomble in the 'eebakhola' (a plot ofland at the ourskirr of the village reserued for the worship of the
doity). The selected man tnen bows over and over again in quick
tuccetsion to the daity, sometimes dances to the accompaniment
of c drum beaten by hie companions and behaves as rf hs were
porsecsed by the apirits. While thus alfected he rolls on ths ground
and occasionslly uttsrs oraciee, Various questions are put to him
by the asrembled people and thesa are replied often in ambiguous
languaga. A eimilar ritual was noticed by Manrique duting his
sojourn at tho Arakenese caPital.
vMedieval peopls were not wholly steeped in illiteracy and ig'
norance. Though ths vast mass ol the scciety were ignorant ol
three R's, yet they had grrat regard for eclucation and learning.
The diccovery of a large number ol puthis in all parts of the dis-
trict indicatee how greatly the society including all sections ofpeople valued education in their culturEd IIfe. Most of the puthi
writele had a marked degree of learnedness and the roaders of theee
works requtrtd to be at least literate if not learned' Palm leaves
lTalpata), prcssed cotton formed into flat piece of thin material
(Tulat krgaz) etc. w6re used as writrng malerials manufactured
by a epecial class ol arl3sans. Peacock feather, pointed at the
hollow part was a popular writing instrument. [-iquid substance
extracted from black malerials (e g, chhua or trlack pcwdery sub'
sltnco deposited on the ceiling near a furnace) was used as ink
for writing with pen. The puthis weire used to ba read amidst
listenels in ,almost
every emlnent, househo!d'
Fostivals wors en inseparable part of the socio'rellgious lifeol the mrdieval people. Madieval festivals were chielly religious.Thsy gcve tho peoplo an occtsion of public rejorcings. ln the
rural area$ the leotivals waro organized by zamindete. EId al Fitrwas undoubtedly the greatect Muolim lestival which was observedwith pomp and oplendour. Othei Muslim religlour fes'lvrls wereEid al Azha, Ashurc, Muhcrram, Prophet'o annivertarios, Shab cMiraj, Shab e Barat etc. Some eecular legtivalo liko Hijri Ncwyear'a Day, Nauroj or Persirn New year'6 Day etc. must havefound their placec in the liet ol MuElim tectivals. Though Chi-ttagong Muslinns bslong chiefly to Eunni secr, tome of thc prin-cipally rhia lectivals. such as, Ashura, Akheri Chahar Shu.nbaFateha e Eaz Daham gained popularity during tho later Mughalrule. The celebration of Aorrura was characterized by makingimages ol Hasan and Husain.l Th" celsbration, accompanied withplaying on muslcal band, lasted for ren days.2 Shab c Baratgained special featuro in the socio religious lile of medieval Mue-lims. Shia festivals gained footing ovcr thc disrrict during thelater Mughal period Besides these, the Urr in the memory ofeome deceased pirs were also clebrated.
Pyrard de Laval notices ,,as great a diversity of ceromonies',among "the gantilee or pagans"3 in Chittagong. The greatectHindu religious festival during Manrique'c times was Durga puja,
which gavo them an occasion for display of all lhe pomp andmagnificence that was possible. The preparations for the DulgrPuja in a rich family wcro on a giand scale. Father Manrique der-cribes the celebration ol this festival at Diang ac followe:
I have noted before thar all the Heathen of those parrs wercwont to hold a great fostival at thc new Moon of the monthof June, each year, in which they caried an ldol in procession.To thir ldol thoy give the figure of a woman and il wa.called Druga (goddase Durga). At thie festival tho Hsrthonliving near Diange and othcr Christian settloments woro accus-tomed te borrow from the Ghristians silk cloths, rugs, iewellcry
I Shoriyot Nomo,
2 'Nosiyot Nomo',
3 Lovol, l, 333
il.1373.1376qtBAP,1375BS,p.64
558 | A History of Chtrtagong
and the like for the adornment of their ldois and al:^o of rheirhousos.l
The Durga Puja leetival lasts foi four days and ends by orqan,z:nga plocession during tho immorsion ceremony. Community feasrand animal sacrifice characterized some religious festivals of medi-eval Hindus. Festivals provided women wirh oppcrtunity of Ieavingtheir houses. On these occasions they were allo'ared to sharethe rejoicings with the orhers in visiting the adorned idols in rhe
decorated templei. Other festivals in which the cornmon oeoplewere allowed to participate were the Rathayatra (Car festival),Janmashtami iBirth ol Lord Krishna), Dolyatra or Holi. Rasa, Koja-gari Purnima, Shivaratri, etc Unlike our timos, Hindu religiousfestivals wore organized by rich individuals.
The grearest religious festival of the Buddhists is Baishakhi
Purnima on which day the birth, enlightonment and great demise
of Lord Buddha took place. tt is difficult to state how this sacred
occasion was celebrated in medioval times. lt is equally difficultto describs such Buddhist festivals as Madhu Purnima, AshwiniPurnima, Kathin Chivar Dan etc. owing to tho absence ol details'2
Christians of medioval Chittagong celebrated a number oftheir religrous festivals irr a befitting manner. The writings of the
European missionaries refor to such religious festivals as Lent,
Easter, Corlrus Chrlsti and Christmas, A report of Fatlrer Barbier,
a missionary visiting Chittagong in 1713 A O, is of great valuerbgarding the celebration of Christian festivais during his time.
Monrlque, l, 292. Mrnrique here commits an errcr in computingtime. The Durga Puja festival is celebrated in September.Oc-
tober, and not in June as our traveller states.
For the discussion of the celebration of the Buddhist festivalE
in Chittagong see Dr Sudhangshu Bimal Berua's articles ln the
/I'losik Eosumoti, Poush, 1370 B S and /Il R, March, 1966; DrSukomal Chowdhury, op. cit., pp. 63-83. P R Barua, 'TheBuddhist festivals in Chittagong', t A S B D, XXI (1976), 188200,
Soclety ln thc medlcval perlod I SEg
Accordlng to him, rho Chrirtians of Chittagong celebrated thereligious fesiivals "with the same order and solemnity as in Eu-,opr' 1 He narrates the celebration of some religious festivals ofthe Chrisrians of Chittagong as follows:
I was charme.. to see them perfolming the ceremonies of HolyWeek, tho Reposirory, ir.i which tho Blessed Sacrament wasplaced, occupierl the whole height of ttre church in the formof a throne with several riers. There, without silvering or gilding,slreets of iia rrewly melted, and shaved in flowers and fos.toons, and ar;plied against pieces of decoratl,rns of a red hue,prorluced a very beautiful effect.
There is another ceremony which is invariably observed amongthr: l'o'tu{lucsg. They sel,:ct a Sunday in Lent, which theycall Donringo di: Gruz. They reprosent, in a procegsion, OurSaviour b:aring His Cross. This ceremony was carried ourwith admirable order. Ih: starue of Cur Saviour was madeIife.like, althouglr of m rrs than humlrr size lt was placedoir a i,iler. and ti'e Saviour was relrresented on His kneesand bearing His uross. Iwenty.four men carried the litter,and the F.rther in a cope, holding a veiled Crucifix under aviolet canopy, ended llre Procession. t he stations made fromtime to tim-., added to the mournf ul penitential chanl, filledus with devotion. Ttre Procession made the tour of theplace by four rcads laid out by rulo and line.
But what edrficed m) the most was tlre grave and modestway in which a ntFretinj wJs made wrth anorher statuo repte_senling the Bless:ti Vrrgin and a third representing St Veronicawth trer veil irnprinted with rhe holy face of our saviour.These represontations have somethiog of the majestic andpathetic; they rnake an extraordi4ary impression on these peo-ptres, and I myseif could not refrain from bursting into tears.
The Festival of rhe Blessed Sacramenr wrs conducted withequal magnificence, and as yet nothing like to ir had been
1B P P, V[ (1910), 203f.
t60 I A Hlrtory ol Chttragong
seen in this country. The Prelatc thotrght proper to dividethe coremony. ln the morning, each in his own church heardMasr and made his dovotions. M the Bishop celebrated pontitica.Ily in the one where he residcd and gave rhe communion. Aboutthree O'clock, Veepers woro sung, during which the Chric.tianr of the other two churches arived with th€ir Cros6es,their Shrines, and lhe habit ol their Confraterniries (th6so arc akind ol surpiice): thon the procession went forth. It wasaetonithing to behold wirh what care thece good folks had
decorated the rttectr; archce of triumph, festoons, Btleamers,
rows of treer planted expresrly oupplied the place oltapo3tly, swivel, guns, mortarg, musquetry f requently re6.
ounded; and when the procession returned at thc beginningol the night and when each Chiristian wac rscn holding a
lighteo taper, without counting the torchcs which waro num-berless, thie illumination alone, accompanied by fireworkr,would have deserved the attention ol psrtone posscrsed olthe bsst trste.l
Thc celebration ol ruch festivak cs Naba baishr, Nauioj, HijriNew yerr werc connectcd with rcasonal renewal. Two of themolt notcworthy ceculat leotivrlr were'Bihu' and 'Nabanna'. The
obrcrvtnces of the ceremonies of Bisava Sankrantr hae been men-
tioned in thc Rolomolo.2 Bihu ( > Bichuvr, 8 year cnding lertival;ir thc principal fegtlval ol the Accamece. The festival was colo.brated by rural lolk of rll rellgiouc aftiliations with eeremonlal
house cleaning, tlking bettcr food, feaoting and amutcmentr.3
Thc 'Jek'or bush buining oer"rnony,4 pcrformcd during Birhufertival may havc relation lo 'yom' (hillo) burning of the tribecmen
ol Chlttagong Hill Tracr. On the prcviouc day ol the occarion,rho peoplo pedorm cutaln rites related to tho paering ol tho
I tbtc.2 ! t s B, xtx (t Bso), b3B3 Siorlyor Nomo, Il. l,OlO 1025I tDtd,, t. tor!
Soclety in the rnedieval period | 561
yeaf. The housegatewav or 6ntranc6 is oftr,;'r huog w'th wreathgmads of flower and loaves. They hanq tryreath of llowers onoverything of the hnusehold objects and c'ecorate their dornesticanimals wiih wreaths.l On the day of tho occasicn. the peorJlo
rub oil mixed with 'oarbaushadi' (a kind of seed) on their brdiesand then taka bath. The most alluring leatuta of the festival isthe eating of several kinds crf sweetmeats and enterta!ning theguoals with the sarne This !qihu festival of lha Clrittagoniansand tho Assamese agrses with ths Sangroin rSamkranti rathor Chai-tra Sarnkranti) Kyadah or the New year festival of the tribesmen
of Chittagong Hill Tracte.2 'Nabanna' or takirig of food prepared
of recently reeped crops was another notablB festival of the Hindu-Buddhist community. PIouqhinE, first f nrit {nabanna', harvest,wera some of the occasions that have relatrons to rhe egriculturalrites and fostivals.
To attend the fair lmela) was a part of lhe socio.religiouslife of tlie metjieval peoplo. Most of rhe madieval fairs weroarranged on prTi6dis2l religious occasions, around, in most cases thevicinity of religious buildrngs and placer of warship. Two of thenotabls Hindu fairs wero sirakunda ard Ariinalh falrs on the dayof siva chaturdashi. Muslim faire took place near rhe shrines olBayezid Bostami, Maijbhandrr and othar d*rqahs ar.d maz;rs. ThoBuddhist fairs of Mahamuni, Thegarpuni, Foracl-iin erc. cjate backto the late Mughal period. ln the lt/lahamuni fair 1li6 plains peo.plo and the hill people met together ro s:rchange or to rrade ongoods' People from ail corners of the d,strict anri of all wa ksof life gothered in rheoe fairs to sell and purchasa cornmodi,lesand to onjoy ehows and entertainments.
vtIThere were various types of popular recreations which supple-
mented the pleasures of the rich and relieved the poor from rhedarly drudgeries of livel hood Cock.fighrirrg (Irrlurgibaji) wi.,s one
I ttrd., t. 1or12 1 s s o, tv (tags), a4
562 | A Hisrory ol Chtrraoons
of the popular entenainments whrch had equal appeal either lnfauidar's court or in th,) c:urtyards of the village peasants. Thetame of fighter cccks of Chittagong reached the durbar of theNawab of Murshidabad where such species were highly prized.lAnother popular game was wrestling maiches which wero patro-nized by all seclions of rhe society. A local po-^t named Uzir AIiMunshi writes that his ancestor pahlowan Abid was granted thetitle'Mallo' and with it a lend assignment of moderate size bythe 'nawab' (fauzdar) of chittagong in recognirion of his ckill.2Drumming and other mrrsical exercises and fireworks were someother prevailing iterns of enjoyments. Medioval ,sipanthis, (a roundshaped envelope conlaining a Iamp rrir!-rin) msy have relation to'fanooo' (a curved envelore inllated with gas produced by theflames of a light and rising skyivards) cf ilur times.
Among the household ganr;s ,pashakhela. (dice), which datesback to the Vedic period, was tlr; most popular. playing with dolls,making rnud idols, running. swimming erc. wcra some ol rhe mosrpopular games among young peopl'.
Two of the popular entertainments werc ,Ghezir l_arhai, and'Ghazlr Pala' These woro really poeticll contests, the exercise ofpoetical capabilities either of the single person or of rhe c(,ntendingi:arties. 'Ghazir Larhai' means the explcits of rhe Muslim Ghazisna'rared in the form of srories ln pcpular gathering on ceremonialoccasions 'Ghazir Pala'was reclted b1 a singlo man with his party.It was unlike 'Kabir Pala' which was actually ,Kabir Larhai'. Twokabis tpoets) one againsi the other gave a demonstration of theirknowledge of shastras and ingenious twists in interpretations, ltsenjoyable feature to the vulgar was personal attack.
L Rtyoz, p. 4t2 ? P, p. lso
6ection 6 tnteraction among the different commumi-ties
C.lrittagong is the ho*" of diverse religious communities. each
of which has irs own distinctive traits. So far as the polrticalhistory of Chittagong is concerned, each one of the four commu-nities co:':frcnted with th6 orher for the domination over ihe district.But thg social hisiory pr€sants a diflerent picture. Social histoiyis largelrT I hislory of actions and iflt€ractions amoirg people of drffe-
rent cornmunities. lncliviciually or collectively. people of onccommunity wili tend lo react on lhB people of other conrrnunities.In the lield of economics, this interaction among different commu-nilies is more c)bvious The producers, buyers sellers and consumers
had no religious distinctions. Everybody could engsge himself
in various occupational activities and everybody could enjoy the
fruits of the occupational activities of other people. This inler-
communication among the people ol different communitres is one
ol the most ramarkable features of the social life of the medioval
people.
The intoractions among the dirferent communities reveal itself
in ths socio religious beliofs of the psople and in the observances
of rites and ceremonies. llindus and Buddhisto have been livingside by sido since very early times, Many features of the sociallife of the one were so inextricably mixed with those of the
othor that one couid not recognize a differenco batween the twosocieties. Surrounded by the larger Hindu society, tsuddhists, espe-
cially the Plains Buddhists were becoming closely related to Hindus.
Borh the communilies were idol worshippers and a large number
of Hindu deities (soma of them wero originaliy Mahayanic deities)
found an easy access into the Buddhist pantheon. The inlluenceof Mahayan Buddhism on Hindu religion is conspicuoue even tothis day. Goddess Magadheswari. originally a Mahayanic deity has
been given place in the Hindu pantheon. Buddhist doctrine otthe eanctity of animal life. the cult of Dharma. the Buddhist
55{ . ,4. l-lloror.v ot (:r:ttflgor\ti
Tantricisrn ahd mil*y oti/Er Buddhist concepts have profoundlyinfluenced ilirrd.: r*Ligious conoopts. Ths intermingling of the twocolrlrn rnitiur lio13 so far that lho two arrpaared to a loreigner asbsings of ihi,, lam r llind.
What str;kes uE i'nost is the imprseslys interaction betweenlolam ar-,d Hin,;juisnr, tli{, tv.to diarnetrically dilferent relgions. Along stay of the two communities in rha sanie place ]ed to rhegrowth of mutual undersi,lrrrling ard apoieciation of each other'sculture. Musiirns were iargely rl..c clescendanis of Hindu converlo.Thersfore, it was eurltl n619,al tl'rat J:rre-'slanii<: b*liefs, customsand habits parsister! in ttre tr4uslim EGcieirr. the i-lindr_r zuddhistdoctrine of rtr-birtn and 'kanna was lo,as.:iy adopted by rhrr Muolim common peoplo Many of thoir practicrs ancl observances werein common with thoser of the Hindr.rs 1 Muslims were accustomed tostudy the zodiac circlss. fflovetrfli-r? of planets cnd stars, and occultinfluence of stars upon hurnan acrirrities,il thcugh ,ilnru nujum, orastrology and forotelling of fururo evonre are p"ohibired in lslern.Poet Alaol diocusses tho iufluence of zo,iiac circles in his workTowfo lnflu:nce of i-lindu religiru: baiiefs on ths rural Muslirnsociety was Go extensive that liluslims of Iate medieval periodused to pay hornage to Guch Hindu ,Jeities as Mahalakshmi. Cha-ndi rather lvl,an ral fhandi), Megadhesw;ri e!c. wiih slaughter ofenimal as oiforing to the deiiy.3 on tha iluthority nf soyid sul.tan wo have been inft:rrned that rl're Muslims were accustomedto read and hear the Pdrqgoti Mohabhorarr.4 This rranslatory workWas cornp,ssod by ordero of a Muslim ruler who hed great inter_ost in Hindu epics Not enly tire eSiics but tho Hindu nrytho-logical stori,;s ancl folktores gained par:urariry arnong medievalfu''luslims Many Mualim writ*rs frequerrtly refer to l-lindu deiriesand tsuddhist saints in their works. lriluslirn Foets, for exampls,
1 'horiyot Nomo, possinr2lRBS,pp 105-tog3 Shqrtyot Nomo. il 889 g92, 921-g2g, g39 g43, 961.S644 Sayia Sulran, Ofot e Rosul, prelace
Society in the modieval period i 865
Sayid Sultrn, Shaikh Faizullah, AIi Raja wiore on the physlcalaspoctr of the yoga docrrines. Muslim poers such as Alaol andDaulat oazi were w*ll versed in sanskrit and wroto highflow,rSanskritic Bengrli. Poet Chuhar srates thar one of his forefathersIearnt sanskrit with the help of a pundit.l Muslim poers eventheorize the common origin of ts15n, and Hirrduisrn.2
During the Muslim ruie, the !slarnic culture gained predo.minancs over other cultures, poliricalty and economically, thsMuslrms occupied a superior position. By virtue of their belng asruling class, ivluslims exeraed a great influence on rhs social life,dress, manners' language of the non Musrims. persian was sfateIanguago and lingua franca of a]l rndian furus]irns 1'rre peopreinespective of religious creeds hecJ ro learn persian to eain a jobunder ths goveroment. l.rindus of Bengat almost e.quailed if notexcelled Muslims in their knowledgo of persian. Frorn ftur_ra Go_swaml down to our great grand dabir khas parents ieernl persianfrom Maulvis. official decorum and eregant rnanners requiredthc people to learn Muslim etiqu'tte and to wear Muslim clress.Hindus were prudont onough to acconrodate readily to the situation.
The Muslim holy places were held in reveronr,e by tho Ftindusae well as the Buddhiats. The majar sharif of $hah Mohsen Autiyais still under Hindu supervision. According to Talish, Buddhistsduring tho Arakanese period used to pay homege to the sepurchralmonumont o! Pir Badr.3 The cutt of trir exert.d such a great influ-once upon medievel Hindu belief that sorne of tha Hindu deitieswele imagined also to be pirs. A numbcr of poems based on
1 g e P, 1367 B s, No. 3. p. EZ2 tq-r; ql( rrrqarl{ q6t tor-un ,r?,e r
cs{ {(f, qlm.t rq;d (s{ {cer q?q r r
i<etnm qr* lc?Tt<"6 ,eetEqTSrr otr trr* 'iTq f,rT
lV, No. 2, p. 943 Fstnyo, p. 181
rATI;I I
;rtE:Irq I r -P B G, part
506 1 n Bistory st Gtrittagorld
tho .ctivitiee of Setyapit, Trallokyapir eic, corflpo$ed by Hatirant
Das, Dwiia Ramganga and otherc have been dtscovered in Chi-
rtagong.l ln Chittagong, Hindus especially Namashudra section
belevo in 'manrs' or oath to a patticular dt ity in their relatives'
acute illness. lf the eick person is cured, the 'manas' is redemped
by rhe sacrifrce of animal. 161" lslrgious concept seems to be
correlated with Muslim religious custom of Ourban or sacriliceto God.
The long association of diffeient religious creeds led to inter-
community harmony. Political power, religious beliefs and racial
prejudices could not put a barrier on the intercommunicaiion among
the people of various communities Common environment. common
economic activities and the government's enlightened altituds
towards the subject people providrd stimulation to ths intelco-
mmunity relation.
1 g p P v, l-i, rbo; i ii a4. 94.9s
r
tI
---.__.--_.,*S
CHAPTER XV
LITERARY ACTIVITIES
Chittagong has a reputation of being a centre of iearning sincethe days of the Buddnist Tantrik wrirors of the pala and the ost-Pala periods With the exception of the turbulent pathan period,the tradition of Iiterary activities was maintained throughout thomedieval periorl.
Se-tion 1. Patronsge of Bengali &iterature bv theHusain Shahi Fauidars of Chittagong
The enlightened and liberai atmo.:phsrc of the Husain ehahi
rule produced an age of brilliant llterary acrivities in Benoal. ThePorogoll Mohobhorota srates that during hrs tenure of office aa a'nayak' (comrnander or vicsroy), prince lrlusrat Khan gaye instru-cfions to Kavincra Paranieswar to composrl a narrative poem basedon tha stories of the greet epic Moho.bhorotc.l
The name of lashkar Paragal Khan, rhe Husain Shahi ollicerof northern Chittagong has baen immortalized in the history olBengali literature for his liberal patronage to the vernacular literature.He gave orders to Kavindra Parameswal to proceed with his workof transtating the original Mohabhoroto into Bengali. Tle grarifiedpoet explains at the beginning of his work, the circumslancee
I ulqe drils ffi GT {rfirs rtrq I
ilETtm aTdrql !T 1ttil Eru,U
568 | A Hirtory ol Chlttagong
lcading to its composition and the 1sl31ive briefnees of his work.lDr Diaesh Clrandra Sen holds that Kavindra Plrameswar trans-
Iatsd the Jl4shrbliorato down to tho Stripatva containing a total
ol 17,000 sloka; (varses).2 The name of the work Btioy Pondov)
and that ol the patron (Paragal Khan' have been known llom
a Sanskrit work written in l6t0 Saka (c. 1688 A D).3 Surprisingly,in some places of ttris translatory work tho authorehip has been
ascribed o the patron himself,4 However, I very valuablc evidence
of the authorshlp (Kavindra) title ol the work (Bhorot Kothol.palronage r Lashkar Peragal Khan ), and its popularity among tho
people irrespacitvo of religious creede is supplied by poet Scyld
Sultan in his work Ofot e.Rosul.5
1 q"ot Rg1flrr qtd ri;ils slt{.qJ t
1q{T;E riT.g(rl {Krte- <Iq'<I{s} } I
<4<I(q qtt,:;t<: EI?{ <q{il I
[T4'{Cs oo' <i:q. <c4{ t{r-q< I I
<scc{s qrTEe6Ts q'5'ls (rits t
Co{5ICE' slu qc< Ttq sc;qts t t
.stq c< Tefl <iq qrcTt'i{t r
?rcqro rr;facs qttr q'rutql atugt t t
stqm qtcq{ Eliqt qs(s Et<n tS<1"E n<{ qrg qtuteil <fuirr t! -Ot t S
23
258-259Hlstory of Bcngoll Longuoge end Literoture, (1954),
, (1940), pp.
pp. 189 190gl{818.9', ?qniq', ryqi t<qil1l6u4{a lefrg< etr{'{(El t4girs 5r(Is1ts' oKif,lsq- t t
qiFEIGr rr;tarc {r:r t<1;} V<{ l-l'Probably it ic a mistake committed by the oqibe.
5 oTrf* rr{rtlq "{IT qt{ tqcg q'< tv<1.8 s rs <sEl tiqat t<ofr t I
tlt g gfi!{rd ylg wr qE "lWJ -Profrec
Litoiary activitloc I 569
Thc authenticitv rl Kavindra peramgswar,s auihorshio of rhetranslated Mohobhoroto has been called in?o question bv rr, e4utinath Shastri, who bends to think that Kavindra ol Mot,obtorotewas no other than Kavindra Patra, a minister cum oene!.al of theking of Kuchbehar. The critic exoresses the ooinion that thevictorious campaign eoainst Kuchbehar was comqlandFd bv para'al
Khan, a general of Sultan Husain Shah. Paraqal Khan took thevanquished king along with his minister {Kavindra Paira) as pri-ooner ol the Gaur Sultan. th6 yisr6rious oeneral, knowinq rhepoetieal qualities of the vaneuished sehol6'. qave orders to thelatter that the translation of lhe ltfofiobhoraro sheuld ha d^ne withina short tirne t But iurfqed by ci'cumslances \4r Shastri's oninionig unaccepteble The historineitv of the aJI, cpr"t inrrae'on in Kuchbehar by Paragal Khan is qtrestion+ble. rhere i.-q no errr'dcnce ,oprovc that Kavindra Patra anrl Kevindra Fgrevvr,.g,syaT rryare tho samgpetson. lt rS eqr"11, inc'ediblra that Paraqrl Kharr srrrjrf;,rly hpeameeu'ious about the livas of the haroes of the oiFa? er:i. vvhile rhe
viol*nc+ of war was srill raping. Mor+j$ver thc pont nowf,erein the work mentions his connexion with Kurlibahar and the inv.'sion
of Paragal Khan in it.
Tho orioinal namc ol the work ic not kncwn lr has been
varirusly written such as Bijoy Pandab Bharat Katfia etc. byother writers. It io, however, widely known as iho Paragall
Mahabharata.
The Porogoll Mohobhoroto was a very poDUIa' wo'k 8s menus-cripts of this work have been discovered frorn all p,rts of theFreFartitioned Eengal, Kavindra Pararneswat wes a profound scholarin Sanskrit, the translation of somc origina! slokas in 'he worktestifies to this. lt is generally b*l.ieved rhat his work is theoldest translation ol the great epic into the vernacular l6nguagos.
Paragal Khan'c patronizarion of Bengali literature was maintainedby his worthy eon and aucce$or Chhote Khan or Ct,huti Khan
with an equal zeal. Ir was at his command that poet Srikar Nanditranslcted the Aswamedhr pa^,a frorn original sanskrit into Bengati.At the beginnirg of his work, the poet nairatos the circumstances
that led to the cc'mposilion of this work.l The book is a scho.Iarlv translatlon ontJ c valuable addition to the Bengati translatoryworks. The work is popularly known as tha Chhuti Khoni Mohobhoroto.
A number ol factors contributed to the development of Bengalilanguage. the fsr6rn6st om6pg which is rhe influentiel encouragementgiven by the Muslinr rulers ancl high ranking Muslim officers tocultivate vernacrrlar Ianguages. lt is exnlicitly stated in both rhePorogotl and chhut, Khant Mahobhnro:os that the patrons in order tohave a tasie of tha immorral stories of the greot epic, commandedthe ooets to tr.rnsl.jio tha Mohobhoroto into Bengali. they had noknowledgo 6f Sanstlrit and the native schollrs were ignorant ofthe mother tongue of the Mr.:slim rulers and rheir officers. Mean-while. centuries of habitation in Bengel made the Muslims familiarwith the local longue. Consequently. they could tasre and appre-ciate tha litera'v beasry of the storics of the epics in Deshi bhasha'fnative tonque'! witho,;i much effort. Dr D C Sen aptly saVs in thlsconnexion rhai, "this olevation of Bengali to a literary status wasbrought abr:ui l;y several influences of which the Muhammedan
conquest wa.s ,..rnrtoubtedly one of tho foremost."2
I qF-sus :ttr,gt a e-r <r;r :,r{l:tti: r
q<s?ad <?qc;";.t ?irs< q-iqilc I r
T;dg g'r-<E E a.:i srfs "i;{I sq,t r
Erq'q;?q fs':ri{ +?qq s.qfqq tiqqr{{ sql 5;;i{ EIE QIT I
fls1{r-u w'q'fq4 ctT{ qqIxIEt I l,
cq'rt sTrEr qfq oefl atuE rrglf, I
qrdlrils +ffg. cql-ir q.rtq qirT{ I I
sltl4 vIICq{ ilaf' qgrT dTfl I
glsa a.?'1({ $eq eiTstqrt <tE{l2 O O Seh, Seatolt Longaoge ond Ltteroture, p. l0
l"ltqary actlvltiet I 671
it is noticiable that ths Erahmanrs opposed the translationof Srnskrit works into regional languages. Almost ali rhe aurhoroof the translatory works during rhis period belonged to tho castosother than the Brahmanas.
Maulvi Abdul Karim Sahitya Visharad discovered a derachedpiece of a work entitled VidtosunCdr written by poet Srldhar, a nativeof Chittagong. ln tlris work the poot cornmends rhe merlrs olhis patron, Sultan Firuj Sirah, son of Sultan Naeir iNuerat) Snah. tr
Tnis proves that the Husain Snahi tradition of rhc parronrzation
6t Bengali literaturo and Bengalr poots waa kept alavo by thoIater ruJers.
The most notewotthy feature ol the cuftivation ol Bengaliliterature rn Chittagong is that the Hindu writers occupied o pre-dominant position in lterary rctivities ol the cixteenth cenlury, butduring the two succeeding centuries the Muslim poets not onlycame to tho forefronr but outnumbeled the Hindu posts in lreraryproductions. The encouragement given by the zealous parronsinspired thsir Muslim subjecrs to cultivate Bengali language in anincreasing degree wnich promoted the growth of Eengali lteraturein the subsequent Arakanese and Mughal periodo.
Soction 2, Arakaness patronago of Bengati Llte"raturo
The tradition of li:erary activlties in Chittagong was so powerfulthat 6rr1nn ,n" subsquent Arakanese regime the cuhivation ofBengali literarureattained lurther development.. po}rically, chitta.gong was subjugated by Arakan, bur culturally it was Arakrn
fqq' tetrvr et< Trsl 'rrrir t lOt E S I 11940,1, pp. 78.79
572 | A Hlci$ry of ehltragong
which was g'ea,ly intluanood by a stronger cultute and a morepowerful lang raOr. tr oumbar of comprtent Bengalees w6ls appointed ro hign gov:r,lrn.i,n:al posts People of all ranks enjoyed the
Irterlry bB4uty of S:rngali works. One ol the foremost lactorsfor rhs phenomenal growih of Bengali influence, in the view of DlEnamul Flaq, was 'the sup6llsrity of rhe Bengali lrnguage over
the Arakanu*u".l $r Sukumar Scn rightly says: "From this timeBengali was accepied at the Araki:n cour! as the chiot culturallanguagnr, mainty b:cdusa rnany of the high officials of Arakancim& frotn -h!ttagong and tiis other ooiglibouring terntorias whoseflto,hrr rongus w;s ,3,:n;al '.2 ihus the glorioue Husain $hahitradrrot of rne uulrrvailon of Bcngali lterature was not only keptalive bur w,r$ given dfl 6Rcouraging support by the enlightenedArakanese ruiers and tlreir rrrfluential courtrels. The A.rakanese
kings Of ti'ru $uvefttirentir cBnlu y war6 enthusiastic patlOnS Of
lndian lreraiure csi:vci rlly Prakrrt, Sanskrit, nindusthani and Ben-gaI. 'fhsrr .nrhusiasrn insplrcd rhs same feeling in his Bengalicouitrrrrs und;t whose cars and guidance, some gifted Muslimpoers wrote many of their masterpreces.
'[he first noteworthy Bengalee poet writing under tho aegisol the Arakanese rulers was Daulat Oazi. Dr Sukumar Sen, in
appreciation of his posttcal merits, wrires that the poet not onlyheld the foremost position among the Muslim Bengalee poets butwes ono of the rn-ost gifted pooro of medieval Bengali literature.3Hts poetic qualities attrsctod the attention of Ashraf Khan, comman-
der cum mrnistor (laskar wazin of tho king's army. lheofficer,being desirous of hearing tl':e rornantic tales of Lorh Chondroni,
roquested the poet to writB a poem on the theme, The tale, was
current in northern lndia in different languages and dialects. Atthe request of the laskar tuazir to popuiarize the famous romantictale among the Bengalees. Daulat Oazi decided to compose a
1 e H.q Musltm Bengolt
2 S Srn, lslomt Bongolo
3 tw.
LitercturG, p. 144
Sohltyo, p, 15
[.itarary activitier | 573
'parrchsii' (narafiva poem) on this sr.lbject fho oureome ol thireffert uJas the joint tales of Sotl l{lalno ond Lorh Chondront hieoutstanding poetic achievement But decth carried the poet awaybsforo thc worl( was finished.
Another gifred but cornpsratively little known poet of the courtof Rria Thir: Thudhamrna W:s Mardan, author of Noslro Nomo,
But iittle is kncwn about tho poer'E career from his work.
8y far the rnost wideiy known poet among tha Arakanesccourt-froeis was A!aol. ln his early !ife, his poetical potenrialityattracted tho notice of Sulairnan, an Arakanoso courtier who reques-
ted tho poot to complete the wolk on Lorh Chandrani, which hact
been lelt unf in ished by his illustrrous predecessor, Daulat Oazi.
With Lho cornptotion of this work his poetic fame spread all over
tha kingdom" Magan Th.rkur, an inflrronrial. \rakanese courtrer oflrterary r':erit, requested Alaol to translate the well known Persian
romantic poem on Soiful ltlulk bodiuzzomol rnto Bengali. Unfor-
tunately for the poet, the patron did not live long to sse the
work finished. The untimety death of Magan Thakur so much over-powered tha poet u,rith grief that h6 practically gavo up writingany more, Luckily for the poet, Muhammad Musa, commander
of the royal army, appeared as rescuol who saved the poet lrom
grief and distress. He assured the poet of gonerous help and
requeeted him to get through hie work, lt was accordingly done,
Under tho care of the same patron, the poet translatoo poet
Nizami's Hofto Poyokor into Bengali. After suffering a great dealat ths lrand of lhe Arakanese in connexion with his alleged coila-boration with Prince Shuja'o rsvolt against the Arakanese ruler,
tho poet again took his pen under the protection of Majlis Navraj,
and translated poet Nizami's Peisirn work named lskondor Nama
into Bengali as Sikondor Noma,
It is an admilted fact that claol is the gteateot figure among
the ssventeenth century Bengali writers" A rnany sided genius ac
hs waS, he showsd high powers of irnagination, mastery of versi-
fication, profound learning in both lslamic and Hindu rcripturec
and skill in a numbot of languager, He was proficient in writing
BTq t n History oi chitragonf
puthi and padavali to an equal degree,
A Hindu poet who was not connected with the Arakanesecourt but belonged to the Arakanese period was Gavinda Das (livingin 1595 A D). According to his own pedigree, he was born at Deva-gram (Dieng). Govinda tras wrote a narrttive po6m on the romanticstory of vidyo sundor, a favourire tale of his time. while estimatingthe poetical merits of his works, Dr D c sen writes: ,,GovindaDas's poem was frce from those vulgarities which are now asso-ciated with tho story, owing to ths way in which Bharat chandradeolt with it.''l Tne manner of writing of his anorher work namecrKoliko Mongol is marked by grandeur both in rhe use of drctionand in rhymtng. Referring to the characteristics of writing of thiswork, the same critic writes that ,,its merits lie wholly in itsliterary art." The florid rtyle and tho use of sanskrit zed Bengalimadc him close to rhe Araksnese court poets. ln fact, ths poetgof chittagong and Arakan lollowsd an unvarying literary style forwhich rhey should be grouped in one school.
An interesting feature of tho history of Bengali literature isthat in the sixreenth century, the Hindu poels took a leading parrin the cultivation or Bengali Iiterature under the patronizationol the Muslim rulers, but in fhe eucceeding century the Muslimpoets cam' to the forefront in the curtivarion of Bengari lrteratureunder the patronization ol the non-Mustim rulers in an alien coun-t'y' lt is equally amusing to note that the greatest poet of thelaventeenth century was a Musllm (Alaol) who wrote highly Sans-kritized Bengali whereas rhe greatest poet of the eightee*n t.n,rrywas a Hindu Bharat Chandra) whose langurge is marked by aprofuse use of persian diction.
Section 3, Growth of Bengrti Literature in UedieuatGhittagong
The cultivation of Bengali literature, started from the Husain
1 O G Sen, Eengoll Longuoge ond Literoture, p, SSI
Literary activitios I s75
Shahi period, reach,:d its culmination in tho I'Iushel period' , The
exuberant growtlr ol literary 66livities in medieval Chittagong shot
up the district to the most remarkable position in the litera'y world
of Bengal. tn fact. no other district ol medieval Bengal can be com'
pared with Chittagong regarding its contribution to the growth of
Br ngali litoiature.
The greatest liter4ry activity during the medieval period is
to be found in rvriting the puthi. The Bengali word puthi is deri-
ved from Sanskrit pustaka '> potha > puthi) meaninr a book.
A nuthi may be defined as a rhyrned comoosltion narrating in most
cases the ponular stolios ol both indigeneouc and foieion. Purhis
form a special class of msdieval Banoali literature rnd the poets
of medieval Chittasong show special skill in writing lhe pulhi.
Hundreds of fiuthis have besn discovered from the remote parts
of the Cistrict anri many others aro lost with thei, authors. Many
of the restored lluthis are found in an incomolete and mutilated
66ndirion and many ol them are without colonhones which offer
a handicap to tlre knowledge of their author's lives' lt was tha
lifelonq eflorts of ltiunshi Abdul Kaiim Sahitya Visharad that hel.ped the reetoralion of manuscript puthis from different parts of tha
district. His enthusiasm in this field was shared lallr on by Dr
Enamul Haq ancl other scholars. The Sahitya Visharad and DrEnemul Haq brought some posts of medievrl Chittagong to lime-Iight in their farnous joint work Arakon Roisobho't Bongto Sohttyo.
Later on, Dr Enamul Haq in his worke, Musltm Bcngolt Literotureand Muslim Bonglo "ohityo discusses the career and poetical qua-lities of som6 prets believed to be born in Ghittegong. Dr AhmedSharif's scholarly discussions on medieval puthi liteiature are in-dispensable for any study on this theme. Contributions of D3 Dinesh
Chandra Sen, Dr Sukumat Sen Dr Ashutosh Bhattacharya, Shri
Ashutosh Chanda. Mr Abdus Sattar and other eminent scholars
are also worthmentioning A brief study of the principal charac-teristics of the puthi literature may be attempted here.
iTledieval Bengali puthic tangc ovcr variouc cubjecte, whichmay be grouped undet following headr.
A. Workt ;6l3ting to lslamic religion lnd Gthior, The eub.
576 | A llhrory ol Chtrrasons
ject matter of this klnd of works ig based prlmarilv on the glorlfication of lslam, tslemic injuncrions and practice of tslamic rirualsAltband of Naiib and Musharaf, Soot N mo ol Muzammil, Towfaof Alaol, Shortyot Namo and Hedoyet ul lslom of Khondkar Nasru.llah Khan, Shab e-M,roJ of Sayid Sultan etfoyetul Musolltn of SharkhMutalib Koidont Kttob ol Shaikh Muralib and Shaikh paran,lDaqoequl Hoooe! of sayid Nuruddin. ltamoj i|ohotryo ot Muham-mad Jan. Nastyor Nomo and Rohotul qutub ol Sayid tturuddin aresome of the well known purhie of rhis rype.
B. Biographical works. This class of nurhis wcre wriilen onthe careor and eyploitc of the prophet of lslsp anrt his compani-ons Rosul Btioy of Jainuddjn, Rasul Btjay ol Sab! id Kr.an. OfcreRasul of Sayid Sultan are based on the perf, r62psos end teachingsof the Prophet. A puthi named Amir Hamza wrirten by AbdunNabi2 ic based on tho nrllitary oxploits and miracuroue aetit,lriesof ths uncle ol Prorlhot, !n mosr cases. materials of rhese worksate freely invented end scenes and convelsations are lrnagined
c. Romanric works. Fomanticism in Bengali lirerarurr is firethumanised by rhe Muslim poets" Some of tha innmorta! Iove storiesof the Orier,tal worlcl hava been rerst6 6, these poets . Vu,ufZolaikha ol Shah Muhamrnad Soohir is th6 firet romantic Doe6 inBengali llteruture. Latly Majnu of Dauiat tA,azir Bahram Khan isanother popular lovo story. Satt [r/tatna and [o.h Chandrant ol DaulatOazl ere porhaps the besr works ol thie class. padmavatl andsalful Mulk Eadruzzan',al ol ilaoi ere trrc illusrrious pergali vcrsionsol the two lamouc Peraian romantic tales. Mtsrr lamal of Muha-mmad Raza deals wirh rhe lovo of prineess [ilisri Jarnal, ciaughterof Abdul Karim, Iord of Kurbar. sablricr Kr^an wTora a Doem onVldya Sundar, a favourite thome of the romantic sTritere of medievalBengal. His anorher romrntic work is Hantfa o Karra parr. ln allthese works, courago, lovq fidelity and orher worthy qualities of
I sh"ir.tt Mutalib wrr rhc ron of shaikh paran. They wcro nativerol SitakundE. P l, p. 7l
2 Thc poet war a narivo ol villsgc silimrur. yhe dare of rhe com-poritlon of thc work ir 10gG A D 1tGg4 A D), p p, p. l
Liteiary activities | 577
heroes and heroines have been exalted. Exuberanl use of imagina-
tion and fantasticlsm characteriz6 this type of works.
D. Ballad or short narrative poem. One of its most popular
kinds was the sahela (colloquial hahala). Faqirullah (d. 1684 AD), a famous musician of medieval lndia, refers to sahela in hls
famous book on music. ln medieval Chlttagong, the singing olsehela songs wae a traditional way of invoking good fortune onmarriage coremony. !t is almost similar to the Epithalamium ornuptial song or poem ol ancient Greece. Most of the sahelapoems are anonymous in orlgin. A sahela is orally transmitted and
sung to some melodv. lt is eharacletized by simplicity in structu?o,
eentimental in composition and incremental repetition. Two of thewell known extant sahela poems are 'Shuja Tanayar Bilrp' and
'Pari Banur Hahala' which narrate the tragic events relating to thoflight end fatal end of Prince Shuja.
E. Jangnama or wer floems. "The oldest Jangnama poem inBen<rali is Mnktul Husatn by Muhammad Khan ol Chittagong."l'Within the framework of the story of Karbala, this volumincus bookgives an account of rhe history of the world from Prophet Muhr-mmad to Doomsday' The book is divided into eleven ctntos, someof which are circulated as independcnt books. ,,Among the otherwriters ol Jangnama pooms from Chittagong meotion may be madeof Nas'ullah Khan who wrote his poem toward tho beginning oflhe elghteenth century,"2 and Hazrat Ali.
F. Hindu. hageological worke Most of the poetical works olthe Hindu poets had a religious tone, formed by Shakta and Vaisna.va cults. A large number of Mangal Kavyas compoaed by variouspoets during tho late medieval period have been discovoled inChirtagong. Among these works following pooms aro notowoithy.Saroda Mangal of poet Muktaram Sen is a vety fine wotk dealingwith the divine activities ol goddess Chandi. Mrlgolubdho of Ratidov3
I S Srn, Hlstory of Bcngatt Llteruturc, pp. 156"1572 ma.3 ln tho beginning of thE work rhe poet wrirco the noiy of hio swn
578 I A Hirtory ol Chirtagong
glorilies tho diving deeds of Mahadev. lt is a small wcrk contain-ing only 900 slokas The poet is a devotee and his sryls is marked
Chittagoog.
G. Borkc classed as 'abhldhana, dictionary', and ,pairjai, (le-xicon) dealing with the meaning of words especially sanskrit andwords origi16166 from sanrkrit. one of the disringuished Iexico-graphers of medieval Bengal was Jatadhar Acharya His wordbook entitled Abhidhana?antram is srated to have boen preserv.d inCalcutta and in the lndia Office Librar\ in London. ln the colo-phon of his work the writer intrqduss5 himself as son ol Raghuoatiand Mandodari. He belonged to rhe Dindiya gorra of rhe Brahmanacaste, His native village fevakod srood on the barrk cf iho riverFeni near chandrasekhar hills 4 His lexicon has been utilrz,ld in thsSabdakalpadrumat a celebrated Sanskrit tlictionary ccmpil";d by Sri
life as follows :
f"tsr rflq1;Ilar <.tr{ $sl <x;Ts1lq?qqtil a;q-E's1 Eorflql {ilfs r I -oras,(t940),pp. 646 647. The pocm accozdinq to its own eoloohon waawritten in 1595 :aka or 167q A D. Ha was rhc son of Go-pinath and Easumati. Hrs nativo village Summadandi or Sucha-
., kradandi belonged at that timo ro Chap1anr1r.' The poet introduces himself as follows :
qle (tflE' ?I{ Tq q?{ rflT ultl?q .T
- tEE$Iar t{{c frqrz -orB s, (]940), p.3952 He *as ! nativd of Chakrasala. He belonged to tha Atreya gorra
rnd one of his forefathers lived at Devagram (Diang). ltseems that hie anceators had retalions to that of Govlnda Das.SeeBSI (1940),p.893
3 editea by chandra Kanta chakravorty 1190s); alao sudhi BhushanBhattacharya, Mangal Chandl Geet, Calcutta University. igb24 srqlnqli sar{nlt stvucl,r(
illmrhvl"rtV f"rgrat F q'l I
Litarary activiries i b7s
{?adhakanta Dev Bahadur. orher worrh mentioning lexicographeiswere Nuruddin and Sadat Ali.
ll. Works based on mysticism and €sot€rio philosoOhV. Agamof AIi Raja,l Jnoo Pradip of sayid sulran dicculr rhe variousaspects of Yoga docrrine. other worke dealing wnh rhis branchof philosophy are srtnama ol shaikh Mrnsur and chari M.kamerBhed ol an anonymous writet.
l. Books written on the scicnec of music. Some poets wrotetreatises on classical music and syetem of notarion. ln theil works,the poers drscuss ditferent ragas with exprenstory notes upon these.Among this class of poets Fazil Naeir Muhammad, Muhammad paran,
Tq'.u1* t<alov's q qBr{r<{(TtqlErqf .qgq' r,e<iq't.s{l({E;-e{' I
Ot ChittagongCollege Magaztne, 1g29. p. 14; also H H Wilson,?f/orks, V, London, 186r. p. 2J3; R L Mitro, Norlces of SanskritMSS, ll, No 592
His native village Devakod cannot be rraced. Either rhe namcDevakod has been changed in later timea, or it has been wa-shed away by rhe desrructive flow of the river Fent. ThisDevakod can be identified with Devikot of Buddhagupra,aitineraries (16th century) which etater that Devikot or Kasa-ranya ( 7 modern Krsalong in nolthcrn Chittagong Hill Tracts)where the eaint traveller made temporary stay in a templebuilt by Mahasiddha Kriehnacharya, was oiruared in rhe high-land of Tripura. 1G Tucci, ,Thc ser and Land Travels of aBuddhist Ssdhu in rhe sixteenth conrury', I H e,Vll (lg3l),697^ 698.
The poet's native village was Oshkhain in Anwara u. z. Howrote a num[s1 of troalises on Sufl and yoge doctlines. Hispseudonym was Kanu Faqir. He died in 1790 A D. I ?, 9,12
Liierary actlvities | 581
"included some Hindu gods ancl Avatars amoog the prophers."l'K,ishna, the greatest Avatar of tho Hindus, was spocially ireatedby $ayid Sultan as an ancient prophet of the religion of tire world."2
it{ost of the Musiim poets were the disCIiples of sufi saintswho exerciseid great influence on their disciple poets, ths sufisaints irrlused divine and liberal rhoughts into their disciple poetswho wouid pay tlreir revererrce most humbly to their teacners invarious placcs of their r.,vorks. The sufi ieaclrers advised rheir pupilposls to c,rllcct materials from tho sc:iptules of oiher faiths, Theyalso instructed thB poets to wiite In a silnple and lucid mannerso thrt tha subject maiter of thair works might be reaciily under-standrbla to tho cornmon poople irrespective of retigious creeds.The luprl po.iis obediently follcwed their F,receplors' directionsand dedicated rheir works to rheir respective teachers.
fillny of tho Muslim poets wero deeply inlluenced by Vaisnavaideas and padavali style of writing. Dunng the f ifteenth and srxteenthcenturies tho whole of rhe distrrct was flooded by the Vaisnava ideas,B.rslcllly Sulism and Vaisnavism have mlny common features. Bothof ttiess doctrines profess love of GoC and I-iis Creation andthrough love and devotion, eccording to theso doctrines, ono canbe nearer to Him, This yearning for personal communion wirh Godinspired the sufi po6ts to write padavalis, There is nothing wrongor noD lelamic in taking the Radha Krishna cult to indicate indi,viduality and Supreme Bein1; respectivoly" The cult of Radha Krishnais only a metaphorical expression. Besides this, the poets wereattracted to write padavalis out of thoir regard and aptiruda forthis class of literature. The s\r/eetness of expression, melodiousnote, deligntfui style and rhe overwhelming populariry of padavaliinspired ths Muslim poets to comilose padas. Though the Mus-lim poets composed padavalis following the manner of earlierHindu poets yet unliko them the Muslim poets did not induigoin the indocont description of feminine physique and carefully avoided
S Sen, History of Bengali Llterature, p. 156
The lslamic Review, Februaty, 1960, p. 11
I
2
BBz i a History of ehiuagong
vulqalities in their writings. lt seems that 'separation' (viraha)appealed them more than oiher themss and a large number ofpadas were composed on this subject. Among many poets Alaol,Sayid Sultan, Ali Raza. Kanrr Ah ccr.lld wiire excellont pieces
of padas which may be favourably compared with those ol Vidyapati,Chandidae, and other Valsnava posts.
Of the learning of the poets, doubt about irs kind or speciesshould not arise. Most of theso poets were multiling rists andthey show profound knowledge in Sanskrit, Persian, Arabio, Hin-dustani etc. About the manner of wriring cf poet dleol, who usedto write high flcw,'r S:nskritic Bongali, a crlric writes :
For a Muslim writer to have the credit of impcrting largestnumbar of sanskritic words into Bengali poem and thus hora.lding an age of classical revival is no smafl achievpment ancrwa are bound to admit that nono of tho Hindu poets of the ago
in which he lived was in this raspect, a-match fol him.lThe influence of sanskrrt on the writings of orher poots is also'evident. poul Sayid Sultan wrote the Nabi Vamsa, af ter the mannerol the Harivamsa, his anothor wark langnama is wrirten followingthe stylo of the Mahabhoroto. Tutinama of paet Muhammad Naqiwas a Bengali version of a Persion romanco of rhe same titlo.Alaol translated a number ol Persian works. Daulat Oazi trans.lated a Hindustani romanca. Books written on biography, history,philocophy, aotronomy, medicins and other subjects give evidenceof their range of loarning.
The Muslim poets took the humanistic appioach in literature.so far, most of the Hindu poets exalted and glorified the deedsof various deiries in their works; tho human being is given a se-condary role. The methods takon by the Muslim writers was thusa clear departure from tho tradition of Hindu Mangal Kavyas.
'[he poets did not confino themselves to one lorm of writing.Panchali (narrative poem) was the most popular method of com-
,l
' D C Scn, History of Bcngoli Longuoge ond Literoture, g, d2g
Llterary actlvltles 583
position in which a large number of Hindu hageological workswere wrltten. Thus Dwija Ramananda Dwija Raghunalh, DwijaBamkrishna, Dwija Dinaram, Fakirchand al! of ChirtagonE composedputhis in pancheli style about Satyanarsyan, a Hindu deity.l Bara-masi (calendar poem) wns anorher popular typa of writing inwhich the sorrows ancl sufferings of the chief woman in the poemin all ths twelve months of rhe year are retated iust before thefulfrlment of her hope. Rite r Sorornos of Kamar Ati and RodhorBoromos of an anonymous wriier i!lustrate this tyrJe of works. An-other favourire merhod is 'chautisha' in rarhich every line or coupletbe.oins with Bengeli alphabat serially. As rhe whole poem gone-rallv does not exceecl thirry four lines or couplets,
'it is J.tt.a
'chautisha'. -Amono thiq kind of compositlons rhe Jnon Choutishoof Sayid $ultan and Sokrnor Choutlsho of lVluhamrnid Khan arenoteworthy.
Again, versitication is not uniform in all puthis though ,payat'
(couplet) and'tripadi'rtriplet) havo the greater prominence. lnpayar the lines are rhymed. !n rripadi a line is splitted into threesections of which the f irgt t'ND ate Iinked by rhym*.. The thirdsecfion is rhymed with the cnrres6rondinr section of the next linebut not further, thus making tho whols body a couplet. usually.tripadi helps to break ttre monotorry of payar. ,Lachari, (atmoctsimilar to payar) rs another imporrant ?orm of
'versif ication. iadavali
or devotional songs in rhynred stanzas were familiar.short natrative poem mesnt to be sung; esOecially byon ceremonial oocasicns was anolhor rropular fo,m of- c
Puthis were used to be read wirh tuneful voice, sometimeaaccompanied by musical inorrumenrs such as mridangam ra musicalinstrument rnade of eaithen barrel and sounded by striking byOalm) dhol f drum), kansa (a bocly of round shapecl cast metal,thinlv widened t'c emit musical sound when struck), karatal cvmbalsietc. Often sonre selected hearers took part in rhe chant. But thelatter's job was_ only ro rapeat a F,articular couplet (carred dhua andghosha) regularly aftor a definite interval during the perfornrance.Generally, puthis were read in an open space Gspecially in theIawn of a house whers the village rs could assemblo in la,ge number.
I B s l (24o), p. g4B
CHAPTER XVI
ARCHITEGTUFAL ACTIVITIES
The district of Chiltagong contains the remains of a numberof mediaval buildinge of somo architectural character. Most ofthese construcrions are in delapidated contJirion. For this thenaturo of rhe soil and the climate are mainly reeponsible: both conditions encourage the rapid growth of jungle vegetetion and acce-lerate decay. The earthquaka also susiains damage to the buildings.At the eame time many monuments euffered severely during warsand invasions. ln spite of the great amount of destruction broughtabout by man and naturor a few buildiogs still remain as relicsof medieval period.
Medieval architecture of Chittagong failed to atrracr norico ofthe experte till our time. Recently, such reputed scholars as Dr
A H Dani and Dr Abdul Karim made somo commendable attomptsin this direction. Their valuable observations have been utilizedin rhis briel study of medieval architectule. The pres€nr attomptis neither critical nor exhaustiva because the writcr ie not an
expert in architscture.
Medieval buildings in Chittagong can be grouped into rwoclasses namely, domestic buildings and religious buildingr.
il
i
Architecrural acrivitiee I EgS
Domestic buirdings. These chiefry consisted of house.hold buildings which may be classified into two subclasses e g,dwallings of the rich and dwellings of the cornmonahy.
Tho woalthy people lived in tuxurious residenca often surroun-ded by gardens, moat etc, the Earrhquake Report (rrU, O ;it:refers to the brick built residence of zamindais and other wealrhypeople in the town and in their headguarters. At present no suchbuildings exist.
The dweiling of commonalty followed a merhod, characterizedby certain indigeneous techniqueo. Father Manrique'e (r630) accounrgives relerence to the dwarting of the common peopre. tt wasmade chiefly of , bambus called Bansa by the inhabitants andthatched with straw.,,2 Mrny of the features of tho medieval hutcorrespond to those of our period. Following brief dessrjpl;g.would convoy a general idea of this type of structure.
ln the first place, earth lor a groundwork froor is raised accor-ding to the local environment frqrn two to lhree feet above lhesurrounding level. After that, straight poies of rough wood orbamboo are planted at the four corners with higher others undera ridge pole along the centrar line. Then a line of posts at the foursides is erected to support the roof. Each of the sloping beamoand transverse bars is fastened in lrs proper place with split caneused as rope. The roof either slopea from the four sides of thehouso to a common vertex (chauchala), or from rwo sides onlywhich m.er at a long ricge pore (dochala). The roof is thatchedwith long jungle grass (chhan) placed over a fran.lework of poles.The framawork of the outer wails and inner partitions 6re gonerailymade of bamboo mats fabricated in suitabre designs. tne lanicework in the upper portion of wail serve as ventirator. somerimes,the hut is encircled by fences. The main doorway which facectowards the courtyaid is a littre bigger rhan any ono of other door-ways. wails are sometimes plastered with semi liquid mixturo
I / I s B, xtr (1849), 1o44.loso2 lrlonilgue, l, z7g
586 | A Hietory ol Chltragong
consisting of water, clay and cowdung. The extension of hutcontains kitciren and log housg. Cowshed and poultry farm aregonerally situated in the carnpus. ln most cases members ol thofan'lily unit built thelr own huts.
Religious buildings. Religious buildings are lhe most
expressive, and the most permanent of all types of medieval archi-tecture, ln fact, medieval architecture of Chittagong is concerned
more with religious buildings than with any other type.
Most of the religious structures wero built by governors, highranking oflicors. influential zamindars and wealthy individuals.The chief aichitectural charecteristics of tho surviving medievalreligious edifices are as follows:
Makina a plan of the environment was th6 first stage olconstruction. Many of the religious buildings were built on hilltops,slopas and olevated lands many othars on raised ground. Mostof tho Musl'm religious edifiees were br.rilt in the thickly popu,lated rural area and in the erowded part of the eity.
Tho principal materials which werg usecl for the existing cons-
tructions were stone, brick, wood etc. Stone is available in the
:iitakunda Banges and therefore it is employed in northern Chitta'
gong. The most important stons structuro is the Chhuti Khani
Mosque at Paragelput. Monolithic pillars can be seen in Jolapara
iI?tosque. Slono is also used in the Hathazari Mosque, Generally,
the pieces of stone of various shapes were bounded in mortar. How-
evgr, the uso of stono i9 far from common.
l3rick was by far the most popular building materlal in our
period. t h6 deposits of clay suitable for the manufacture ol brick
helped the briok work everywhere in the distlict. lt appoars that kiln
bakod brlcks were most common in making a building. The eize
ol bricks was generally thin and tectangular. Buildings weloconstructed by putring differenl types of bricks rightly togolher.Bricks were boundeC with surki or "pounded brick used to mix
with lime to form a hydraulic mottai."l'
lt H !,p. 8s4
Arclritectural activities | 587
ln Chittagong, especially in its southern part masonry cons-truction is rrvaliod by wcoden construction which hao certain advan-tages. Tha transport cost of wood is less than that of other buildingmatetials. A good supply of timber and bamboo was procurablo innearby foiests, lts chief disadvantages are susceptibtlity to fupgi, fileand wood boring insects which prevent its durability. Wood construc-tion can be traced in the Arakanese period (1580.1666 A D,,. $incethat timo wood has continued to bo used in the Buddhist templesof southern Chittagong.
The designs and methods of conttructions wero detorminedby the pe ople who built them. Flat roofed building can hardlybe seen in Chittagong. The dome in a mosque, tho Bikhara in atemple and the coverod trusses in a kiyang selved the purpose ofroof. Medieval buildings contain thick walls which provided strongfoundation ol the building. The wall supports the weight of roofs,vaults, arches, turreis, etc. which require heavy wall. That iswhy tho wall of medieval builCings b se thick. Besides rhis, thethickness of wall kept the room cool evon during the hot monthsof the year, As tho windows and doorr,vays weaken tl.,o wallao the doorways and windows of tho medieval buil<Jings are sml-ller in size. The smallness of size, and in number of cloors andwindows account for the insufticiency of lrghting within tho hall.There was practically no specific arrangement for ventilation. Atdark hours, tho interior was illuminated by oil lamp. Nona ofthe religious odifices contain porticos.
Medieval reiigious architecture can be divic'eri into three separateclaeses. The first is ths Hindu archit€ciure mainly confined in northernChittagong; the second is tho lslamic architecture mainly confinedin northsrn and central Chirtagong; ths Buddhist architecturemainly confrned in southern Chittagong, ln the medieval periodChittagong wae ruled by the fripuras, the Bongalees, and the Araka-neee by turns; each period loaves its architectural legacy in the dietrict.Ths Hindu Buddhist temples served ae placos of worship and sheltersfor the imagos, relics, scriptures and holy arcas of tho cult. The mas-
iids wero chiefly mesnt for coogrcgational prayor. Following ie a brietetudy of a few specimen of differont classes of religious architecturo.
588 I A llistory of Chittagonf
A [Suslim Architecture
Ths conquest of Chittagong by Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarak
Shah rnarks the baginning of the conslruction of Muslim religiousbuildings in Chittagong. Historian Shihabuddin Talish writes: "Thamosques and tombs which are situated in Chatgaon were builtin Fakhruddin's timo. The iexisting) ruins prove it."l From thattime down to the end of the Muslim rule in Chittagong the Mus-lim rulers and zamindars patronized the lslamic architectural activities
in the disrrict. Duiing the ltJlughal period, the lslamic etyle of
arohitectura obtained firm hold over the district and Muslim mo-
numents of a period lator than 1666 A D are abandantly available.
Medieval Muslim buildings may be divided into two classes,
namely, masjid and shrine.
Masiid or place of prayer. From the architectural point of
view medieval masjids in Chittagong range from single domed to
six domed struoture. Most of the masjids do not havo open courts,
aolution ponds and minars. The tank Iying near the masjid served
the purposo of ablution pond, The corner towors aro a neceseary
leoturs in a medieval masjid. Some of the masjids have more
than one mihrab.
ShrEne and memorial. This type of ediflce consecrats a
holy place for its association mainly with the life and activitieo
of the saints. The major shrines and memcria are the astana otpil Badr, Shrine of tsayezid Bostami, Oadam Mubarak' dargah of
Shsh Mohsen Auliya etc. Tha tomb or astana of Pir Badr is
eituated on ihe top of a small hillock known as Badar Patti at
rho BakhsSir Hat area in Chittagong city. The oldeet reference to
the 'tomb' is oxplored in tho Fothyd'i'ihbrlyo.2 The site of the
structure etatod in this source roughly correspond to the p'esent
site. Thomas William Beale gives a short description of this
tomb.3 The shrine ol Shah Bayezid Bostami is situated at Nasirabad,
1 Fathya, p, 1822 toit., p. 1813 t W tseate. Orlentol Elogrophlcol Dlctionory, p. 216
Architectural activities | 569
a suburb of Chittagong city, '[he mausoleum is a simple squtra
structure standing on a mound urhich contains many bricke ol old.Thc dargah of Shah Mohsen /iuliyal is situated at tho viliage of
Battali inl Anwara u. z. Tlre dargah is a tude construction and
roofed over by grass thatch.
Muslirn a'chllecture generaily falls into two chronologicalphases, pre'fultighal end Mughal.
I Fre-E-u.iughel
Chittagong is not so ticlt in the remains of tha pre Mughai
Musiim'buildings. This is cJue to the political turmoils thet greatly
impeded tho buildiftg activities in that period. Most ol the pio-
lVlughal structrrres were dastroyed by foreign invaders as woll as
rhe ciesiroying agencies of nature. As a result, many of of these
buildings 6ro completely Iost to us. Some othere were left deso.
late duririg tire subseqLrent Arakanese rule. The want of propet
care and r*pairing helpscj to bring abs!.rt tlrs ruin of many buildings.
Mv Hamidirllah Klran refers to th-. fata of ona such religious struc
ture built by Sultan Nusrat $itah, tha remains of which existed
till his times, At presont only a few dilapidstod pre-ty'lughal struc-
turss reinain nnd thoy aro chiefly confined to notthern Chittagong.
Among these buildinge tho following aro noieworthy.
fiasti Khan's fJtasiid aE Fatehpur. This is tlie oldest extant
masjid in tho Trans- reglon' lt is situa'ted at a village
named Fatehpur in the i u. z. From an inscriptisn2 engra-
ved on the w*stern well it is known that ths masjid was builtby Masnad i Ala Rasti Khan in tho ysar 1160 A D during tho
reign of Sultan fiuknudciin Barbak Shah,
Recont rencvations have rr:bbed it of much of its original
character.
1 Sohityo, 1313 B 5, pp. 686-0892 Shamsuddin Arrmed, op. clt., p. 9l
59U ; A Hlstory of Chitragong
Yusuf shahi Masjid at Hathazari. Ttris mrsjid of remarka.ble architectural character is eituated near the Hathazari u, z. headquarreri, about twelve miles north of chittagong city. Accor-
ding to the inscriptionl alfixec to tho masjid. the srructuie was builtduring the reign of Sultan Shamsuddin yusuf Shah (1474-14g1A D), son of Eulran Ruknuddin Barbak shah. The masjid is rec-tangular in plan with four circurar corner tovilers. Above rheparapGt ths corner towors are octagonal and crowned with cupolas.The masjid is roofed over by six domes of equal size. Thereare three cusped doorways in the oast, the central doolway, whichis larger than the sicre ones, is lranked by round fluterj minarets.The interior of tho hall is divided inro rwo aisles and threebays by two stono pillars. Thero are rhree mihrabs on the westthe central mihrab with ite frams built of a solid stone, is biggerthan the other two. The building is in a good state of preservation.
chhuti Khani Masjid at Faraga!pur. Tne masjid is sirua.ted at Paragalpur in the Mirsarai u. z. lt was built by chhutiKhan or chhote Khan. tho grandson of Rasri Khan. chhuti Khan wasihe Husain shahi offrcar commandirrg the frontier garrison innorthern chittagong. Par'agalpur was probabiy his headquarters.This large masjid v'rhich is built of slones is now in comprete ruins,except part of its western wall. The blocks of stone, that lie scatter€daround the masjid, cantain inscriptions, probably quotations fromlhe Holy Ouran.
Mahmud Shahi l\Iasjid at Masjidda. The masjid is situatedin the village of l./lasjidda, about thirteon nriles north of ChittagongCity by the Chittagong-Dhaka Trunk Roed. The writing of the maejidinacriptlon has bsen obliterated to such an extent that very littlocan be known from it. Dr nbdul Karim after a good deal oftrouble succeeds in deciphoring tho name of tho reigning king as
Sultan Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah (1S33-tS3B A D).2
r!AsP,2 lud,, p.
xu (1967), 324-325
327
l.rchilectural actlvities | 591
The masjid is an one donred square slructuro with four cir-cular corner towers, crowned with eupolas, The dome is crowned
with a lotus finial. Besldes the four corner towers, thero is also
a mihlab tower. There are thlee low doorways in the east; the
central one is a little biggei than tho cide ones, There aro three
mihtabs on the west, llre central one being bigger than the side
ones. The ccntrai rnlhrab is made ol one solid stone frame. The
masjid ie surrounded by boundary walls and entered through a
low dochala type gateway,
&ziz l{hans's Pdasiid st Hulain. The masjid is situated at
the village of Hulain in the Patiya u. z. The masiid is one of the
well-preserved pre-Mughal masjids in the district. The inscription
wtitten in Arabic and engraved on ths facade of the masjid states
that the founclalion of the masjid was laid by Aziz Khan, son of
Sher Mast Kt,an Alamu.rali in the year 1066 A I'l (1658 A D) in
the month of Shaban. The construction of the masjid was com'
pleted by Musa Khan, one of the brothers of Aziz l(han, The
inscription is engraved by Musa Khan. The outet structure of the
masjid now lies in ruins, but the main bcdy is kept in good con-
dition by constant repair.
The masjid is a single domed simple structure with four colnor
towers, Tho two front coiner towors have disappealed. The rear
corner towers and the large dome speak more of gravity than gr6n-
deur. The principal doorway is low and speaks of its pre'Mughal
Muslim architectural design. The wall is so thick that one can
feel cooler inside the building even in the hot days ol summer,
The front pottion of the masjid. shaded by c i sheets is recently
built to contain the capacity crowd during mass prayer.
Accolding to thB local tradition, Aziz Khan was a roaza or
headman- l,le tool< an activo part in a plot, organized chiefly by
the Muslims of central Chittagong ( ? Chakrasala ) to overthrow the
Alakaness government. At this time, he resolved to build a masjidand even otarted its construclicn. He felt no neoeesity of takingpormieslon from the Arakanese govetomenl to ersct the masjid.
The plot leakcd out and Aziz Khan was thrown into piieon. Tho
592 J A History of C6111rronn
incompleta building was finished by his younger brother Musa Khan.But the latter did neither inscribe the name of the Arakanese so.veroign nor the Arakanese Era probably due to his strong aversionto tho inlidel rulers.
It Mughal
The, 66nou.sr of Chittagong by Nawab Shaista Khan in 1666A D is a turning point in the history of chittagong. The districrcame under continuous Muslim occupatron for about a ccntury.It is for this reason that Muslim monuments of a period later than1666 A D ars abandantly available. A brief architectural descrip-tion of some of the principal Mughal masjido is attempted here.
Jame $angin Htasjid. This is rhe principal masjid of Chitta-gong city. lts situation on the top of a hillock in the heait of thecity glves an impressive viaw. From the two inscriptions engravodon the wall, it is learnt that tho construction of the masjid wasslailed according to the direotion of Amii ul umarah (NawabShaista Khan) and was completed in rhe yoai IOTg AH(1669 A D).1
According to Mv Hamidu[ah Khan the Masjid was laid dcsolatefor many years owing to the divine vengeance inflicted upon itfor the proud title of second Kaaba given to it. ln reaiity, it wasneglssls6 by the subsequent Mughal adminisriatore, probably todlvert the public to the masjids at other places of the city.Whcn the administration of rhe district was transferied to theEast lndia Company, lhe Jaiter convertsd tha masjid into a ma-gezine for storage of arms and amunition. For many yeare themlsjid remained in a neglected state, tn the middle of the nine-teenrh century, at the demand of rhe leading residents of theciry, the British government agreed to iectoie it to the Muslimcommunity. lt was then reconvefted into masjid. The front portion
1 Shamsuddin Ahmed, op. ctt.,
ieading, A Karim's aiticlevol. lV, pp, 286.87. Foi mofe coriectin ltlhos Somitt Patriko,ll (1973), 104
Aichlrectuial activiriee I 893
has reeently besn remodelled and given a new look. Thaso chan-ges hava altered many of its original architectural features.
The masjid is a massive brick buik structure. lt was builtafter thg three-bay Mughal mesjid of tha Shaista Khani styleprevalent in Bengal in the later part ol the seventeenrh century.Tho two corner pillars at tha rear of the main body appear ro beoriginal, The circular pressed basement of the dornes, the clecoratedarchs, thg crenelled parapet, the typical Mughal lrays, and thepetalled cupola indicare the common l\fiughal archiiecrural designfound in many parts of Bengal.
Oadam Mubarak Masiid. Tho masjid is situated on a slopeof a hill near Rahmatganj in the city. Accorrling to irs owrr ins-cription, rhe masiid was built by Muhammad yasin during the reignof [\4uhamnrad Shah, the Mughal Emperor (1719-1749 A D).According to Dr A H Dani, it is rhe linest specimen of all the Mughalstructures in the city.1 16r masjid is built on o raised platform andis rectangular in plan with towers at ths four corners. Tho towersare decorated with ralsed bands and cupolas, The masjid is of three-domed rypo, the cenlral doma being exceptionally bi.qger than theside ones. All the domes are crowned with petalled finials Theeastern sido has three doorways. The central doorway is givenprorninence by greater size and multifoiled arch. lt ie tlanked bytwo rninarets shooting above the paroper. The tnreo doorwayslead to anothEr three pointed arch openings of almost equal in size.
The interioi of the masjid is divided into three portions by twoglgantic transverso archs; each portion being covered by a ciome.
The archs are pointed ones. The baltlaments are gently curved
around lhs exterior base of the domes and at the top of tho
corner to'flers. The engraved multifoiled archs, nichs and battlo-
ments giva livelv graco to the interior of the building. The facade
is decorated with panels, nictrs and other artistic compositions,
Tho mesiid has a room on eirher of its sides. The roorns ato
rocfed over by quadrangular domes crowned by p=telled finials.The doorways and windows make the hall sufficiently lighted.
1 e U Dani, rVusl m lrchitetrute in Eengol, pp. 244-245
594 | A History of Chittagong
The northern roorn contains the holy footprint of the prophet from
which the masjid gained its neme. On tho whole, this is one
of the best preserved Muglral monuments ol th$ city.
An old nameless religEous btl;lding near the Oadam
Mubarak. This is situatod a few yards apart to the south of the
Oadam Mubarak Mas!id. lt is mueh ruined, onlv thrte side walls
remain stending. The south wall has rro trace. The corner pillars
crowned with cupolas ara not high but appear -stout. The crowns
of the pillars and tho roof have fallon down. The hall is entered
by a vety low single doorr,vay which is sided by tr'vo areh openings,
apparently windows. To the local peolle. it is knorr'rn as daroah
becausathere is an old qrats on the southern eide of the hall The
building bears no i6136ription and the date of irs erection is not
known from any source. The architectural feafures such as lowdoofways. short but massive cotn€r towers with their decorated
crowns and the design of cupolas ouqqest that it is a pre-Mughal
structure probably built during the Afghan poriod
t{amza Khan's Masiid The' masjid is ciluattd in the out-
lying afea ol the city, in an open space called Eagh.i-Harnza, lt
was built by one SrTerJ Shamsher in 1093 A H (1682 A D).1
The masiid has recentlv besn repaired. Thick plastering and reno.
vations have robbecl it of many original features.
Muhammad Kh;ni l\{asiid at Jorapara. Tho masjid is
situated at Jolapara in Pahartali on the Chit?sgong Dhaka Trunk
Foad. [t is a characteristic threo-dorned Mughal rnasjid, the central
dome is biggei than tha eide ones. ,AII thg four co'lner pillars
including the masjid itself aie well preserved. lt has two insc'ip-tions, one fixed on the mihrab and the other is fixerl outsidoon the chief arch, Ths mihrab]inscription is written in Arabic but
cennot bo deciphered correctly lrowingBto its fworn out condition.The inscription on the outsida wall is written in Porsian. Tha lastline ol this inscription is plastered during tho repair ol the rnasjid.
[ ,tifios Samttt Potrtko, ll ([g73), 10g
Architectural activitlcs I 5s5
According to Mv Hamidullah Khan,l tho masiid was built by Ds'wrn Muhamrnad Khan. Tho excavation of a very big tank adjacent
to the masjid is also ascribed to him. The bottom of the tank has
lost its depth in natural courso and much of it has been turnedinto agricultural iend.
The rnasjid stands on a raised platform at the back and thsfront portion so;ves as an open terracs. An interesting feature olthis masjid is that two hexagonal cut monolith towers wlthout capi-tals are fixed <ln the platform in the rear cornore. ll soems thatthe inner inscription and the monolithic pillars belong to tho earlier
Muslim period. on which ths lat6r Mughal edif ice wgs construc-ted by ono Mughal officer.
Eakhshi Harnid's N{aslid at llsha. The masjid is situatedat the viliaga of lisha in Banskhaii u. z. The inscriptionaffixed to tho outer wall srares thrt tho masjid was buiit duringthe rule of Sultan al Muazzam Sulaiman in rhe ye ar g7S A H 11568A D). According to Dr Abdul l(arim, who gives an elaborats archi-toc;ural description of the masjid. rhe attached inscription is not
originally belonged to the rnasjid.2
This typical Mughal masjid is recrangular in plan with fourcorner towers. The masjid has thres domes covering the roof.The central dome is larger than the side ones. The domes arecrownod wirh lotus and l<alasa finial. The masjid has three door.ways; the contral doorwey is ernphasised by irs size and it is flankedby rounded turro'rs shooting above the parapet. All the threedoorways have multifoilod archs and the spandrels are lavishlyembellished with orn:mental works.
wali Khan'e Masjid. rt is anothei well preserved epecimenof thc Mughal religious architecture. lt is situated at Chawkbazar,tho most crowded area of the city. lt stande on a raised earthonplatform' The masjid ia a eix-comed eructure with octagonal
1 S.e Tarlkh2leserx(1964),30
596 I A History of Chittagong
cornel towiirs shooting abovo tho paiapet. Each of the towets
is divided into several parts bv raisod bands. All the six domes
are uniform in size and crowned with petalled finials. The rnihrab
is flanked by turrets on either side. On the frame above the
mihrab Ouranic versos aro inscribed. The interior of the hall is rec-
tangular in plan and is covored with intorsecting vaulted roof. The
windows rnake tho hall sufficiently lighted' Probably tlreie was
a flight of steps in front of the building but this has been covered
up by recent extension work. The verandah in lront of the masjid
is recently buiit to suit mass prayer.
B, ltindu Architecture
The generic name for a Hindu temple is mot, mandir, thakur'
bari etc. Except a few buildings, the architectural character ofmedieval Hindu buildings is not of a particularly high order.
The architectural character of the Hindu tomplee of nolthern Chitta'
gong shows its lelationship to that of the Tripura'Gomilla region.
The intercommunication betweon northern Chittagong and Tripura-
Comilla region lod to irnitations and bottowings.
The Hindu temples consist of several component parts, such
as garbhagriha or celia (sanctum sanctorum), manCapa or pavilion,pradakshina patha or circumambulatery psssage etc. A cella ie a
lepository tor an image, a mandapa is meant for the performonce
of religious rites, and a pradakshioa patha is meant for walkinground the temple, which is a part of HinCu religious rites. Ailtho ternples cf Chittagong, however, do not contain these parts
within their plecincts,
Most of tho Hindu temples havo pointed roof called shikhara,
a polygonal shap=d frame diminishing gradually towards the crown.The shikhara is crowned differontly by kalasa (pitcher), trisula (tri-dent), battlemented crest etc. The local Hlndu creftsmen made
considerable use of this design in their temples, This design was
ultimately conventionalizsd.
Atchitoctuial activitiec i 597
The lslamic styio of atchltocture also influenced the dcsign ofrhe Hindu tempies. Th+r Bhairab templs at Sitakunda is a synthesis
of tho two di{ferent siyles of architeclure.
almost all the tlindu ternples are of brick. Stone is rarely
tised in ttie Hindu temples. Plaster was widely used to maks a
building resistant of climate.
Hinclu tempies as a tule have no pillars. This meanE that the
walls are load bearing. The thickness of the walls and lhe doplh
of the fcundaticn woulri thus depend upon tho load they would
have tr: bear"
Most of tho Hindu temples are sither ruined or in a very poolsrate of preservation. The dil:pidated condition of the buildingswas partly duo to the heavy monsoonal shower, earthquake, mis.deeds oi tire miscreants, negligence of the people, Iack ol repairing
and dosertion. ln course ol time many of the buildings became
empty ruins.
Sitakuarda Temp!es
Tile Sitakunda group of templesl pies€nta a very interestingsubject of study. This group comprises a number ol temples, widelydistributecl and extending over a long time. Of the ancient roligioustemples no trace remains. The oldest existing temple is not olderthan the seventeenth century. Many of the buildings owo theiiconsiruction to the Mughal period especially during the adminis.tration oi Faujdar (or naib) Mahasingh who made the place hisheadquarters.
There ars a number of interesting legendary as well as Paura.
nic accounts concerning Sitakunda and its shrines. From tho historiaalpoint of view, Sitakunda witnesses various religious movements
1 For the description of rhe Sitakunda temples, See fftc Sfrines
of Sitokundo,
i;sa ; n History of chirtagorig
that lelt their traces in archirecrural activiries. 6riginally a Buddhistplace of worship, it was transformad inta a centre of tha Nathacult which is evidant in its attachment to sorne famous Nathagurus and in the name of such deities as chandranath, shambhu-nath etc, Nathism was succeeded by ths siva and sakti culte andsitakunda ultimately becamo one of the renowned centres of saktiemin the subcontinent. The Ramayat sect also dominated for sometime. tt has left its legacy in the name Sitakunda and in someruined temples. Now it is a farncus seat of saivism and saktism.
Diffelent groups of ternclee can he roc,:gnized in Sitakunda,o g. the Saiva temples, the Sakti temples. the Vaisnava temples, resi-dential quartors for the priests and wendering sannyasis, rest housesfor the pilgrims and so on. The numbar of the buildings indicatethat this place was a populous centre of religious life. The rern-plee attracted not only the local people but rhe devot€es fromdistant places. Tlie remples gave rise ro the building of residentialquarters of priests, sannyasis and pilgrims around which hasgradually grown up fairs and mail(ets to supply provision to theinhabitants.
The rnost remarkable ol tha Sitakunda group cf temples isthe Chandranath temple situated on rhe peak (about 1100 tf.)called after tho nanns of the doity. The original temple, according tothe Rojomo/d, was built by Govinda Manikya, king of Trlpura in themidclle of the seventeenth century.l The present rernple .,is of cma.llar dimensions" and was eiected in the middie of the nlneteenthcentury.2 The tomple is dedicared to Chandranath, another nameof Siva, whose lingam is placed in the centre of the cella. Theold lingam, broken by miscreanls is also preserved. The tempteis visited by priests and pilglrims only on occasions. At other timethe temple is entirely deserted.
The old Birupaksha tomple situated on another peak, named
I Rolomolo, lll, ZBz2 Th, Shrlnes of Sitokundo
Archilectural activities I 599
after th6 deity stands facing ths south. Ttris simple structure wasconstructod on a terr0ce made of soild brick. The temple is accessi-ble through a small flight of steps. lnside is a lingam.
The Shayambhunath ter,eople srands facing the south. Tne cellais square in shape. The lingam is placed on a raised platform.A mandapa is added to make it suitable for the porformance ofrites. The temple is in go,;d state of pres*rvation.
The Bamasita temple stands facing the south. The buildingis enriched with ornamental and terracotta reiief works. ln fact,no other edifice among tha sitakunda group of temples showssuch a high level of workmanship as this templo. The jumpingmovement of Hanumana engraved on the facade suggests that th6temple was dedicated to Rama. tho templo fell ruin when sai-vism beceme prominent in ihar holy place. There is no imageinside and no religious rites are baing performed.
There is a trabeated two storied building in front of thistemple. The upper story is otill used by the visitors. But no staircaso communicates with the upperstors),.
The Bhairab temple stands facing the east. lnstead of raisedplatform it has a groundwork a Iitrlo beneath the surrounding sur-face' The temple is rooc.ed over by o large ciroular dome whiihgives evidence of the inflirence of lslamic style of architectureon ths templo. The temple is given a plain treatrnent. The door-way is very low. Thcro is no window. The interior is dark evenin broad daylishr. rn the interior of the wail of rhe sanctuary,figuras of Tantrik deitias aro currreri. The t,lrnplo is dedicated toBhairab, the destiuctive representation 6f Siva. The nearby nat-mandii is of later construction. Tlro temple is one of the oldeelstructures among ths sitakunda group of templas. contiguous tothia tomple rhere is a tank wirh a flight of steps.
Temples in the city
Badhamadhab ?empto at chawkbazar. This iemarkable Vaisnava
600 ! A t{lstory ol ehlttagong
temple is situatsd in the locality of chawkbazar. !t i: a massive
brickbuilt production having no less than seventy feet lriq'rr. The
temple consists of cella, shikhara, attached mandapa an{ lcng
gateway. The cella is a square building and has o very thiti< walls
surmounted by a large shikhara. ln front of the cella is a hall
or mandapa lor the assembly of thoso paying their devotions to tho
divine symbol in the colla. The originsi inn:go has been destroysd
by miscreants. The entrance dootway leads to the rnandapa' The
temple faces open courts. The shikhaia is polygonal in ths exteriot
but circular in the interlor. The dome has octagonal base. Both
the interior and exterior parts aro plastered' The exterior plsster
is evidently to withstand climatic influences and the interior ples-
tei is meant for architectural activities. The intetior sutface of
the dome is richly decorated with floral and ornamental vrlotks'
Painting was applied on tho decorations. As the plastor has been
peeled off, the marks of the ornamental work also disappeared.
The device on the finial of the Shikhara distinguishes the temple.
The crest hag some unidentified sculptureo. As the rrvsils have
to support such a gigantlc dome so the ioad-bearing waile arg voly
thick. The recess of the rear wall probably served the purposa
of hiding va'uables from the miscreants. This system is also ft'lund
in some of the Orissa and southern lndian ternples. Th+ niches
weie usecl for artificial lighting at night, The two sidewindovvs
help the liehting ol tha cella. The tempie oncs had a long
gateway tho trace of which can still be seen, but the sirnhadwara
has been dicappeared Ruins ot lhe boundary walls can still bo
traced. This splendid building is in a very poor state of presslvation.
siva Tempte on Lalchand Road. This is another remarkable
cpecimen of Hindu architecture in the city area, The building is
located in the Chawkbazar arca. The temple conslste of cella
and fdur ailached constructions on four sides of the main hall. The
cella is an octasonal hall having no windowo; light boing aCmittod
through lhe doorways. The polygonal cella becomes circular abovs
the parapet. The wallg are thick because they have to bEar the loed
ef a gigantic shikhcra. tt has murel decorations. The baso of
Architectural activitles t €01
the sh;khara ls ca'v.,d by brlrl .rn-nre. r ll th.r .,v .t !s ol the celllare prnellad Trre €fllr?nc.r oi ,, F rs"l-",fl -ail s , n! rrth :ndWost. A large e zo I rrg rir ii p]ar
",<J tin tl e fi;,r j ;,i,rr..rrn At the
COntfe Of tne hall M.rCh Of t, i, Ennr.j.r6 COirslrrlci.(.:rr.i iltyn b..encrumbled dw*y; oirly onc room $till stinds. I\,'ia$onrv in rhia buii-ding is of high order.
C. Buddhist Architccturs
The earliest reference to the Buddhist archirecrure in chitta-gong is found in the Tibetan sourc€s. The Tibetan cr,ronicrss referto a gre.t Buddhist monasrery named par,drt vihar. whrch flour-ished during the tenth through rhe rwelfrh cenruries of the christianEra' B'Jt the stlucturar remains of this great monasrery has notyot beon traced The construction of exrant Buddhist religiousedifiees doss not go beyond the Arakanese period.
ln 1541 A D the Arakaneso governor of chi*aoong buirt apagoda which oontained a relic chamb+:r. ,,lt is the general practicein Arakan and Burma to deposit images in relic chamber.,, Thoruins ol this pagoda have completely bern lost.
It seems that wooden buildin-q and pagoda tyoe or brickarchitecture were favoured by the Arakanese. The bell shapedreligious buildings which are profusery seen in southern chitragongmay have thoir origin in the Arakaness period.
Most of the Buddhist templos of medleval Chirtagong muethave been buih of wood or gome orhcr perreh ble materials be-causo no trace of euch buildings have hithorto baen found.
Thc Buddhist architcoural expreseion is best illustrated in theetupa and the kyangs. One such stupa is phorachin ol Haidgaonwhich is balieved to date from rhe Arakanese period The foun-dation of tho stupa is rectangular brrt qssumes a conical shapeupward. Tho stupa ie either a shrino or a reriquary Since veryearly timec the edrfice has beon an object of worship by thoBuddhisrgr
602 I A Hlatory ol Chlttagong
the Sikh Temple
Thc edifice is known as ehawkbazar Gurudwara' The Sikhs
believe that Guru Narrak (1494 -1 539) soiourned at Chittagong
before his sailing by sea to Port Jeddah for his visit to the holy
city of Mecca.l The edifice was built in the eighteenth century
to commemorate the holy saint's sojourn at Chittagong'
The building is loctangular in size. lt is very sirnple and
dovoid ol architectural beauty. The roof is of the chauchala type'
The ceiling is lested on lhree bays' 't he lone dome is crowned
with a finial. - Th" curved ceiling is hardly rnore than seven feet
high from the grounC level. The interior is ouite plain' The
building is entered by three small doorways of equal in size. The
€ntrance doors and arches are so low that a man of average height
cannot move standing. The central room is surrounded by vaulted
passags on three sidas. The passage is both entered and lighted
by a door on cach side. 'ltro interior of ihe buildlng ie relatively
dark even in broad daY light'
The cdilice has a long gateway' lt is entered by means of
a flight ol just three steps Originally thero was no portico in
front of the building but I roofed verandah of excellent architectural
works haa been added recently to give the structure a good look.
1' fh, 6tkh Revlew, August XXIV, No 272 (1976)' 47
CHAPTER. XVII
ECONOMIC CONDITION
So far ao tho economic condition of Chittagong during thomedieval period is concernod, wa havo few data and scanty infor-mation aild these are supplied largoly by the foreign travellerc,tho early official papers of the Englioh Eaet lndia Company and
ths contomporaly Bengali works. The following ie a brief accouniof rhe economic condition of Chittagong during the medievol poriod.
Medieval villago was the tyPical form of rural settlemcnt.
Villages or gaons (Sano. grama) were mostly situated in the fertiloplains and river valloys wherc agricultural facilitios were eaey to bc
obtainod. Modieval villagee norrnaliy concisled of dwellingc, agti-
cultural fields, fruit gardens, pasturagee and fallow land. Villageo
in the hiily region lvore primarily baeed on chifting cultivation.
A tribal village which was merely c cluster of hutc otood on thebanks of streams and at a mourrtain-elopo. In most caceo a villagowas known as 'para' and oach village had its name. ln the latcMughal revenuo records a villago was called e mluza.
The most important elernent in tho economic life of medieval
Chittagong was agriculture which was tho basic occupation ol thepeople. Two eystems of land cultivation prevailed; ehifting culti.ivation in the hilly region and settled cultivation in tho plaino
and rivel valloys. The former typa, known as 'Jom'l has boen
1 Th" term io most equivalont to ,yoma',
term meaning hill; e g, Arakan yoma
an Arakanme.Burrnlnmeaning Arakan hillel
604 I A History of Chittagong
the dominant aqricultural system in the hilly region of Chittagongsince profrisloriG times. lt is characterized by the torm'slashand burn'. Ths method is ae follows. At first a parch of forest
or junglo is cieared oy fel ing process and burning. The ashec
of burnt sirrubs servo as narural menuro, The sower then doposlts
seeds ioto a small hole rn th+ ground which he makes with an
lndrgeneous implement. The cultrvator giows various typeo of plants
such as yams, tubers, ci;reals, sugar cane, colton, beans, lice etc.
After two or throe leare 6t most, the cuhivator movoc on toanother area leaving the former area to be covered by jungles The
Iand remains as such till it ragains fsrtitity and then it is brought
undor cultivation again. As a result of this melhod, the fertrlity ofthe soil ir maintained. Shifting cuitivators do not require cattle, 6nd
plant their lrelds with the dibble and digging stiek ln a vcry
oarly lime, the hill people developod the technique of artrficial
irrigation by constructing small darns up tho hill-streams tlocallyoalled 'godha' . Srifting cultivatlon helps growing a crop onco
only annually. This practice of shifting cultivalion mainly confined
among the hill peo le, However, nnosi of tho hilly lands were
covcred w h thlck f,rr+st and were left to thre wild beasls such
as tig+r. k:ep:r'd w;ld cat, elephant, wild bcar, gayal etc. who
were ;aal inmales of the doep jungles.
Peor;le Iivir=q cfriefly in the pl.;ins .lnd in rivor valleys adopted
ihe cou:se of s-r,l d culrrv ition. I'ho so I . consists ol e fertilo
mixture or s'-.,rd e"rJ clar;. il is type of soil in every way adap
tod to llaa ':gltiv rt sR W,rh iir+r hl,lp of uloughs drawn chieflyby oxen aiid b.r{f rl<.le'r tho n.?asants gro\^/ m \re than one crop on the
aoil. i hroughout the l*"4u(thal period, more and more fallow land
was baing colstnntly reclaimr:d and brought under cultrvation by
such proc$s$es as clr,ar'ng aw'ry dense trooical shrub, draining
owamcs and terracir.q hill sidee lhe land ihus reclaimed known
as nolbart plots existed everywhere in the district. The peaeants
of the pl2ins usually raise dry and wet rice known respectively
and 'yama' a Japanece
Yama (Fuji mountain)r
tofm meaning the sarne, o g, Fuzi
the highosi mountain in Japan.
Economic condition I 605
as aman or shali and aush ot boro. Various types ol paddyl
wcro cultrvatect in Chittagong. Tho f inect typo of paddy was for
zamindar's consumption and the coorse type was for the culxivatol'shome consumption. The agricultural plots were kept fertile by
means of manure from cattle, together with household refuse and
ashes. The most productive land was known as'powndee'whichproduced three crops annually e g, wrn'.er rice (aman), autumn
rice (aus) end winter crops (rabi). Ths ordinary cultivable land
was known as 'nel' and tho fallow land as 'khilah'. The hlgh
lands of the plains are ussd for eugarcane production. Vegctab'
Ios of such kinds as pumpkins, arum. chillis otc., fruits and
orher crops were glown by hand tillase on a mora or loas per'
mane nt basis. ^mong tho gsrdcn clope pumpkin, gouid, melon,
arum, c$conut, banana, nratpha (a kind cf sltott cucumber), tama'
rind, hog plum (arnra), 6enkey jack rbarta). rose apple (iam),
citron of various species. papaya, mango jackfruit etc. wsre impor'
leavo (pan\, tobacco, cotton, ind'fio mustard secd, turmaric, chllli,pulse anC various herbs were produced by planters for homc con-
oumption as well as earning money.
Medieval peaoants hcd to devcte alrnoat all his time to such
tasks as clearing and tilling the eoil. smoothing the field, pra'
paring the hot bed, protocting tho seedling, resisting the growth
of weed damn'ing the streamlets for irrigation, protecting tho
ctops from tho birds and wild animais. harvosting the cropc and
etoring tho agricultural products. The womenfolk also performed
some lighter jobs in egr;cultural activities. Somotimes, the wholefamily took part in euch activities. The most deadlv enemies of
the crops wore wild birds, deer, mLinkeys, wild pig and elephants.
Agriculture sullered much f ronr draught, heavy rainfall, f lood,cyclono, opidemics and oppression. The uncontrolled floods ofthe rivate and h ll strs-2ms as a result ol excessive rainfall madc
consldorable damage to oops. The occasional raide of the ttiberr
1' A H chowdhury, oP. clt., Pp. 369,370
606 t n History of Chittagonj
men into the villages increased the digtress. It was a commonsight that tho fields had gono to weeds $ue to the desertion bythe culrivators.
Besides the agriculturistg, there were hunters and fooC gathe;rers who collected their subsictencs ovor a large tract of virgincountry espocially in the hilly region. Hills and jungles offeredmany opp)rtunities for hunting wild animals such as deer, wildboar, gayal, fowl etc., which were abundant in the hrlly region.Bow and arrow, sp6ar, net, pitfall etc. were necossary and farniliarequipment. Thg hunling and gathering tradition of tho hill peopleconlinues down to our pcriod alinost unchanged. Because ofthe naturs of their way of life, they do not livo continually in thesame placo. Fishing wae commonly distributed throughout chitta-gong and fishing peoplo lived on the banks of rivers, rivuletsand on 6aa coasts. The chiof localities of inland fisheries werethe rivero Karnaphuli, Halda ond the mouths of the Feni, g6n([2,and Matamuhuri. There was a wido variety of fishing net, fishinghook, and fishlng trap usod lor carching lish in shallow water.Tho forest and sea provide an inexhaustibla supply of food.
The econclmic conditlon of medieval chittagong eeems to bebetter than in other parts of Bengal. Forests provided good supplyof animal food. Riyers, marshes ('baelr') and tanks were swar-med with fishes and the inexhaustible sen fiehes wsre free toeverybody. Hilis and junglos provided such building materials a,wood, bamboo and cans. Foreign travellers unanimously speakof tho abundance of provisions and low prices of articles in thisregion. Dom ..!oao Leyma (tSlB A D) writes: ,,Tho counuy isvery rich, ten fardos of rice sell for a parado of 320 reic theroboing three alqueires in each fardo...twenty heno and as many aa
sixty ducks eell for a tanga and three cows per pardao,,.l CaesarFrederick was suiprised to see the incredible cheapnsss of commo-ditios in Sandwip. He writes:
They sold it so good cheape that wo weie amazed at the
1 C R, Jan..March, 193g, p. 2l
Economic condition I 607
cheapnesse thereof. I bought many salted kine thete, for theprovision of the ship for half a larine a piece, which larine
may be twelve shillings sixe pence, being very good and fatte;
and foure wild hogges ready dressed for a larine a great fathenne lor a bizze a piece which is at the most a pennie; and
the people told us that we were deceived the halfe of ourmoney, because we bought things so derie; also a sacke olfine rice for a thing ol nothing. and consequently all otherthings for humane sustenance were thete in such abundance,that it io a thing incredible but to them that have seene it.l'
Pyrard de Laval, who visited Chittagong in 1607 A D, says
in the samg voice. Ha saw no country in the East so abundantlysuppliod with all things needlul for food, with tho richee of nature
and art, and were not the navigation co dangeroua, it would be
the fairest, most pleasant, fertile and profitable in the whole world.2Ot the varied agricultural resources, Pyrard mentlons the followingcrops.
(Beeides rice, the chief crop) there are many good fruits, nothowever cocos or bananas;3 plonty of citroue, lirnes, oranges,
pomgranates, cajus. "pineapples etc., jinger, Iong peppets ofwhich, in the gresn state they rnake a great variely of preser-
ves es also lemons and oranges. The country abounds withsugarcane, which they eat green; oi else make into excellentsugar, for a cargo ro their ships. ...Cotton is (also) plentiful.4
Ol the animal stock and animal 16sd, Pyrard writes: "The countryis well supplied with animrls, such as oxen, cows and sheep; flesh
is accordingly very chaap, let alone mllkfoods and buttet, whereol
1 ?urchos, x, 137
2 Lovot, l, g27
3 It surprises us that Lavat trkes no notics of banana. Countty ba-
nEna grow abundanrly in Chittagong but not of Mattaban or
Brazilian type with which Laval might have been well-acquain'
ted. That is why the traveller omits this fruit from hic list.
4 Lovol, l,928
608 | A Hlrrory ol Ghttragong
they have euch an abundanco that they supply the reot of lndia.,'lCatile war6 the chial copita' of medieval peaaant They provtdedhim mrlk, mutton money and helped him rn various agricuituralactlvltiss. Ot rhs forest regourcee especiallv conor ond bamboorPyrard gives an elaborate account wlth wondr,rfut accu,acy.2It should be noted that the disrrrct is well known regard ng thcsotwo forest products both in variety and in quantit! ln the begi-nning ol the eight.enth cenrury, a repo'ter who had cpent I wintorin chittagong, informed captain A Hamilron that ,,hc bought 5g0pound weight of rice for a rupee or half a crown eight geeee forthe same money and sixly good tame ooult.y for the same andcloth is also incredibty cheap lt is bur thinlv inhabited.,.3 Fr Bar_bier whilo visiting Chittagong in r713 A D romarks:
The provisions there are admirabte, the crimate sarubrious rndlhe water excellent. ... I have more than once regretted thatthe Europeans, when they wanted to establish themselveain Bengal have not selected Chatigam in preference to Ougli(Hughlir, considering the sarery of the harbourage the facirityof landing, the abundance of food and a rhousand othei ad-vantages which eeemsd to invite them hither.4Medieval villages were rargery ecrf-sufficicnt. The viilagco
had eeparate areas meant for different spccialized artisans suchas carpontcrs, spinners and waavers, pott€re, metal workers, oil dri.llers etc. who both tived and caniect on their tradc in that particu-lar locality. Much of rhe handlcralt was pr€pared and eold atthe doors ol home cum shop of rhe craftsmen. Local transactionsgenerally took place in matket places locally known as aurang,hat, b626;, ganj and mela. At these placas buyere and sellersmct at eet timee to do businees ln difforent kinde of commoditiec.Dukan or shaded structure for rerail aale of necessary commoditycould be found at every vilrage. Generalty, bszarc were held daily
1 wa.2 ma., p. 3293 ot crmpos, op. crr., p. I l g4 B P F,, vt (19101., zog"zto
Economic condition | 60U
hats twice a wook, ganjr were fot whola sales and melae or fairs
on religioue ocoaciona. H818, bazars and fairr were held in open
plainr. A producer of ecatcnal commoditiea would undettake long
iourney to t rcmoto lair, bur the products ol necessaly comnroditieo
would go to ncatby mrrketr whcre they would find ready buyere'
tn thc markets, the farmcrs eold their egriculturrl produG!s directly
to the consumere. The lcrmors alco sold egge and milk from
door to door or at markst6. Fishcrmen would sell their daily
catches at markets. Ac thc water tran3port wa3 more easy and
economic in those days of poot countly loade. ao market placee
wore g€nerally establishcd on thc bankr of thc rivers and canals.
Saudagars or merchanrc engaged in both inlend and ovorseas trade
to earn their livelihood ae well ae to makc prolit. Aa the cirGU-
Iation of metallic coinr wag .cant in the medieval times, Bo lhe
people had to dcpend on bartcr .ye'om.
Owing to tho existcnco of mountains and innumerable hilletreams, road communication in the mcdreval timas was very
dilfrcult. An ldea of inland road communication in the district may
bc fornrcd relying chiefly on the contemporary sourcee. The Na
rirabad plate of Damodara Dcvrl giveo evidencc of a rajpath (roy-
al road which mry be identified with Rangamati Foad) and a go-
psth (cattlo road) in north Chittagong. According to ShihabuCdin
Talieh, -sultan Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah burlr I great al (embank-
mont) to 66nnect hle capital city (Sonargaon) with tha chlef see port
(Chittagong).2 Throughout the mcdicval period, thio road served
as a main line of comrnunication betwecn chittcgong and sonar-
gaon. The Arakaneso rulers developed land communication eopo'
cially in southern Chittagong. Thc noed lor long-distance land
comnrunication helped the building ol r good highway in aouthern
Chitragong. Fr A Farinha, a Portuguerc traveller (1639'40), gives
a gr:phlc description ol road iournoy ovel thc hlghway which
connectsd Diang with Arakan" He wrinc:
t , r s B, xlut (1874), 321
2 Furhyo, g. 182
610 lA lllrrory ot Chiuagong
The road from Diange to Atokan is a royal road. ot ,ather itlooks like a streer of Coimbra, oo great is rhc muhitude olpeoole going ro and fro. It is a most delightlul rcad to rra_vel by; landm=rks indicate tho distancoj so numerous are rhesethat ecarcely hae one been lost oight of, when the next appearo.I do not think thero is any road more pleasant and agreeable,consldering lhe great veriety of streame and riverg lhar crossit, eo to 8ay at every sr6p. Some of these rivers you mustpass o't rafts; otheis owlmming. rll are of lresh crystallinewater and swarm with fieh which th6 treveller cotches atpleasure. . . . AithouEh the road ifaverses an uninh:bited coun_try yet in cer!arn places test houses have bterr builr by order9f rh" king; 1o rhese a fixed revenue is alrached rraveilorslind rh ra shelrer and tooo l,"u-ot
"h;,S;;-i;;"it woultl bebelow the krng'e dignity to ask for money. ,Along rhe waythere are sevarar objects of great intorest and wail wolthnoricing. 1
tAhile narraring rhe Mughar invasion in chrttagong in r6r6 A D,thc Soho'rston relara ro a ,,iiig )way.. in north if,iriugon, Z
The communication of tho dis rict marked!y developed duringthr Mughal rule. Norlhrrn Chirt rgong was devoid of good roads,clnce lhe whole srea is in,ersecred by the mull,ludc of srreams andtorr€nts coming dowrr frr:nr the neighb ur,ng hil!s. So the upkeepof good roads was a v6ry d tricult job. By orrJ rs ol I awabShaista Knan. all rhere str(arns were bridge d3 immediatery afterthc conquest. lt seems that the uunk road. originally built bySul'an Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah t<, connect his capital wirh theport town of chittagong a d rying in ruins duri ng the -oubsequentArakaoese regime was reconstructed and improved Besideg thishighway. a road was built p6r6llgt 16 th's roacl f gther eactrunning threug6 modern Farikchhari, Raozan and Ronguni, ,, , .".It joins the bank of the river Karnaphuli and Juge ccrla (Juskholgln Fatikchhari u. z\. A th td road waE conslruclcd ln rho farther
1 Ot Monrtque. l, 172-17g2 Eohortswn. f, 4063 Fothyo p. IBO
1
I
II
)
Economlo condltlon | 6ll,
interior, para!lal ro rhe hill rengsg from tha river brnk to a placenamed Milock from which point o minor road linked the third withthe second,l There wero probabty tho royal roade for the usc olfoot passenters as w rlI as riders ard varricies espu6rs]ly bullockcarts. Besides, rh r!'s w.re irinunrerable country roacls some ofsyhich are sritl known as 'Jangals'.2 lhe rou.qh t ack running ingidethe hilly region is knowrr as dh rls'. The early B'rri h documlnrtgivc evidence of a nurnbrr qf 'dhalas' boing in exist.nce rn d,ffe-rent parts of tile d:srrict.
Fivor Karnaphuli along wirh irs tributary Halda wag the chielartory of tho d srrict, The sxisrence of innumcrable canah andcreeks in cantraI Chrttagong cro,rided oxc.,llant inland navigation.Tha link canaI excavat€d by Faujdar Zulqrdar Khan grearly imrrovod
the water c)mmJnication in modern Banskhali-Anw.,, u ..3since early times. chittagong har been a renowned in ernational
emporium because of its excoilent haibour and porr 13611111*r. Asearly as the ninrh century A D. Chittagong was known ro the Arabmerchants and traders.4 Th" great Portuguese historian De Barroawritee in 1532 4 D that "clrittagong rs the most famous andwcalthy city of tho kingdom of Bengal, on account of irs port etwhich moets the tralfic of all that €astern region.5 lt was a verybusy port during caosar Fredericke's rime as the traveller found
uguose ships anchored in Chittagong.6Gaud and ths eetabl,shment ol rhe lacrory
t' se" Rennell's map2 Jangal ia probably rhe joint word of jang and al ( )
meaning milir6Ty road, i. e, road buiit for militat !nChittagong dialect, iang means big and al ( cl Bang+al=Bangal in the Atn ) meanc raised bounda'y of agriculturalland. So jangal may also mean big boundary load.
3 o'lvtrll"y, op. ctt., p. 3s4 Se" supro, ch. iv5 ot ca npos, op cir , p. 1136 Purcfias. X. 135
612 I A Hlstory ol ehiftr$otg
at $atgaon by tho Pottuguose, Chiuagong monopolized tho trade
o{ Bengel. According to Campot, "when the Portuguece came
to Bengal, Cnittagong was irs chiof pott, and the main gateway
to ihe royal capital Gaud"'l That is why the Fortuguese called
Chirtaoong, 'Porto Grande de Bengala'or ths glaat porl of Bengal
in coniraat with Satgoon, the 'Porto Pequeno' ot small pott, the
second Portuguese sstablishment in Bengal. While narrating the
formor cominercial prosperity of Chittagong, the author of the
Riyoz us Sqlotln writes: "ln ancient times it wa! a largo port' The
tredsrs of every country especially the ships of the Christians ttstd
to lrequent it. . . . lt is said that ships which in other parts of thc
ssa reapJear in lront ol Chatgaon."2 lt wat only in the early part
of the eighreenth century that it yielOed preccdencc to Caicutta.3
Throughout the medieval period, Chittagong was hummed with
busy tradors ol numerous countries. Long bafore tho coming of
tlro Portuguess tho Muslm me;chants ol the orient monopolized
the foreign trade in Chittagong. When de Silveira visited Chitta-
gong in l5l8 A D, he lound tho port thronged ol Murlim merchantc
and therr trading vesscls.4 Joao Cootho, the leader of the lirst
Portuguesa trade mission to Bangal arrived at Chittagong boarding
a ship that belonged to onc Groma)le (Ghulam Ali) who was eaid
to be a relativo of the govornor ol Chittagong.S Anothur rich Pet
sian merchant who lived in Chittagong was Khwaja Shihabuddin
rvhosu ship war trken prizc by a Portuguese pirate'6 Joao de
Balros refers to the settlement of an Arab merchrnt who had come
to Chittiigong about a century before tho llrst Portugueso landing
at Shittagong.T According to Mv Hamidullah Khan, "one Alfa
1 curpos, op, cit., p' 2l2 Rtyoz, p. 41
3 wa.4 Ses suPro, ch x5 Soo suPto, p.21,,36 s"" supro, p. 2177 Eee supro, p. 1 13
Econqmlc condirlon | 6i 3
Husaini of Baghdad, descendant of Fatimah, a groat melchent whopossessed much wealth and many glrves and ownod four:oen shipg
had repoatedly been to Chatgaon."l A Chinese snvoy belonging totho early fiftoenth c6ntury states: "Tsa ti Kirng (Chatigaon orChittagong) is at tha mouth of the sea. Marchants from foroign
countri+-'s conno lrorn outsidB and anchor thero. They assemb:e and
divirle the E:rofits of theil merchandise at this place."2 Accordinglo a Portugurs,r corrospondent, there were a number of 'Guzarat
boate' at the port of Chittagong in 1517-18 A D.3 With tha
coming of tho Portggus5e, chief livals ol Muslims. the Arab sailg
began to disappeor fast and the brisk trecle wrth the Arabian
porte declined. Thc Portuguesa took the place ol the Arabs.
"lt became en esrabl:shed custom from the time of S,lveira's visitto Bengal i 1 51 8 A D) to cend annually to Bengal a Portuguese
ship wlth msrchandisa."4 1r 1531 A D, "rhero were thcn sevente€n
Portugueso vesselg in Chittagong."5 ln 1538 A D Sultan Mahmud
Shah gave the Portuguesa a number of territorial and commerciel
concessions in the port of Chittugong,6 But all these coiicessionsware withdrown later on by tha subsequsnt govGrnments who keplthe Portuguere away from tho port. The '-ortugueso, however,regained their hold during the Arakanese rulc. ln I596 A D, ltis reported to tho king of Portugal ,'that rhe commorce of porto
Grande of Bengala is flourishing."T Thie indicates the upward trendof the Portugueso trade and commerco in Chittagong. During thelater part of the Arakanose rule, Chittagong became a etrongholdof the Magh-Firingi pirates. The incidenral remarks by rhe Durchmelchantr while on a visit to Chittagong, "ohow that piracy rather
I s." ,rpro,g. 1142vaA,t(r94s),12g3 c R, 1938, p. 2r4 carpos, op. cit., p. 3o3 tbd., p. l6o6 S"" supro, p. 2237H!,p728
Cr4lA Hierofy ol Chirtagond
than commerco was the chiet occuparion of the inhabirants, whilotho lists of the cargoes which they obtainect indicate no signs olcommercial progress."l During rhs Mughal regime tho private tradeol the Mughal officers were carried on through the port. Accordingto the Rlyoz, "all ths goods which arrived on board the mer-cantile shipo at the porr of Cr,atgaon, were bought up on behallof the Prince iAzim us Shan) 2
On account of tho existenco of a good port and harbour,chittagong l:ad an active and considerable foreign t,ede with d,ffe-rent countries of both the East and the west. A lrvely tradc wascarried on barween Chittagong and ths pereian Gult ports,
between Chi tagong and the poris of the western coast of thesubcootinsnt during ths early sultanate 1:eriod.3 During thomcdieval period, chirtagong became one of tha chief centris oflmport and expott trado. Tlre suitans and the local govenors grvg.trong becking to tho foreign merchants engaged in trade with themerchants of Chittagong. Unfortunately, no precise idea of thepattern. of foreign trada in chittagong during the sultrnate periodcame dov'ln to us. since chittagong was a mint town and I cornIllo.rcial area, it had a great demand of bullion which was importedfrom other courrtries. We iearn from Joao do Leyma,s letter llslgA O) tnat "Srlver, coral and copper are highly prized there.,'4Caesar Fredoricke writes of the bullion trade as follows:,,Bolweenwhich two places lPegu and clrittagong) thero were much commercein silver."5 Of the piincipal items of export from Chittagong Caesar
Fredericke writes rhat from this port rhs traders carried to thelndies groat store of rice, very groat quanrities of bombast clothof every sort, sugar, corn and moncy with other mcrchandiso..'6The export of monoy must have caused scarc;ty of bullion in thisregion,
1 Moreland, From Akbor to Aurongzeb, p. 4?2 Rtyor, p. 2473 S"" supro, ch vii4 C n, Jan.-March, 1g38, p. 2l5 Purchos, X, 1 366 oampoe, op, ctt, p. I r 3
Economlc condltion I 615
Ae regardc the import and export trade ol Chittagong duringthe Arakanese period, information io most authorirativeJy suppriedby the Doghregister and the account of pyrard de Lavat. Fdamvan der Mand€re, tho Dutch resident factor at Mrohaung (1634A D), who had personally been upto Chittagong gives an idea ofthe main articleo of export and prices of those commodities inChittagong. According to his otatement, almoct all the avaitablecommodities could be purchaeed in Chittagong at a much cheaperIate thrn in Arakan proper. lndlgo cost 1+ rangas per maund atChltragong wheraae in Mrohaung it cosr ei rang.s.l The trade inIac was stats monopoly. Prince of this commodily tendedto rise during the ofl oearon. The time to buy tac was notuntil May or Juns. Hs had found it cheaper in Chirtagong rhanin Arakan. ',Early on rhe Dutch bought it at 3f, tangai rhe maund.ln 1641 _A D the prico had rises to 8!. tangas and at later to 1ltangas."2 There was r gr6at demand for lhis commodity amongthe European purchasers to manufacturo cealing wax.
Cotton cloths othor than finer varietics were of several rypes. Ofthera lhe cutch resident mentions three types, black, blackcoarse and' dungerry, ' rho last variety was chiefly manuhclured by rhe hillpeopie Plenty of black cloth was obtainabls in Chitragong. ltappears lrom the report of the Dutch resident that the prices olthese three typer were more or less uniform. At Chittagong, blackcloth sold at lt tangas_per piece whereas the rame piece wouldcost 2 tangas ln- A7sgBn.3 According to Pyrard de Laval, "cottonis ao plentiful that after providing for tho usee and clothing ofthe natives and besides expolting the raw material, they make eucha quantity of cotton cloths and so excellenrly woven that thesearticlos are e.xpoited and thence only to all lndies, but chiallylo rhe parts about Sunda 4 Regarding rhe trada in eilk products,Pyrard writes that " thcy rnake many stulle of divors colours. and
1- 1tul R 5, Soth ann. publ. No 2, 1960; pp. 7l and F22 hH.E tti,t.4 bvol,l, 328
616 | A H!.tory ol Chlttagong
cxport thcm to rlt parts.l Othcl articlct of cxpott menrlonod
by Pyrard are pottcry, sugar, and scented oil, "got lrom a cer
tain grain and divors flowers. "2
Rlce, thc etaple food of the people wao a royal monopoly un
dcr the Arakaneso rule. The price ol it wes generally fixed by
the king's ministers named Losolosii3 ;n 16s Doghretlster. Fixation of
prica was generally based on two eonsiderations, the amount of
outplus available lor export and the demand of the European merch'
6nl3 The exportable quantlty was fixed by thc royal orders. The Ara'
kanese govoinment ''permittcd the export of lice, under the control
of an officer who tegulated it sc as to prevent a shorlage. ''4 'l ho
European mstchanto would not slip an opportunity, whonever possi'
ble of smuggling rlce out of the kingdom by ovading the officiallupervision. in 1636 A D, when there wal a good surplus in Chi-
ttagong, the Dutch lactor came to Chittsgong in person rnd adva-
nced money to privato brokers lo supply his neods at 2+ to three
tangas the cerla of 420 lbs.. but the king's cgent intstvened and
mado this transaction inoperative. He bought up all tha rice at ?il
taogat and re{used to let the Dutchmen hava it at less than 4 to aftangrr.S The export trado in rice is aico referred to by Pyrard de
Lavcl.6
Elephanl waa consldered a profitable articl€ of export to thc
Coromandal coail.T Pyrard writos that. "thir country abouds with
elaphantc, which aro exportod hence to all parts of lndia.''8Catching of elephante9 and !heir exports had been a flourishing
1 lbtd,, pp. 328-3292 ttrd.3 1 lur. R S (50th ann. publ. no.2, tg60) p.8l4 tila.3 tbtit.6 Lovot, l. 3277 1 Dur. n S (50th ann. pubt. no 2, 1960) p. 82I Lovol, [, 431I A vt ld dercription of the khoda or olophant oatching h givon
Economic condition I 617
businesa since very early times. Verelst, chief of Chittagong found"recently caplured herd ol forty elephanls'' at Chittagong. "Thcseele.phants had probably been caught fcr desparch as tribute to theEmperor at Delhi".l Felying on the accounls of the foreign trav6-llers, Mnreland writes that the prineipai articles of export fromChittagong at lha beginning of ths seventecnth century, wero provi-sions (rice and sugar) and muslin, the destination being Pegu,
Tennaserim, Malacca, Achin etc.2
Throuohout the medieval perlod, especially during the Arakaneseperiod, Chittagong was the chief centre of trading in slaves andeunuchs in eastern lndia. Joao de Leyma, a Portugueso correspon-dent (1518 t\ D) reports rhar, ,,(in Chittagong) a elave ie worthsix tangas and a young lady double that sum "3 Ths Arakaneseperiod was the heyday of tho Portuguese piratical activities. ThePortuguese engaged themselves in slave trade, which fcrmed animportant iiem of the Fortugueee trade and ccmmerce. Accordingto Pyrard, "one of rha greatest trades in Bengal is in slaves. ...[\4ost of the slaves in lndia are got from here. Many ol the mer-chan:s c:s'rale lh.lrn, cutting them when thsy are young. .. Thisis in order to put them in charga of rhs women and of the keysof the houee."l Beferring to th6 Portuguese slave ttaders in thekingdom of Arakan, Bernier w,ites: '.They sold to rhc Portuguese
of Goa, Ceylan. St Thomas, and otlrer places."s Talish says that"oniy ttre Firingi pirates sold rheir prironero.'6 H, f urther writealhat the slaves "were sold to rhe Dutch, English and French
merchants at lhe ports ol the Deccan."7 B.lying on rhe Dutch sour-
in the Aln I Akbari, Soe Ain, l, ?84I B P P. xx'dil ( rg24), 202 Morsland, From Akbor ro Aurongztb, p. 5?3 c R, 1938, p. 2tr4 Lqvol, I. 3325 Bernler, p. 1766 Fothyo, p. 1847 rbid,, p. Ig3
618 I A Hietory of Chirtagong
ce. Moreland writes: ,,Thesa commodities (rice rnd slaves) wsrsobtained to a great exteni from Chirtagong,.l The Durch required alarge number of slaves in connexion w.rh the plantalion in fheEast lndies. The price of slaves varied eccordrng to rhe supplyava lrblr and the age and ab,liry of the ind,vidual slrve. Accor-ding 16 their own repoi.t, ths Dutch aqenrs in rhs kingdom ofArakan were not allowed to expot t skill,d slaves who werorequired by the Arakanese king in rhe capital.
The coast ol Chittagong and Sandwip has sincs msdievalFetiod became the chief selt-producing area in this region. Theisl rnd of Sandwip ,'where two hundred ships were annui lly ladenwith salt" and which. eccordrng to Fr Du Jarric, .,as berng ablrto supplr tha whola of Bengal with salr,'2 *r, the leading saltDroducrng area during the timo of the traveller. The gtatcmentol Teixeira rhat ',tho island of Sundiva alone produces salt inBengal "3 poinrs out the pre.eminenoe of Sandrryip as a salt procluc-ing area ln Bengi,t. The portugu6se w6re commorrly angaged in thatrade in s.tr.4 which wag used ro be shipoed from;hittagong by thePortuguese merchants in their own cargoGs ro Dhaka wl-ere rheiragento received it and ihen re c.xported it to olherr parts of Bengal.A number of nimack mahals that have been mentionecl by ii;e Ain-I Akboil and the ea,ly British reccrds concernrng ravenue, indicatothe thriving salt industry in the district. Flevenue from salt pitsof Chittagong_ towards the close of the Mughel period aniountedto Re 23,587.5 During the rimo of the cession. there wero sixnimuckurry or salt mahals such aa Narasinghabad, Shanabad etc ,along the coalt of Chittagong.6 Th" Earthquake Repcrt of 1762
tian Gonzales in his earty lile was a ealt trader at Diang (seeDanvers. op. ctt,, p, 142),
gives information of two badly affected saltworke at Bansbaria
and Aklpurah.l talt was rnanufaciured by evaporation of brine andsalt producers w're known as malangis. During the Mughat period,daroghas were appointed to supervise the manufactuling ol andtrrrcfs in salt.
Being one of the chiet ports of Eastern lndia, Chirragong wasccmmercially connected w;th the dista'1t regions of Europe, MiddlaEast and Far iast, The urusl 6ea toute lrom Chjna to Bengalvla the East Indies and the Bay islands menrioned by the chineseomissaries visiting Bengal during the frrst tralf ol rhe fifreenth cen-tury was as fclllws: By oeean going vessels they (the vtsitrrs)arriveC at Chirtagong via Siumalra the Andamans and the Nicobars;then they disembdrked at rhe port of chittagong lrom where theywent upto sonargaon on liver creft. Next they forced their wayto Pandua.2 The distance betwo€n chittagong and sonargaon ia
given in one sourc@ as 500 li and in another as sixteen stages.3lbn Battutc used rhe river route along rhe Meghna in his journoy lromSadkawan lCnrnagong) to Kamrup. We hear of regular pilgrimagesailing service from chrrtagong ro Mecca during the rule of the llyasShahi suitans. $everal ocean going vessers were employed in thisservice.4 The Porruguass source refers to tha busy trads route be-twe€n C,rittagong and tha Persian Gulf ports round the Deccan coastduring the Husain Snahi period. Sidl Ali, the Turkrsh navigaror descri.bes the goa roure f lom Diu ro chrttagong via ceylon and Rakanj.Scaesar Fredericke mentions lrade roures betwoen chrtragong andCochin, Chittagong and portugrl and Clritragong and pegu.6 Tne
11Aso,2vge, l,
9 bru.a1aRs,5ynsa.6 Purcios,
xil (1843). t049
(1945), 123
XLll, pt 2(195(i), 13-15
V 11836), 466t.
x r35
620 | A History ol Chitragong
establishment of the Portuguese settlen'lent in Chittagong commef-cially connecled the port town with the Portuguese colonies in
both the hemispheres. The thr€e mighry nvers Pacjma, M, ghna,and Brahmaput.rd provide an excellent water communrca'ion bywhich Chittagorrg was coDn€cted wtth ths reer of Benga!. Ctritragong has in a very real sensi been called "the gelew.y of Bengal."During the Mughal peried, the prosperity t,f tho pott greatlydeclrned owing to the rapid rise of Caicutta. Hooghli and theinland river ports. The insecurity due to plunderirg ra'Cs of tfieArakanese pirates also contributed to its gradual deteriiiratiorr. AbbeRsynal, writing in 1777, says that Chirtagong had sunk inro obscu-rity till the Engli6tr arrived and sgttlecl thare.l The Riyoz also
subscribes to this view.2
Different kinds of coinaga were in use in different periods ofhistory of the district. Cowri or shell of small gastropod was rhe
chief medium of exchange in Chittagong as in the regr of Bengalfrom tims immemorial down to the early parr of the eighleenrhcontury. According to the Arab travellers, ,'trade ls carrieci on by
means of kaurig which are the current money of rhe countr)."3Ma Huan, a Chinese official accompanying with the Chinese amba.ssador in Bengal writes in 1406 A D: ,,Ihe currency of the coiJntryis a sllver coin called Tang ka...is one inch and two renths indiameter and is engraved on either side. All large business trans-actions are carried on wilh this coin, ,'but for small purchases,
they use a sea shell called by tre foreigners kaoli (cowri;..'4Thus during the rule of tho llyas Shahi dynesty both tanka andcowri wsre media of exchange. Joeo de Leyma, a portugucse
repoiter (1517-18 A D) found in Chirtagong ilrat shells ars the ccinsin this country for none but the king can own gald or silver."5Tanga5 as medium of exchange has also been mentioned by the trave-
1 ot o'M, )ley, op. cit., p. 4o2 Riyoz, p. 41,3ED,t,E4 Bhattarali, op. clt, g. 7705 C n r Jan.-Marchr lg3g ), p.2l
Economic Condition | 621
ller. )uring the Pathan regime, dam and tanka were in use as curren-cy. Accordrng to Vac den Mendere, the Dutch factor in Arakan, pricesin Aral,iarr and Chittagong W:rs always given in tangas, the ofticialMughal currency before tha introduction of rupee and were worthtwo shillings each. 1 Und"r the later Mughals, sicca rupee was incirculation b.rsides other units ef coinage.
Itloney was useC to be coined in Chitragong from tho very earlyporiod o! tha InCependent Sultanate, As the transport of n:oncyfrom the capital city to a distant piace like chiiragong was risky,so the ruiers c:itebllshed a mint at Chirtagong. Chittagong appearedas a nrint town under tho rulo of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.2coins of tha two Hindu Kings named Danujamardana ['eva andMehsndia Deva, minted at Chittagong are of standard quality andare still in good condition.3 As many as fifty four coins of SultanJrlaluddin Muhrmmrd shah, minted ar chittEgong have so farb:en discovered from the distlict 4 coins were struck at chitt.-gong hy such Tripura kings as Dhanyamanikya,S Deva.nanikya,Bijoymanikya and others as a mark of their paramountcy over thedistrict. Under the Alsftsnese regime Chittagong was the secondirnportant mint town in the wtrole of the Arakanese kingdom.Coins of 1450 A D ''now exist wirh legends in the"Bengalee andPersian charactor, as well as Burrness, some oeing struck by theviceroys in Chittagong." 6 Talish writes:" (tho governor of Chitta-gons) issues gold coins stampad wirh his own nams at thisPlrca."7 The coioage of Chittagong illustrates the importance
J Bur. R S ( 50th ann. putrl. no 2, t,9C0 ), p. 80
Bhattasali. op. clt., p. 78
lbid., p. 1lglbid. pp.. 124-1ZS ; Corpus, pp. Z6f.
One ol his coins is now belng preserved in the Chinagongmuseum.
IASB, x ( l84l ),688Fathyo, p. 182
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
6zz I a Hisrbry of Chillrronn
of Chittago0g as a contr,a of trade and commerca,
Knowledge abou: w:ights and measures can bs garhored fromthe account: of thr fsroigners. Maund: and saers wrre ths twounits to rveigh tha co;.nmodities. lr{unes ( ISSl A D I writas that"(in tha P1r:s G,-1rlr) rhe mrunC rnr)l b/ w,1tch thsy w:rgh all
lains i911y s9s;g iceros), eech seer 1B$ ounces,,,l Rice,e:l b/ thc ,last' orcarra'and scmgtimes Oy both during tharul., 2 Ari as me3sure of capacity fcr grains and csreals da-
tes back to the Mughal period 3 Bamboo re eds were used to measurethl quantitv of liquid sub-3(ances during the medieval period.Pyrard wriros: "of these (the bamboosr roo. are made theirm3lsures for measuring all their goods, such as rice, grain. oil.butter and the Iike. Moasrrres of alr sizes aro made of th.*.,i4Land measurements such as nal.5 kara, ganda, kani6 and drona 7which date back ro tho medieval period, are still current in thedistrict' The uso of nara and drona as units or measuroment of
Ot H l, p. 728
J Bur. R S 150rh an,r. pub!. no 2.l gS0) p. gl. Thc carta asa unit of c:pacity for the msasurements of rice and cerealcropr is now an obsolete thing but perlraps its deforrned namo'cargya' as a conrainer of paddy or coreal crops is stirl current.A cargys is made of thin pieces of bamboo or cano. The'carra' may have a relaiion to ,ari. a unit of measuremsnt ofsixteen sesrs capacity.
Serajuddin, op. cit., p. I54Loval, 1,330The msa.suring instrumenr ceiled nal is a bamboo pol=, eight
cubits or usuaily 12fi leet in lengrh."Tha mgasuremsnt of the kani I conny ) is twelve nulls, oach null
eight cubits (covids)", ,A letror from Verelst and his Council,dt Feb. 16, 1761 , qt Fifth Reporr, l, lntroducfion, p, cxx. Amaghi kani is oquivalent to four Engllsh acres.
7 one drona ie equal to G.4 acres. According to tho EorthquokeReporr (1762), ons shahi drona is rg20 cubirs long and r600cubirs broad. I A S B, Xl! (1943), 1050n)
I
2
3
4
5
t.
Economlc condition I 623
ground has been in existence einca the days of Damoderadeva'scoppe'plate oi €ven earlier.l Kani and drona are related by the
equation of 1 : 16. Thr system of quantitative rneasuremenl ofcomrnodities in masha, ratti, ganda, burhi, pana, kahana etc has been
referred to in the early Brirish revenuo documents end nrcdieval
Bengali works. Wood balances with marks of measurement on
them have been in use in the district sincg tho medieval Lreriod
lndustry and bandicrafts roceived estimation of the lcreigners.Handicrafts included such activities as embroidery, weaving, matting.basketry, pottsry, metal working, rvoodworking otc. Baskets ofvarious kinds plryed an irnportant part as storags containers ofpersonal possessions and as granaries. Pyratd gives an account ofthe industrial activities of the people as follows:
Tha inhabitents, both men and women were wonderorrsly adroitin ell manufactures, such as of cotton cloth and siiks and inneedlework such as embroideries which are worked so skill-fully, down to th€ smallest stitches rha: nothing pretrisr is 10
be seen anywhere. Some of these cottons ano' silks are sofine that it is diffrculr to sty whether a person so artired be
clothed or nude. Man;, 616.r kinds of work euch as fur.niture
and vessels ar6 construct6d wilh oxtraordinaly clelicacy, wirich.if, brought here would bo said !o conrs trom Chrna. ln this coun-try is made a large quantity of small black anC red potrery.
Like the finest and most delicate terre sigillae; in rhis they do
a gr6at trade; chiefly, in gargeulsttes and drinking vessels and
other utensils.2
We harre little knowledge of ths co;ditlon of weaving industry
during thg medieval period. Towcrd rhs end of tho Mughal pariod,
"thc purchasing trado iin Chittagong) seems to have been chieflyin textlle."3 The consignment of cotton products sent by Verelst to
1 ! e S 8, XLtl! (1874), 320, The word nala occurs in the Naiharigrrnt of Ballala Sena. ( E ,, XIV (1917-18), 156-103)
2 Lovol, l, 32g3 g p P, xxvil (1924), 20
624 | A Hielory ol Ghirtagong
Calcutta, a few months aftcr thc cession, "was vely favourably te-ported on." Referring to this conslgnment, a lotter ol the East lndia
Company from Galcutta dated September 28, 1761 A D, written tothe chief of Chittagong reporta: "We with pleasure observe by
the gcod q'.ratities of the cloth you havo sent 8s tho ca'ie you
have taken in the improveme,,t of our manufactures."l Cottonpaid as a tribute to the Mughal government was used as law6slsrial ol the weaving industry Pottery was one of the mostlloulishing industries in medieval Chittagong. Chittagong was rich
in canes and cane furniture could be seen in every arislocratic
household. Barnboo grows in abundance everywhere lnd lhe people
especi"lly the hillmen turn it into ell kinds of conceivable house-hold obiects of daily use witn astonlshing skill. Paper was menu-
factured by local craf(6mEn to supr,ly it to the government olfices,puthl writ6rs and copyisls.
A flourishi.rg ship buildirg industry developed in the poits ofChittagong to sutiport the oxtensive maritime trade. The nearby
hilly forests provided ample sr.rpply of wood for this industry.Tha people of Chittagong earned reputation ae gocd ship buiiders
and excellent crew. Ship building material was so cheap in Sandwip
that according to ths report of Caesar Fredericke the suhan ofConstantinople had found it cheaper to have hls ships builr rhere
rlther than at Alexandria."2
3 tbia.
4 or campos, op. cit., p. 11g
i-
eppendix 1. A lllota on the Hlstorical places offfiedieval Chittagong
STTAKUNDA. The pl;ce is siluated about twenly rniles north
ol Chitiagong city. Fuins and logends relatad to this place indi'cale tfiat the plrce is of considerabla antlquity. The presenl name
Sitakunda appears irr Ilenneli's map and in the early British doctt-
fnents. This leads us to think that the name Sltakunda w.rs also
current during the Mughal period. Hindu Puronos and Tantrik works
nnentiDn Chandrasekhar, no: Sitakunda. The nlme Chandrasekhar
also occurs in the Chhutikhont Mohobhsroto and the Roiomolo. This
indicates that the name SitakunCa is preceded by that of Chandra-sekhar to dEnote thrr pl rce in the trf teenth centuty. The chieftemple, CeCicaterj to ths worship of Chandraoath, is situated on ap:ak narned alter the deity. The name Chandranath is associatedwith Natha culr whrch onco swerrt the district. Buddhists of Chi-ttagoilg regard Ghandranath as a sacred place. Ruinc of BuddhistMahayanic deities havo been unearthed near the pres€nt templo ofChandranath. With the decline of Buddhism in the sub-ontinsntthe reputation of tha place as a sscred Buddhist spot also declined.Tfie place became a stronghold of tlarha cult along wirh suchother placs ae Adinath When Nathism bugan to show inclinaiiontoward Saivism the place also bagan to lose its preeminent position
as a stronghold of Nathism and the place became one ot tfie re-puted pithas o-f Saiva and Sakta cults. The placo begarr to be ramedGhandrasekhar which stands as a name for Siva. The sacred plicoof Falamatiowar, a joutney to which place was an act of religiousdovotion during the days of king Dhanyamanikya, har baen iden.
tified with SitEkunda.t During rhe Mughal period the placo wasusurped by the sannyasis belonging tD Ramayat sect" Sinca thattime the placa haa been known es Sitakunda, obviously named
attcr Rama's consort Si!a. The Bama.Sita temple and the well
1 See supro, p. 161
626 I A Hisrory ot Chirtagong
(kunda) of Sita commemoratc thls event. The usurpatlon of rheRamayats, however, failed to produce any permanent result in aplace already saturated with Tantric cult. Saivism was resroredto its former posltion during the post Mughal period. The imagesof Rama-Sita temple wore destroyed and the temote was teft deso-Iate and it gradually lell in ruins. The name Sitakunda. howeverremain in cxistence to remind us ol its colourful histo'y. tt is saidlhat Naib Mahasingh, tha Mughal adminietrator ol the districtmede the place hic offrcial headquarters. The famrug hot springol Barabkunda is situated only 6 few mlJes apa,t.
EANDWIP. The lsland ls formed bv rich alluvium carried by
the iolnl flow of the Padma and ths Meghna Jamas Wise most
appropriately writes: "(The island) is probably the oldest and mostpormanent of ihe grouo which the mighty river is foi ever buildingand deetroying."l The name Sandwip is supoosed lo harre foeen
detived lrom liwarnadwipa or Suvarnadwipa which is connotativelyrelated to 'Chryse'2 or gol'len len.l of the classical wrlters ol thoWest. The name of the igland appears on the pag6s ol the acco-untt of the foreign travellers in different forms. Da Barros in hismap (Dercripcao de relno de Eengalla) shows Sundivia lanhersouth west than ils actual position. ln this maD, the oast-wostcxtcnsion of the island ie shown gir'6t61 than its prosent shape.Thc location of the island in the map ol Van den Broucke is
approximately correct though rhe same map glvec the island almosta lound thape. According to Farya y Souza. Sandwin ir seventyIeagues in lcngrh.3 Caerar Frerlericke (l569 A D) mistakenly men,tiono the axtcnt of spacc between Sandwlp anC Chittagong as120 miles.4
Euiopean travallers of the medieval perlod piaise rhr island forthc fertillty of soil, cheapness of provisions, and laeilitiee of buildingol ships. In the 'ojudgemant" of Caerrr Fredericke, ,.it ls the
1JrsB,xvut (1922),442 S"" supro, p. 473 campor, op. clt., p. 67n4 Purchos, x, 1gl
.-- Historlcal Olaces | 627
fertilest island in all the world."l ln the sixteenth and eeventeenth
centuries the island was a paradise of Fitingi plratcs. The historyol the irland is closely rolated to that of Chittagong.
CHAKRABALA. The Iitaral meaning of Chrkrasala is rhe"abode of the holy chakra." Accordrng to the local Buddhisttradition, the place is attached to the Dharma Chakra of Buddhism.The nama is written as Sacossala, Saccasala rnd Saquecala byManrique and Bocarro respectively.2 ln Rennell's map it is spelledChanskhola.
The existence ol Chakrasala ac early as ths fifteenth conturyhas been referred to in the vaisnava Iiterature. The place ic acso-ciated with many distinguished vai3p6y6 saints during the fifteenthand sixteenth centurieB. Pundarik Vidyanidhi, the grsat vaisnavaeainr and a numbei of his lollowers hailed from chakrasala. Fromtha Portuguese cource of the early sixteenth contury wo cometo know that ihe Tantrik Brahmanas of chakrasala sacrificed ayouro P6rruguese captlve boy ?o rhelr deity These evidenccssugsest rhat the place was a contrs of both Vaisnavism andSaktiem in tho fifroenth and slxteenth centuries. ln thc latci panol the rule ol the Husain shahi dyncety, chakrasala became in-corporared wirh the 'ftingdom' of Khuda Bakhsh Khan.
A nrrmber ol the Portuguele hrstorlana reler to this place lntheir works. De Barros, caetanhoda, Bocarro and othcrs narratooventr that took place in rhe territory of chakrasala during thelirst half of tha sixteenth century. Under the Arakanese rule,Chakrasala formad ona of the admlnlstrative unirc. Accoiding loFr Manrigue, 'vilatas' or Iande in the torritory ol Chakraeah weregranted to the Portuguese sea captalnc in exchange ol thoir cer.vices ol guaiding tha trontier of the kingdom.3
Whilc delining thc geographroal boundary of Chakiaoala, thejolnt editors ol Mrnrique's Travols writE: "lt stiotchos north.east
1 bra.2 l{lonrlquc, l, 8g3 lud.
628 | A History of Ch'ttagongr
to Comilla, south to Halabun near Cox's Bazar and to the east ofChiilagong "l Th" jolnt editors thus gives Chakrasala an arco tooIarge for its actual size. lr is beyond doubr that the place wasmuch bigger than tha pie;ent villaga of the Bama name. Theeditors of Manriquo's Travels include Sacannya lSatkanya) in thaMagh kingdom of Chakrasala. \rVe are inctrined to think rhat theprincipality of Chakrasala during the !rakanese rule comprisedthe entire area between tlre Karnaphuli and the lVlatamuhuri and
bordeied on tho principaliry of Chakaria. Durlng the subsequentMughal period, tho Arakanese principali'y of Chakrasala was brokendown into a numbsr of units lcalled thanas). lt has now bsenreduced to a villago
DIANG lt is one ol the most nridely known places of me-dioval Chittagong. The townsl'rip of Dirng is cituated beiwr:en rhe
hills and the sea shore on tho ]eft b-.nk of the Karnaphuli. 'lho
name Diang or D,anta or Deang. accorCinq to Dr Blochmann, is
derived fro:n e,ither Dakhindanga (soiithern bank of the Karnaphu)i)
or Erahrnandanga.2 The namo Dieng is undoubtedly of non-aryanand rnosl probably sf l\il6rrgoiian origin lts Bengali forpl Deanq
and Sanskritized form Dtvag16ml are m€t with in the medievalBengali works and its Petsianistd form Deogaon is seEn in theA,nJ-Akbori. Under the Afghan rule Deogaon formed one ol rhe
frve territoriai mahals lt has also been known as Bandar sinco
medieval period.
The eeventee nlh century historian Shihabuddin Talish writes:
"i)n the ( farther ) side of tho l(arrraphuli, near the moulh and
closo to the village called Firinqi.bandar, whcre tha Firingipiratel had thair houces."3 tn oersian, bandar means "e landingplace, or quay; a soaporl; a harbour; and somglimes a]so acustom house." 'Io the Portuguess and olher Europeeng the place
was also known as Bendel rvhich is tho European corruptionof arabic term bandar. ln Rennell's map, Bandar Is located in
I Ha.2 1 A s B, xLil ( 1873 1, 2333 Fothyo, p. 206
Historical places | 629
tho sarne pogition where rrtodern Diang stands Tha BengalSurvey [.r1ap, slrsct no 409 shows Bandar on the left benk otthe Karnaphuli almrst on its mourh. All thesa evidences pointout lhat tre lEro places, Diang and Bandar are identical. Theadjoining h ll is known as Diang Pahar. During ths Arakaneseporiod tha namg Diang or Diangs was commonly used butBandar was never forgotten to namo the place.
Fr Fernandez, a Portuguese missionary visiting Diang in1599 A D, mentions the place, as "a town in the pott of
Chittugong."l Referring to the placa Fr Du Jarric writes thatit is "Una Ville sise en ce part do Chatigam." 1 a village near theport of Chittagong ). Van der Haiden deseribes it as "eeno stadtinde h.,,ven van Chatigam " All these descriptions are indicative
o! Diang al foriniiig a suburro of Cnirtagong iown during the Araka-
nesa perioC. ln Van den Brouck's map, tho place is correctlyghown on the ieft ban!< of the Krrnaoh,-ril near its mouth. ,.Robert'g
maD oit rled 'Les lnd s orientales. 1751' in the Bibliotheque Natlon-ale in Paris si'r<t..nss Diang in tho south of Chittagoog on a differ.ent mouiii oI a rivrr 1? the Sankha ). C' Anville's map (!751)at Boctiein Llbrary, Oxford aleo ohows it but in the north ofChittagong. Robert in hjs Crrte du Royaum de Siam, 175f in.serts Dianga. Hermaon Moll's map in the Bodlein shows Diangain the eame position practically as Robert does; Nicholas Vischer,
in his map 'lndae Orientalie' shows Dianga in the south of Chi-rtagong. Finally, in the British Mueeum 'General Maps 52450/1830 s 116' by J R Burton Bennstt, Deputy Post Master General,Bengal, we get Dianga shown on a separate mouth of the Karna.
phuli, which proves that it was still known."2 The place is also
mentioned by Fr Guerreiro, Fr Manrique and other European writers.
During the Mughal period tho place with its adioining aloa was
known as Pargana-e-Diang.
3 g p P, xtv (igl7), 148f.
2 l{ionrique, l, 82n
630 I A Hlrtory ol Chlttagong
ll medicval Ramu was chlefly an Arakanese town, Diang may
ba called in the same oenso a Porlugucs town. During the Ara-
kaneoe poriod it gtsvv to be the principal Portugueoe cettlemenl
in Bengal. The Portuguese called it 'Bcngala' and 'Cidade de
Dianga.' From this time the place began to be known ar Firingi
Bandar, or the poit of the Firingis. lt became the chlel centro
ol the Porluguese piratical aclivities. The lisc and fall of the
Portuguese townshlp of Diang is closely related to the rise and
lall of the Poituguese power in this region. At present few Chris'
tians live thele. But thore is evidence that the Christlan lottlemonlpcrsisted in that locality rs lalo a! the early pan of the nlneleenth
"rntrry.1CHIKARIA. lccording to the local Buddhist tradition, the
place is associated with Chakra or mcre precieely Buddhist Dhar-
machakra and as such became a csntre of Buddhist religion and
culture during the medieval period. In rhr Rojomalo, the place lsmentioned as Chhakarua, De Barros mentions "thg city of Cha-
coiia" a6 ono of the "populatcd ateas" along the coast ol thekingdom ol Arakan and places it under the iurisdiction ol the'Eotado de Codavascam' (ll^o kingdom ol Khuda Bakhsh Khan).Tho narrativea of De Barros give an indication thrt Chakaria wacone of tho potts in the klngdom of Khuda Bakhsh Khan.
The name ol the place in various folms has been inserted onscveral medieval maps. !n the maps ol Sir Thomas Roe and olPhllippi Chetwind, Cheria and Chaiia are respectively shown on thocoast of Chittagong. ln the map of De Berroe, Chacoria is conectlyIocated.ln hls mrp, Pierre Vander (1727 A D) insens a place named
Chera where modern Chakaria standc. but he does not dot it. lnRennell's map tho name of tho place ie written ae Chuckerya.
During the Arakanose rule, Chakatia was made an adminir-trativc unit under thc name of the 'kingdom of Chakarir'. lt waa
bounded by the 'kingdom of Chakrasala'to the noilh and the'kingdom ol Ramu' to the south. lt was conguored by the Mughab la
I a r P, vt (1910),21g.zzo
Hlstorical places I 631
1666 A D, but was abandoned soon aft6r. lt was linally sub-jugatad by ths Mughars in the baginning of the sevontoenth century.
RAMU. The precant sm ll township ol Rrmu noted for itsArakanese architecture and sculpture is romantlcally situated amidmountain Bcon6rv" The pressnt site rougrrly corresoords tothe same in the medieval rrariorJ. The name has been ins-erted in some of the old maps ( oresorved in the Dhaka Museum ).What is insert€d as 'Golfo de Rama' (ot tha gull of Ramu) inPierrs Vander's map is ieally tha Bak khali Bive' on which thqtown etands Var den Brcuck's mac corrctlv locates the city.'Asiae Descriptio lr[6yx l6pensis' f 1666 A D ] insarts Rama tothe north of Arakan Other mros on whlch Ramu is mrrked asa place of imoortance arc d' Anvilr's map, Paris, 1751; NicholasVischera's mao 'lndae Orientalis; Bodlein Librarv maps; and themep by the DeDuty Postmaster General of Bangal, 1852.
Verious sourc6s exDrose differant viawe regarding the orig!nof ihe narne Ramu, Aecording to Buddhlst sourcos the nameRrmu is the surviving trtca of .Ramma', ,Ramyaka. o, Ramya-bhumi' meaning 'the land ol picturesque scenery,'t by whichthc whole of the aiea was once known in lhc past. Dr R BBarua want to indantify Remu with Ramma or Rammanadega otPali eciiptures. 2 According to the joint editore of Manrique,s
Truvels, Ramu ls a corrupt form of 'Raja myo, meaning the kino,otown. 3 The Soktl Songom Tontto refers to a place Ramakshetraby namc as a centrs ol Sakrism.4 This p16"" may be idenr'fiedwith modern Ramkot situatod amid tha picturesque grouping olhills on th6 left bank ol thc Bak khali Rivor. The prosent sitcof Ramkot contains heaor of ancient brlckbats and terracottaplaquas which give indications of the antiquiry of the si!e. A
1 s", ,uDro,
21Asao,3 Manlque, l,4 Roiqmolo, l,
p. 16
xvl (1971), 256
94n. The word myo
85
moanr lown, lDId., p. 9ln.
632 I A History ol Chittagong
large numbor of broken pioces of sculJtures and other relics lioscattered in and around the hillock oa whiclr a Buddhist templa
of later times stands. Theos surviving tracss place Rrmkct in tha
ancient nrap of tho country. ln tho madieval works such as tno
Rojomolo, Alamgirnomo arrd Bengali pulhis Ramu is written as Ranibu.
. Medieval Ramu was petf,tctly an Arakanese town- lt gained
sirategic and arlministrativs impcrtance under the A.rakanese regime.
Tha position of the city on the high road between Chittagong and
Arakan prop€r fitted it to bo the most stiategic placc not only
in the provinca of Chitlagong but in the kingdom of 'trakan as a
whole. The place was so important that the wholo of the A'reka'
nese kingdom wos caliod t;y Ralph Fitch (1583 9t A D) as th,r
kingdom of Ramu and Recon.l The town was known lo lhe Ara-
kanese as Panwa and the governc-rr ol thei town was ca]led as
Pomaja ( < Panwa sa, the eatpr or collector of Panwa) 2 Mantiqus
describes Ramu as "166 shief town in this district (Chittagong)
and the usual seat of the viceroy in-charge."3 Tracec of Araka-
nese burial place are observable near the Bamkot templss.
The Alakanese culture was predominant in Bamu-Coo's Bazar
area and a large number of Buddhist temples, called kiyangs wsre
€rectod during the Arakanese period and after. The architectural
style of thess buildings are essontially Burman and most of the
statues installed in these ternplee w€re cast in Burma.
1 Foster, Rolph Fttch, p.
2 Monrlque, l, 94n
3 wa. p. 276
i
I
26
*Fpendix 1. A Note on the H!storieal places sfffiedieval Chittagong
STTAKUNEA. The place is situated about twenty rniles north
ol Chitiagong city. Ruins and logends relatad to this placa indi-
caie tiiat the pllce is of considerabla antlquity, The presenl narne
Sitakunda appears in tlennel,l's map and in the early British doeu'
rnents. This leads us to think that the name Sltakunda was also
culrerrt during tho Mughal period. Hirldrr Puronos and Tantrik works
mention Chandrasekhar, not S:takunda. The nrme Chandrasekhar
also occurs in ths Chhutikhanl Mohsbhoroto and the RoJomolo. Tltis
indicatss that the name SitokunCa is preceded by that of Chandra-
sekhar to denoto tire pl rce in the f if teenth csntury. The chieftemple, CeCicatecj lo tho worship of Chandraqath, is situated on ap:ak narned after the deity. The name Chandranath is associated
with Natha culr whrch onco sweFt the district. Buddhists of Chi-
ttagoilg regard Chandranath as a sacred place. Ruinc of BuddhistMahayanic deities havo been unearthed n€ar tho present temple ofChandranath. With the decline of Buddhism in the sub-ontinentths reputation of ?hs place as a secred Buddhist spot also declined.The place became 6 sllsnghold ol l,larhe cult along with sucholher placo ae Adinath When Nathism bagan to ehow inclinariontoward Saivism the place also b:gan to lose its preeminent position
as a stronghold of Nathism and the place became one ol rtre re-puted pithas of Saiva and Sakta cults. The place begart to be ramedGhandrasekhafwhich etands as a name lor Siva. The sacred plrcoof Falamatiowor, a journey to which place was an act of religiousdsvotion during ths days of king Dhanyamanikya, har baen iden.
tified wirh Sitskunda.l During rhe Mughal period ths placo wasueurped by the sannyasis belonging to Ramayat sect" Sinca thattime the place hac been known as Silakuoda, obviously named
attcr Rama's coflsort Sita. The Rama.Sita temple and lhe well
1 See supro, p. 1 6l
626 I A Hisrory ot Chirtagong
(kunda) of Sita commemoratc thls event. The usurpatton ol theRamayats, howevsr, failed to produce any permanent result in a
place already eaturated with Tantric cult. Saivism was resrored
to its former posltion during the post Mughal period. The imagesof Rama-Sita temple wore destroyed and the temole was left deso-
Iate and it gradually fell in ruins. The name Sitakunda. howeverremain in existence to remind us ol its colourful histo'y. It is saiC
that Naib Mahasingh, lha MughaI administrator ol the district
made the place hlc off'cial headquarters. The fam:us hot spring
ol Barabkunda is situated only 3 few mlles apa't.
EANDWIP. The lsland ls formed bv rich alluvium carried by
the jolnt flow of the Padma and the Mcghna Jamas Wise most
appropriately writes: "(The island) is probably the oldest and most
pormaneni 6f the grouo which rhe mightv river is foi ever building
and deetroying."l The namo Sandwip is supposed to ha\'F bcen
detived from liwarnadwipa or Suvarnadwipa which ie connotatively
rela?ed to 'Chrysa'2 or gol{+n lan.l of the classical writers 6l the
West. The name ol the ialand appesre on the paqes ol lho scco-
unts of ihe foreign travellers in different forms. Da Ba'rns in his
map (Dercripoao de relno de Bengrlla) shows Sundivia larther
south west than its actual position. ln this mao, the cast-w€st
cxtcnsion of the island ie shown gic6tsl than its prosenl shaDe.
Thc localion of the islend in the map of Van den Broucke is
approximately correct though the same map glves the island almost
e lound ahape. According to Farya y Souza. Sandwin ir seventy
leagues in lcqgth.3 Caecar Frerlericke (1569 A D) mistakenly men-tione the extcnt of epacc between Sandwlp enC Chittagong as
120 miles.4
Euiopean travellere of the madieval perlod piaise thr island forthc lertillty of soil, cheapness of provisions, and lacilities of buildinsol ships. In the 'ojudgement" of Caesar Fredericke, "it Ia the
1 1 A s B, xvnt (1922), 442 S." supro, p. 473 campoa, op, clt., p. 67n4 Purchas, X, 137
Historlcal olaces | 627
lertilest island in all the world."l ln rhe sixteenth and aeventeenth
centuries the island was a paradise ol Fitingi p!rates. The history
oi rhe itland is closely rclated to that of Chittagong.
CHAKRASALA. The literal meaning of Chrkrasala is the"abode of the holy chakra." Accordtng to the local Buddhisttradition, the place is attached to tho Dharma Chakra ol Buddhism.
The name is written as Sacossala, Saccasala rnd Saquecala by
;gl667iquo and Bocarro rospectivoty.2 tn Rennell's map it is apelledChanskhola.
The existence of Chakrasala ac early as tha fifteenth century
has been referred to in the vaisnava literature. The place ir aoso-
ciated with many distinguished vai3nsy6 saints during the fifteenthand eixteenth centurio3. Pundarik Vidyenidhi, the great vaisnavaeaint and a nurnber of hir lollowers hailed from Chakrarala. Fromth6 Porruguese cource of the early sixteenlh contuiy wo cometo know that tho Tantrik Brahmanas of chakrasala sacrificed ayourq Portugucse captlve boy to lheir deiry These evidencossugqest rhat the place was a contie ol both Vaisnrvism andSaktism in ths fifreenth and slxteenth centuries. ln thc latc; partol rhe rule of the Husain Shahi dynasty, Chakrasala became in-corporalcd with the 'kingdom' of Khuda Bakheh Khan.
A number of the Poiluguero historlane refer to this place [ntheir works. De Barros, Caetanheda, Bocarro and othcrs narratcaventr that took placc in the territory ol Chakrasala during thelirst half of the sixteenth century. Undcr the Arakanese rule,
Chakrasala formod one ol the adminlstrative unirc. Accoiding toFr Manrique, 'vllalas' or Iande in the torritory ol Chakraeah weiegranted to the Porluguese sea captalnc in exchange ol thsir ser-
vicec of guaiding tho frontler of the kingdom.3
Whilc delining thc geograph:oal boundary of Chakiacala, thejolnt editors ol Mrnrique's Travels write: "lt otietches north-east
1 wa.2 Monrtque, l, 893 tou.
628 | A History of Ch'ttagong
to Comilla, south to Halabun near Cox's Bazar and to lhe east ofChinagong "l Tn" joint editors thus gives Chakrasala en ar€a toolarge lor its actual size. lt is beyond doubt that the place wasmuch bigget than tho pie.;ent villaga of the oamo name. The
editors ol Manrique's Travels include Sacannya (Satkanya) in tha
Magh kingdom of Chakrasala. \Aie are inclined to think lhat theprincipality of Chakrasala during the !rakanese tulc comprised
tho entirc area between llre Karnaphuli and the lVlalamuhuri and
bordered on the principality of Chakaria. During lhe subrequentMughal period, lhe Arakanese principali y of Chakrasala was broken
down into a numbsr of units lcalled thanas). lt has now bsen
reduced to a villago
DIANG lt is ona ol the most widely known places of me-
dioval Chirtagong. The township of Disng is situated betwe en the
hills and the sea shors on '.h€ left b-.nk of the Karnaphuli. 'lhe
name Diang or D,anta or Deang. accorCinq to Dr Blochmann, is
derived fro:n either DakhindangB (southern bank of tho Karnaphuli)
or Brahmaridanga.2 The namo Dieng is undoubtedly of non-nryanand most probably sf fu'lsrrgolan oiigin lts Beng;li form Deans
and Sanskritized folm Devegr;J6it aro met with in the medieval
Bengali works and its Persianistd fotm Deogaon is sern in theAtnJ.Akbori. Under the Afghan rule Deogaon formed ona of the
frve territoriai mahals It has also been known as Bandar sinco
medieval Period.
Tho seventee nth centuly historian Shihabuddin Talish writes:
"i]n the ( fartner ) eide of tha l(arnaphuli, near the mouth and
closo to the village called Firingi. bandar, whero tha Firingi
pirater had their houces."3 ln oersian, bandar means "a landingp'lace, or quay; a saaporl; a harbour; and somglimes also a
custom house." lo the Portuguese and olher Europeens the place
r,vas also known as Bendel rryhich is tho Europoan corruption
of Arabic term bandar. ln Rennell's map, Bandar is located in
I Ma.21ASB,xLil(1873),2323 Fothyo, p, 206
Historical places I 629
lhe sarns position where tnodern Diang stands The BengalSurvey ['lap, sirect no 409 shows Bandar on the left bank ollthe Karnaphuli almrst on its mourh. All these evidences pointout that trs turo places, Diang and Bandar are identical. Theadjoining h ll is known as Diang pahar. During ths Arakanesgperiod tha namg Diang or Diangs was commonly used bulBandar was never forgotten to namo the place.
Ft Fetnandez, a Portuguese missionary visiting Diang in1599 A D, mentions the place, as "a town in thc port of
Chittagong.''l Refering to the placa Fr Du Jarric writes thatit is "Une Ville sise en co port do Chatigam." 1 a village near thaport of Chittagong ). Van der Haiden describes it as "eene stadtinde hrivan t,an Chatigam " All these descriptions are indicativeo! Dianq al forining a subur'o of Cnirtagong iown during the Araka-nosa period. ln Ven den Brouck's map, tho place is correctlyehown on tha ieft ban!< of the K:rn,:oh,-ril near its mouth. ,.Robert,g
map st rled 'Les lnd s ori,entales. l75l' in tho Bibliotheque Nation-ale in Pa;is sho...cs Di;rng in the south of Chittagong on a differ.ent mouih of a rivcr 1 ? the Sankha ). C' Anville's map (!751)at Boc,lein Llbra,y, O>:ford also shows it but in ths north ofChittagong. Robert in his C:rte du Royaum de Siam, 17bl' in.oerts Dianga. Hermaon Moll's map in the Bodlein shows Diangain the same positaon practically as Robart does; Nicholas Vischer,in his map 'lndao Orientalis' shows Dianga in the south of Chi.rtagong. Finally. in the British Muoeum 'General Maps 52450/1830 s 116' by J R Burton Bennett, Deputy Post Master General,Bengal, we get Dianga shown on a separate mouth of the Karn6-
phuli, which proves that it v./as still known."2 The place is alsomentioned by Fr Guerreiro, Fr Manrique and other European writers.During the Mughal period tho place with its adjoining arca was
known as Pargana-e-Diang.
3 a p P, xtv (rgl7l, 148f.
2 Monrique, l, 82n
630 | A Hlrtoly ol Chlttagong
ll msdicval Ramu was chlefly an Atakaneso town, Diang rnay
bc called in the same 8en6o a Portugucw town. During the Ara-
kaneoe poriod it grew to be the principal Portuguese eettlemenl
in Bengal. The Portuguese called it 'Bengala' and 'Cidade dE
Dianga.' From this time the place began to be known ar Firingi
Bandar, or the port of the Firingis. lt became the chlel cento
ol the Portuguese piratical aclivities. The risc and fall of the
Portugu€se townshlp of Diang is closely related to the rise and
lall of the Poituguese power in this region. At pteaent few Chris-
tians live there. But thore is evidence that tho Christlan rcttlemontpcrsisted in that locality as late a. the early patt of the nineteenlh
"rntury.lCHAKARIA. lccording to the local Buddhist tradltion, the
place is associated with Chakra or mcra precieely Buddhist Dhar-
machakra and as such becarne a centre of Buddhist religion andculture during the medieval period. In rhr Rojomolo, the place lsmentioned as Chhakarua. De Barros mentions ,,the city of Cho-coria" a6 one of the "populatcd areas" along the coasl ol thekingdom ol Arakan and places it under tho iurisdiction of the'Ectado de Codavascam' 1tl'e kingdom ol Khuda Bakhsh Khan).Thc narrativeo of De Barroe give an indication thlt Chakaria wasone of tho polts in the klngdom of Khuda Bakhsh Khan.
The name ol the place in varioug folms has been inserted onscveral medieval maps. ln the marrs of Sir Thomas Roe and otPhllippi Chetwind, Cheria and Chaiia 6re respectively shown on thocoast ol Chittagong. ln the map of De Barros, Chacoria is conectlyloceted.ln his mep, Pierre Vander (1727 A D) inserts a place named
Chera where modern Chakaria standr, but he does not dot it. lnRsnnell's map tho name of tho place ie wtitten ae Chuckerya.
During the Alakanese rulo, Chakatia was made an adminir.trativc unit under ths name ol the 'kingdom of Chakarie'. lt walbounded by the 'kingdom of Chakrasala' to the noilh and the'kingdom ol Ramu' lo the south. lt war conquered by the Mughab ln
I'a I P, v! (1910), 21g.zzo
Hlstorical places t 631
1666 A D, but was abandoned soon after. tt was finally sub.jugated by the Mughars in the beginning of the ssvonrsenrh cenrury.
RAMU. The prosant sm ll township ol Rrmu noted for irsAiakanese architecture and scurpture is romantrcaily situat.d amidmountain Bceneiy" The presont sire roug\ly corresDoqds tolhe same in the medieval rrrriod. The name has been ins-arted in soms of the old maps ( oreservsd in the Dhaka Museum ).What is lnserted as 'Golfo cle Rama, (or the gulf of Ramu,t lnPierre Vander's mao ie ieaily tha Bak khali Biver on which thqtown stande Var den Brcuck's meo corrctlv locatss the city.'Asiae Descriptio Nova lmpsnsis' r1666 A D 'l insarts Rama rothe north of Arekan Other maos on whlch Ramu is mtrked asa place of imoortance arrl d' Anvilo's map, Paris, 17Bl; NicholasVischera's mao 'lndaq Orientalls; Bodlein Librarv mcps; and themtp by the Deputy Postmaster General of Bangal, 1852.
Various sourcos 6xpross different viawr regarding the orig!nof the na'.ne Ramu, Aecording to Buddhlst sources the nameRamu is the surviving trtco of ,Ramma,, ,gamyaka. o, Ramya-bhumi' meaning 'the land of picturesque scenery,,l by whichthc whole of ths area was oncs known in lhc past. Dr R BBarua want to indentify Remu with Ramma or Rammanadega otPali eciipturas. 2 According to the joint editoro of Manrique,sTravels, Rrmu ls a corrupt form of ,Raja myo, meaning the kin',otown. 3 The soktl songom Tontto refers to a prace Ramakshetraby namc as a conlro ol Sakrism. This place may be idenr.fiedwith modern Ramkot gituated amid tho picturesque grouping olhills on the left bank of thc Bak.khali Rivar. The presenr sitcof Ramkot contains heaos of ancient brlckbats and terracottaplaques which give indications of the antiquiry of the site. A
1 See suDro, p. I 62!nsBD,xvt (1971),2s63 Monrlque, 1.94n. The word myo msan, lown, lbtd., F. gln.4 Rojqmolo, l, 85
632 I A History ot Chittagong
Iarge number of brol<en pioces of scul,rtures and other relics lisscattered in and around the hillock on which a Buddhist 1s6,ple
of later tirnes slands. Theoe surviving tracss place R:mkct in tha
. ancient map of the country. ln tho madroval works such as rno
Rojomalo, Alomgirnomo arrd Bengali puthis Ramu is wriuen as Ranrbu,
. Medieval Ramu was perfoctly an Arakanese town. lt gained
sirategic and administfative impcrtance under the A.rakanese regime.
The position of the city on the high road between Chittagong and
Arakan proper fitted it to be the mosl strategic place not only
in the province of Chittagong but in thc kingdom of trakan as a
whole. The place was so important that the whols of the A'raka'
nese kingdom was calisd by Ralph Fitch (1583 9l A D) as th.'kingdom of Ramu and Reoon.l The town was known lo the Ara-
kaness as Panwa anrl the governor ol thei town was called as
Pomaja ( < Panwa sa, the eater or collector of Panwa) 2 Manriqus
describas Ramu as "the chief town in this district (Chittagong)
and the usual seat of the viceroy in-charge."3 Tracec of Araka-
nese burial place are observable n6ar the Bamkot templss.
The Alakanese culture was predominant in Bamu-Co.'s Bazar
area and a large number of Buddhist lemples, called kiyangs wore
erected during the Arakanese period and after. The architectural
style of these buildings are esscntlally Burmsn and most of the
statuos installed in these templee were cast in Burma.
1 Foster, Rolph Fltch, p. 26
2 Monrlque, l, 94n
3 wa. p. 276
Appendix 2. Medieual City ot Chittegong
The port town of Ghittagong, rhe commercial capital of Bang-Iadesh, like all orher cities ond towns on earth gains or loosesfortune with the change ol political circumstances. The origin ofthe city of Chittagong mems rooted in the ancient period. FromTaranath's account it is known rhat ,,Chatigrama was an importantcity of Bengal in that early period lrhe pala period).,,l Under rhelndepsndent sultanare of Bengal it was nor only the gre.t€st portof Bengal but one of the prrncipal seaporto of the subconrinent.Its importance in the trade and commsrce ol Bengrl during thst timecan be ascertained from the accounts of the Portuguese chroniclers.Dom Joao dc Leyffi. d portuguese siyilg6rvant (1b18 A D), men.tions Chittagong cs ,,a big and a populous city.,,2 ln the estima-tion of De Barros, ,,Chittagong is the most famous and wealthycity ol the kingdom ol Bengal, on account of its port, at whichmeets the traffic of all that eastern regi6p.,,3 Referrrng to ths por_tuguese authoritles, campos writes rhat ,'when the portuquose cameto Bengal, Chittagong was its chief port, and rhe main garewayto the royal capital Gaud.,.{ Under the Arakaneso rggims, ,,thscity of Chatigan," according to Fr Manrique. was . a place of thefirst importancc and the masrer key ro rhe wholo Magh Empire..,5some information about tho slzo and extenr of the town harre beenbtought to our knowledge by the foreign rravellers and nativehistorians. According to thc author of rhe Ain-l Akbori, Chittagongwas "a large city...and an excellent po,t.,,6 Caeear Fredericke 1l c6gA D) doacribos Chittagong as .,a groat herbour or port.,,7 A Chri-
6 iln, lr, rg77 Purchos, x, 1 35
634 I A Hlrtory ol Chlttagong
etian micsionary while visiting':'g6ittagong in 1598 A D relers toit as "the great harbour and town."l De Laet (1593-1649 A D)
praicer Chittegong cs "a fine town" ol Bengal Accolding to Lln'
echoten, it was "the chiefe towno of Bengala."2 Fr Feinao Guerreiro
(1602 A D) makes a rcmark that Chitlagong is "one ol the principal
eities and portc of Bengal...a very rich and busy city."3 A Dutch
factor whilc visiting Arakan rpeaks of Chittagong as the hoofstadt
or chiel town.4 Nasrullah Khan, a poet of tha Mughal period,
writer that the town was of great eize previous to his age's
According to tho Rlyoz us Solotln, "lslamabad, alias Chatgaon, ltom
tncicnl times has been a targe town."6 All these remarks and ob-
tervrtions ouggest that the town was of conslderable size and
lmportance during the Arakanese period. The townehip of Chitta-gong scems to possess great vitality. lt was ravaged and destro-yed by thc invaders and pirates for several times but each timeit emetged lrom the otate of destructjon with former grandeur. ltscommerclal importance, however, began to decline during theMughal period becaure of its insecurc position noar the Arakanese
frontici, its distance from rhe provincial capital, rapid rise ofCalcutta port and the decline of mercantilo activitios of the Euiopean
{rlderr.
The geographical posltion of the medieval township ol Chi.tttgong can be determined from some sixteenth lnd rovontecnth
centuries maps and charts, preserved in tho Dhaka grr6um and
elsewhere. The maps ol De Barros (1540 A D), Blaev, Vln den
Brouck (1660 A D) place Chatigan or Xatlgan on rhe northernbank of tho Karnaphuli almost at its mouth. ln GastalCi'r map
t a p P,2, xtv(1917), l4g2 or,H l. p 2043 Guerreiro, pp. 185, 2384 Moreland, From Akbor to5 q;oq'+11q rrI rlET
Sohltyo Pgrlshod ?otrlko,6 Riyoz, p. 41
Aurongzlb, p. 46n.
tEq cqrccqcl ctc. qlextra number, 1309 B $, p. 39
Medieval City ol Chitrcgong | 638
(1561 { D), Cattigrn (Chittagong) ie shown ro the cast of thoeastero branch of an unidentilied rlver. The lndia orientalis (lsg7A D) locues Catigan ( Chitragong ). De Laet ( tS93-t6C9 A D )correctly locates chittagong ,'230o north of tho Equator.,,l VanLinss6sl.r ! I598 A D) gtares the posirion of the town as follows:"FIom this river ( ? rhe Karnaphuli) €asrward lilty mileo lyerh rhotowno of chatigam."2 Needloss to say thar rhe informarion suppliedby our traveller abour the location of the town tacks confirma-tion' Rejecting the evidence ol tinschoten, rhe authore of rhe Hobson-
lobson writes that there is "no roason to supposo rhat Linschotonhad himsell been to Chitragong.',3 !n 1727 A D Alexander Hamil,ton correctlv places Chittagong ,,about fifty leaguas below Dacca.',4
To defend a srrategically and a commercially important placeliko chitragong, !n establishment of come kind of delensive workrwas felt necossary by the rulcre of thc country. The existenceof a fort in chirtagong datos brck ro rhe days of the tndependcnrSultanate of Bengal. According to tho Rojamalo, the pathan fonin Chittagong was oo strongly built that on one occacion thcinvading Tripura army lalled in c.ptuling lt svcn alter r Gon-linued geizure of tong eight monthc.6
Ihe Arakanese fort togelher with ito militaty onclosuiec wal"in strength", in lhe opinion ol Talirh, ,'llvals thc rampan of Alexan-der."6 Nothing remains of this masoive rtructurc becaurc of iroburning and pulling down by the invading Mughal amy in 1666A D. Ihe "large, wide and decp tank"7 on thc nonh .ido otrhe fort may be identified wirh modem Laldighi but rhe wido
1 D" Le.t, op. ctt,, p. 7a2 ot, H l, p. 2043 Ma.4 tua.5 See supro, p. 1946 Fothyo, p, l8t7 tou.
636 | A History of Chittagong
channel inside the fon has now been rcduced to a nartow waterpassage to carry olf liquid discharges and supellluous wat6r otthe nearby hills. The ruins of the foil cannot be recognised atpresent owing ro th6 drastic alterations that took place duringthe subsequent petiod.
The outer enclosure of the foil, according to Talish's naration,connecled atl the hills, high or low encircling the Laldighi tank.Talirh writes that, ' tho lower hills have been heaped over withearth, and raised to the level of the higher on"s."1 H" furtheretates : "All these hills have been scarped cylindrically, fortilied,and named tho fort (of Chatoaon)."2 tt appeats from the narra.tion ol Talrsh that the outer wall, which was probably bullt bypiling of earth, joined rhe modern Kotwali Hill, Badarpatti Hill,Jamal Khan Hill, Rangmahal Hilt, Paradise Hill, Tempest Hill.Fa ry Hrll aod olowly descended in rhe plains near the river bank.Modern Bandcl Road plobably aerved as a passage that connecredthe rivel baok with the main ontranco into the fort. The residenceol th€ Arakanese viceroy of Chittagong was siruated within theforl. The principal Buddhisr temple was situared on tho RangmatralHill lrom whcre a large image of Lord Buddha has recenrly beendug out.
The Mughal piovince of Chittagong was exposed to rhedanger of attacks by the Arakaneso artd European piratoi Todefend the port town from the anack of the enemy, the Mughalselthel erected a new fort near the otder Arakanesc fort or rebuiltrhe demolished Arakanese fort. The existence ol the Mughal forrin the town as late as thr time of the cession is conlirmed byrhe Earthquake Report in 1i62 A D.3 At present no tiaco of thetort is found except the name of Andarkilla ( < andar i qillah or in,torior Part of the fort).
1 tbtd., p. lBo2 tbrd.3 / r s B, xrt (t843), rg45
Medieval City ol Chltugong 1637
Many ol the place namor of the ptosent day town lncludingits cuburben aroas date back to thc Mughal period. The place
namos such as Jamal Khan, Ghat Farhad Beg, Rahmalganj, Fidai-
Khan Bag ouggost that tha placos weie either settlcd by or narned
alter soms Mughal olficers. These oponymous places not only
lurnish a rough idea of the town planning of the Mughal town;
ship of Chittagong but also indicate the extenl ol the town during
that period.
tt may be suggested that the Mughal township ol Ghittagong
(nijshahr) comprised roughly the mahallat now under the iurisdic'rion of Kotwali. Korwal 1lir. the lord of a kot or fort) wae rhe
chiel vigilance olficer in the Mughal urban administration; there-
fore, the area undcr the Kotwali must havg formed the substantial
portron of the Mughal city ol Chittagong
The traces of residential quatters ol the faujdal and othet
grandees for example diwans, bakhshls, naibs, deroghao and tho peo'
ple ol rank and lile cannot be satisfactorily located. Most probably,
their quarters were localed within the fort and its adioining area.
It was a practico al that timo that tho qanungog either lived
perronally in the town or stationed their agents ln lhe court of
rhe hujdar in connexion with the revenue Itansactions.l As Chirta'
gong was a strategrc lrontier town of the Mughal Empire, a largrnumber of soldiers had to be garrisoned in the town alea. Business
magnares 3no polly traders lived in the lown ln connexion withtheir commercial purposes. Sio the inhabltants of the town con'
sisted of heterogcneouc classes aod interestr.
The chief re:ldential areas in the town duling the Mugholperiod wore as followr: Pathantooly sugg€3ls the area inhabitad
by the Pathana, Mughalpura was named atter the residential area olsome Mughal olfrcers. The Portuguece and tho nativc Chrirtians
have since thc Arakanese period been living ncar the marginal
area of the river. fhe Fothyo-l-lbbrlya gives evidence of the exis-
tence of the Poltugugse sottlemonl in tho area complicing modern
I Hunter, op cit., p. 112
638 | A Hietory of Chittagong
Pdrharghata and Firingibazar Mahallas.t The place is still th6principal residential area of the native Christians. Holisahar is
Bengali corruption ol Persian haveli-i-sahar or disrrict headquarters.Hazaritola has bssn named after a hazari mrnsabdar whose resi-dential quarter was 6ituated there.
Medieval religious edilces throw light on the se ttled area
of rhe city at that time. Mosr of rhese buiidings are loundwithin a radius ol one and half miles from Andarkilla. The exis-tence of a large number of tne Mughal religious structures inChiwkbazar area tostifies to the lact fhat the area grew to beone of the most crowded residen'iel areas ol the city during thelate Mugnal period.
The prlncipal mosquer in the town during rhe Mughal period
wele Jarne Sangin mzsqJs, Oadam Mubara'< mosque, \Aiali Khan'smosque and Han,zr Khan's mosque. The E dgah or tne place ofolfering Eid prayer in the town was situatad at Agrabad, rho foun-dation of which is ascribed to Nawab Hasan Ouli Khan.2 The
chiet l-llndu ternples anC a Sikh Gurudwara are situated jn Chawl.-bazt,
Ths chief business contre of the ciry wai whar hao since his-torian Bacarro's time (l7th century) baen named Bandel,3 toca.led between thc fort and the river. Modern Bandel area has baenthe chiel seet of trade in the city since medierral period. lt maybe imagined that merchants of distant places anchored their ehipe
in the river alld galhored in this placa for purchase of and sale
of commodities. Native retailers erected stalls in thie place andexposcd their merchandise for sale'
Market places lor the daily necessaties can be recognlzedby the places surnamgd as grnj, bazar, hat ctc. The lollowlngmarket plac)s owo thsir origin to tlre Mughal period. Chawk-
1 See su1ro, g. 3352 Tortkh, p. 883 Bo"aro mantions
Chatigao, vlde,
the Bendal (9 Pe.eian bandar or mart) deH. /, p. 58
Medieval City of Chirtagong | 639
baz:r (principal market ol the town), Dewanbazar, Dewanhar(named after one or more dewans), Rahamatgani (either namedalter or establighed by Faujdar Rahamatul'ah Khan), Bakhshirhat(either named after or established by an anonymous bakhshi), Firin-
The chief stroets ol the city were Dewan Bazar Chandanpurastr€et eonnecting Andarkilla and Chawkbrzrr and Bandel-Firingi Bazar
street connocting Andarkilla and the rivor bank.
Tho exisience of some ghats or naval stopping places on lheriver bank oates back te the Mughal period. Ghat Farhad Beg
commemorates the services ol Farhad Eeg as a faujdar ol Chi-
tlagong. This ghat in true sense of the lorm has now been extinct
cwing to tho shrinking back of lhe liver. The existence of Chaktaighat, situated near the confluence of thc Chaktai Khal and the
Karnaphuli dates back to tho Mughal period Saor Ghat lprincipalghat) gained importance with tho decadence of other rwo ghats
aso result of the change of river courEo. Patharghata has come
into exisrence since ths Mughal period.4
The city had aome dlghio or ressrvoirs ol still water. Some
o{ them wero of natutal formation, others were artificiarly fo'-rned by embanking ono or two sides. The excavalion of oorns
dighis especially thoee adjoining to medieval masjidr and olhcr
typas of religior.rs odifices owe to the pe rsons desirous of pet'
I fhe Eorthquoke Report' (l A S 8, Xll (1S43), 1045) rnentions thie
place.
2 S P ?, Extra Number, 1309 B S, p. 39, The place cannot be preci
sely located.
3 s.d"n Survey Map
4 Th" nams Pathatghata occurs in the 'Earthquake Report, 1762,'
(J AS B, Xll (1843), 1044) and in the Early Blitish Records.
i
i
II
t{t
IiI
.j(I
l
640 I A Hletory ol Chlttagong
forming chaiitable works. Such dighis as Laldighi,l Ashkrr Khan'sdighi, Kamaldaha (vulgarly callod Kaldah near Wali Khan'smarjid and Radhamadhab temple) etc. provided the city dwell-ere with watcr for drinking and bathing.
Two of the most notoworthy spots of the town were JahanNuma2 and Bag Moniiam. Thc formar spot has besn referred toin thc tongnamo of poet Narrullah Khan. ll saemr that this wasthe Mughal namc ol modern Fairy Hill. The poet states thrt a
cot wts erecred by lhe governor of Chitta3ong oil ths top olthe hill from where unobrtructed space of great cxtent could be
scen by bare eye. Bag Monirrm wa6 a garden or pleasurercsoit built by Dewan lVloniram adjacent to his residence. Thegentle flowing rlver, the rushing streemlets, the emarald groen
hills and man made gardens and reservoirs must have lent beautyand enchantment to this easternmost Mughal city.
1 Tnir Is probably tho British name of the celebrated Mughaldishi.2 cct T{rtortil "rr Bs1 ,so {r{RiI
tqtq'rqo u0src'rts,l ...
et tflts qa;"fr{ qpt ;rrTl QGi.d ;{rcqafl <tc ffi'c{ <{; [rrt I
qt S P P, Extia Number, 1309 B S, p. 39,
)
I
I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ln the selected bibliograohy only those works which havebeen most helpful in wriring the book are listod. Orher sourcesare cited in the footnores.
Original Sources- Arabic and persian
Abul Fazl, Allami. Ain-i Akbori.3 vols. Vol. i, rrans. H Btrochmann.Calcutta: Bi'dliotheca lndica. 187? and 1877 Vols. 2 and 3trans. H S Jarrott, Calcutta 1891. Jarrett,s translarion of vols2 and 3 has been rovised and further annot^tecr by J N sarkar.Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society. 1g49 and 1948. R+o,intedby Oriental Books Reprinr Corporarion, New Delhi, l97g Thisvaluable book may rightly be called an encyclopaedia of medi_eval lndia.
Colendor of Perslqn Correspondence, 8 vols. Government of lndia
Hlstory of lndio os told by its own Historions, ed. H M Elliot andJ Dowson. 8 vols. London, 1867 1877. This wo'k is one ofthe most imporrant collection of source books translated fromArabic and Persian originals.
lbn Battuta, Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Abu Allah al Lawatiat Tanji. Rohelo or frovels in Asio ond Afrtco tranr H A R
Gibb. London: The Broaclway Travellers, Rourlege I KeganPaul ttd, 1953. Ibn Battuta, the calebrated Moroccan lrave.ller entered rhe kint dom of Sonargaon thlough the port townof Sadkawan which is generally idenrilied with Ch,tragong Thetraveller has left an interesring account about the polirical
642 | A Htstory ol Chltragong
and economic condition ol the kingdom of Sonargaon, whichincluded Chittagong.
lslamabrdi, Maulvi Hamidullah Khan Bahadur. Ahodtth ol Khwontn
or Tarlkh.i-Chotgom. Calcuttae Mazharul Ajaeb, 197t. MvHamidultrah Khan, a scholar, poat and sincere invostigator wastho tirs? Chittagonian lo write a history of the disrricr. Although his work lacks methodical ireatment of historical deta.ils, it ia valuable for more than one reason. First, he faith-fullv collected the available traditions and hearsay evidencesrelating ro tho histo:y of Chittagong Secondly. he describesthe ruined sitcs, but lor which they would have been forgo-tten. Thirdly, the table which contains the names of theMughal faujdars and other officers with thoir periods of ser-vices is valuable for us in reconstructing the history ol Chi-ttagong under Mughal rule. Lastly, the book contains an 8cc-ount of some Muslim and Hindu arisrocraric fanilies ln short,the book supplies a Iot of informarion regarding rhe historyof lChittagong.
Kozirn, Muhammad. ,Qiomglrnomoh. This useful book records theMughal conquest of Chittagong in detail. When Fothyo-l-tbbriyo,
our chief source regerding the Mughal conquest of Chittagongabruotly atopo iust after the cepture of Chatgaon fort, Atom-
glrnomah appears as the principal source of infolmation aboutthe €vents that followed. The porrion necessary for us hasbeen translated by J i,l Sarkar in the (tudles in Aurangzib,s
Reign and A Salam in his edite d work on the Rlyoz-us.Solottn.
Khan, Saqi M'rstad. Moothlr-i-AlamEiil, ltan,s. J N Sarkar Calcutta :
Asiatic Society of Bengal, t 947
Nathan, Mirza. lShitab Khan). Bohorlston i-Ghoibi, 2 vols. trans.M I Borah. Gauhati : Government of Assam, 1936. !t is avery useful work regarding the political events in the firstquarter of the soventoenth cantury. lt records somg of thecontemporary events, lor example, the lnvasions ol the Mughalc
Bibliography ! 643
and the Arakanese in each other's teruitory. The faithfulaccount of the events undoubteoly deserve admiration,
Salim, Ghulam Husain. Rtyoz us Sqlotin, trans Maulvi Abdus Salam.Delhi : ldarah-i- ddabiyat.i-Delli, 197S. 't his original work con-tains the narrative of tho political events interrelared withsocial condition of medieval Bengal.
Talish, Shihabuddin Ahmad. Fathyo-i lhhriyo Supplemenrary texrin Bodlein Library, Oxford. The portion necessary for us hasbeen translated by J N Sarkar in the Studies in Aurangzio.s Reign.It is an extremely valuable book as a contemporary recordof the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. There were very few medi-eval lndian historians who had such keen insight and won-derful geographical knowledge of the countries about whichthey were writing. The book throws light on muslim conqu-est of Chitlagsng. Arakanese administration in Cnittagong andfinally, the Mughal conquest sf Chittagong. Besides, the booksheds light upcn the Portuguese aotivities and their manneroand rnorals in Arakan-Chittagong region.
rrcoties, Engogements ond sonods, vol. i, ed. Aitchison, lt containsthe agreement between Nawab Mir oesim and the East IndiaCompany by which Ghittagong was ceded to the latter.
Original Sources_ Bengali
Bonglo Frochin Puthir viboron, ed. Munshi Abdul Karim sahityaVisherad. Celcutta : Bangiya Sahitya Parishadr tt contains anumber of puthis written by the local poets.
Brindavan Dag. Choitonyo Bhogovoto, The book is of specialimportance with rospect to our own study as it throws lighton the biography of some vaisnava eaints of mediaval Chitta-gong, who played a very remarkable role in the Sri Chaitanya movement.
644 i A History of Chirtagong
Kasem, Etim. "Aora De Barros prasasti," Bongta Acodemy pouiko,
1365 B S. This oulogisric puthi, edited and annorared byAhmad Snar,f, prrmarrly deals wrrh a Portuguese tamily Iivingat Fatrkchhari u. z during the later part of tho eightoenthceniury lr also mentrons sorne Mughal administrative posts anda number of zamindar families belonging to the period.
Kaviraj. Krishnadas. Chgttonyo Choritomrito
Khan, Daular Wazir Bahram. Loili Mojnu, ed. Ahmad Sharit. Dacca:Bengali Academy, 1957
Khan, Muhammad. Moqtul Husoin. Fragments of this work are quo-ted in Banglo Prochtn Puthir Viboran, paft I and Bongiyo SohltyoParishot Potrrko addl. no, 1310 B S. The work contains twogenealogical tables, the one relating to poer's ancestor andthe otner relating to a lineage of pirs. These two genealogicaltables which refer to some historical persons have been dis.
. cussed by a hmad Sharif in th€ Soh,ryo potriko, 1369 B S,Abdul Karim in the Sohiryo Potriks, 1371 B 6, and SukumarSen in Bonglo Sohtyer ltihos.
Bangia Sahitya Samiti, University of Chirtagong, part !x, 139tB S. The author. a native of Chittagong while urging rheMuslims to abide by the prescriptions and prohibitions, g!vesa vivrd description of the condrtion of the contemporary societyand addiction of his correligionists to non-lslamic practices.
The book ls of immense value regarding the study of the mid-eighteenth century social lrfe of the common people ol Chittagong'
Long, Reverend James. "Analysis of the Bengali poam Rajamalaor chroniclos of Tripura,' I A S B, vol, 19, 1BS0
Nandi, Srikar Mohobkoroto-Aswomedhoporvo, popularly called Chhuti
Khooi Mohobhorotd.eds. D C Sen and B B Kavyatirtha. Calcutta:Bangiya Sahitya Parishad, 1312 B S. Fragments of it are
quotod by D C Sen in Eongobhosho O Sahityo and S Sen in Eangla
Bibliography I 645
Sahityer /tihas. This ftanslatory work, composed under the patro-
nage of Cl'rhtrti Khan, the Husain Shahi governor and thagrandson of Majlis-i ala Rasti Khan, gives reference to the
accomplishnrents of the patron.
Farameswar. Kavindra. Mahabharata, popularly called Paragsli y6.ha>harata, ed. Gaurinath Shastri, Dhubri, Assam. Fragments ofthis rrvo k can be read in Bangabhasha O Sahitya by D C
Sun and Benglo Suhityer ltihas by S sen. This earliest translationof ff,e lvlahabharata gives reference to the accomlishmenlsof Paragal Khan, a governor of northern Chirtagong.
Purba Bongo Gitika, ed. D C Sen. This famous collection ol East
Bengal baliac;s conrains two local posms namely Shu jaTanayar Bilap aod Part Banur Hanhala which give teferenceto tne sojourn of Piince Shuja in Chiilagong and his subsequentIand journey to Araksn. Alexander Dow, while referring to theauthenticity of these ballads, writes : "Piara Banu, thef avourite, the on11, wifo of Suja, was so famed for her witand beauty, that many songs in her praise are still sungin Eengzl," (iii, 33t)
Puthi Parichiti, ed. Ahmad sharif. Dacca: Dacca University, !959.It contains fragmentary portions of puthis, collected by MvAbdui Karim sahitya visharad. The book ie a srore of infor-mation regarding the sociar and crrrtural condition of thedistrict during the Iote medieval period.
-- Aoirr---- - -a::r--a,::.:- - -__----_-
-r,;;-;- ";i:;;,-m;"
:; ";;; ;ia'i," ..iii': oT,.?i.*r
z7/.za-)?.742-tzz'.z.zza-72./-z?.zzzrzzzaz?z-zr4
Sc( P.ajasra(a sr ths Trilsra Chssnit(t, \ahrrts i to i\i, Ed. K pSen. Agartaia: Government of Tripura, 1336-37 Tripura Era.Tlris book rhough deals chiefly with the dynastic history ofthe 'tripura kin2s is of immeasurablo help in reconstructingtho histury of the disrrict especially during the sixteenth cen-tury A D. On occasions, it becomes the primary cource of
Blbliography t 648
Sahityer /tihas. This translatory work, composed under the patro-nage of Cl'rhuti Khan, the Husain Shahi governor and rhagrandson crf Majlis-i rrla Rasti Khan, gives reference to theaccomplishnTentB of the patron.
Farameswar, Kavindra. [L4ahabharata, popularly cal]ed Parag2li ys-he>harata, ed. Gaurinarh Shastri, Dhubri, Assam. Fragments ofthio rrvo k can be read in Bangabhasha O Sahitya by D C
Sun and Bcnglo Suhityer ltihas by S sen. This earliest translationof ffe ldahabharata gives reference to the accomlishmenlsof Paragal Khan, a governor of northern Chittagong.
Purba Bongo Gitika, ed. D C Sen. This lamous collection of EastBengal baliacs conrains two local poams namely Shu jaTanayar Bilap and Part Banur Hanhala which give referenceto tne sojourn of Piince shuja in chittagong and his subsequentland journey to Araksn. Alexander Dow, while refening to theauthenticity of these ballads, writes: "piara Banu, thef avourite, the only wife of Suja, was so famed for her witand beauty, that many songs in her praise are stil sungin Bengal," (iii, 331)
Purhi parichiti, ed. Ahmad Sharif. Dacca: Dacca University, !9bg.It contains fragmentary portions of puthis, collected by MvAbdui Karim sahitya visharad. The book ie a srore of infor-mation regarding the social and crrltural condition of thodistrict c!uring the Iote medieval period.
sri chaitanyo chariter tJpadan, Biman Bihari [traju'ndar. calculta:calcurta University. 1959. The book gives reference to theIives and activities of some vaisnava sainrs of medievalChittagong and thus it has informative value.
Sri Rajamala or the Tripura Chronicle, Iaharas i to iii, ed. K pSen. Agartaia: Government of Tripura, 1336-37 Trlpura Era.This book rhough deals chiefly wirh the dynastic history ofthe 'tripura kin2s is of immeasurablo help in reconstructing:rhe histury of the disrrict especially during the oixteenth cen-tury A D. On ocoasions, it becomes the primary sourcs of
6co t R Hisrory oi chittagong
knowledgo of the contemporary history of rhe distract, Thebook throwe light on thc rivalry between the Tripura kings,tho Gaud sultans and the Arakaneso lings for holAing rhepossession of chittagong. rhe information contained in thebook is generally reliable.
Original Source-.portuguese, gpanish
Barbosa, Duarte. The Book of Barbosa, vol. ii, trans. M L Dames.London: Hakluyt Sociery, 1gZ1
Bocarro, Antonio. Decada da Historia da lndta, Lisboa, lg76
Cortea, Gaspar. Lendas da lndta, Lisboa, 18bB
De Barros, Joao. Decade da Asia, Lisboa, 1771. De Barros(c. 1496-1570) is calted ,'the Livy ot portugal,'. His volu-minous history contains invaluable accounts ol evenrs in Chi-ttagong during Husaln Shahi and Afghan periode. Decadeiv conrains a chaprer especially devoted to rhe history of rhakingdom of Bengal during the sixtoenth century. He nevervisited lndia, but had speeial facilrties for his study as anolficial in the lndia Office at Lisbon, He might also havecollectod materials for his history from his son who had joinedthe Portuguese army in lndia and died in an ongagement. DeBarros served from 1525 to 1532 as a treasuror, from 1532to 1567 as a crown agent in the lndia House, Lisbon. lnthat cepacity hs must have collected much of the valuablematerial for his book. His personal remarka on the eventsmay somotimes seem biased but the events related ln his bookaro extremely valuable in reconstrucling tho contemporary his-tory of this part of the country. His account has been usedby Iater Portuguese historians. The map atfixed to Cep. iol Dec. iv, Liv. ix is a valuable source of inrormation regard-ing the narural and political divisions, location of places etc.The secondary sources such as Danvers' The pottuguese Inlndla, Campos's .History of the fortuguese in Bengal lost upon
Bibliography | 6+7
the accounts supplied by De Berros and other Portuguesehistorians.
De Castanheda, Farnao Lopez. Histo."ia do Descobrimento e Conquistoda lndra pelos Portugueses, Lisboa. This famous historicar workthrows ample light on the political condition of Chittagongunder the later Husain Shahi rulers. ,,The historian came tolndia in i1528. He is said to havo travelled all cver porruguese
lndia with the laudable desire of testing and correcling hishistory" (l A S B, v. 42 (1873), t95)
Da Couto, Da Asia. Lisboa, 1777
Guerreiro, Father Fernao. Tfie Relations. Fragmentary rians. C HPayne, Jahangir and the Jesuits London: George Rourlege glions, Lrd., 1930. The book illuminates rhe political eventsin the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Hosten, Father H. , Mjssionaiy Ietters and AIIied papers on Bengal,Arakan and Burma (lsgg-l609)", The cathoric Herard of tndia,calcutta, August. I g30
"A list of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in Bengal and -Burma (1576-1742)", J A S B, Vtt, 1911
- - - - -."Jesuit Lstters from Bengal, Arakan arrd Burma l Egg-1660),,,B P P. XXX, 1925
Manrique, Fray Sebastian. The frayels of Fray Sebastian lllawique,2 vols., trans. C F Luard and H Hosten. L,ondon: Hakluyr,Socic,ty, 1926-27. This celebrated portuguese missionary tra-veller stayed in Chittagong from 1629 to l63l for rho purpose
of missionary activities. His irinerary sl-recls Iight profuselyuDon the political and social condition. This travel book,excellently edited by two reputed scholars may be calleda mine of information.
Souza, Falia e. History of the Portugurse congu€sts in .Asia, 3 vols.trans. Captain John Stephens. London: C Burome. 169/:95.A good source of information about tho Portuguese activitiesin Ch:ttagong.Arakan region in the sixteenih and seve nteenthcenturiee.
i
tI
648 I A Hlstory ot Chirtagong
Teixeira. Padro. Trovels of Podrc Teixeiro, London: Hakluyt society.MDCCCCil
Original Sources -European other than Portuguese,Spanish and English
Bernier, Francois. Trovels in the Mogul Empirc, 1656.1668 ed. Archibald Gonstable. New Delhi: S Chand I Co (pvr) Ltd. 1972.The book throws ample light on the political events duringthe middle part of the seventeenth century. lt also refers tothe aontemporary Portuguese Society in Arallan-Chitragongregion.
Doghregister (The\. lts full title is the Doghregister Gehouden in.o
Cgsreel Botovio or the Daily Register kept in the Casrle ofBatavia being the official records of ths Dutch East lndiaCompany. This compilation work contains a gre,qt rnass of paoerswhich profusely shed lrght on the Durch activiries in SouthEast Asia. The Daghregister, being a coi-ltemBorary factualaccount. is vary valuable source of inforrnation about theeconomic condition of rhe kingdom of Arakan to which Chi.ttagong was a subject province. As it is not possible for thepresent cuthor to go lhrough the original work. he has todeoend upon secondary sources such as artic]as published in
ditferent journals,
Ds Laet. John. Empire of the Greot M.agol, lrans. J S Hoyland
De Laval, Francois Pyrard. The Voyage of Froncois Pyrord of Lovol,
trans Albert Gray London :! Hakluyt Society, MDCCCLXXX-Vl l. Pyrard was a native of Franco. During his sojournin the Maldives. the Alsksn6se pirates plundered rhe groupof islands. They took the traveller to be a portuquese,
their enemy. Pyrard was brought caprive to Clrittagong, butwhen it was disclosed that ho was a Frgnchman he wasimmediately set free and given a warm reception The lraveller stayed in Chirtagong for abcut one month (1607,,,a
Bibliography I 649
monrh's sojourn!,). By rhis rime pyra,'d misrook Chittagonglor a subject province ol the kingdom of Bengal. Ihe con-fusion goes ro such an oxtent that he makes ,the king ofArakan,, a 'tributary, to thc lvlrrghal Emporor. This was thereason why celtain anomalies cropped up in his narrative.Nevertheless, his itinerary is a priceress source of informatronabout rhe potitical condirion, agrrculrural and industrial pro-ducts, overseas trade anr, porrugu"r" men and n orals.Fitch, Ralph, His travel book has boen translared inro English byJ H Ryley, London, 1g9g and Foster in Eorly Trovels tn indio,Monucci, Niccolao. Stotia do Mogor, truns \Ailliam lrvine. Lon-don : John Murray, l goe_1 g0g Mans6sl, s56 nored Vene_tian rraveller ataleC in tndia from l653 ro 1703. Vol. j
rh'ows Iight on rhe ,rrght of shah shuja and the portuguesesociety in Chittagong. Vol. ii gives the traveller,s own versionof the Mughal conquest of Cnittagong.
Periplus of the Erythraean sea lThe). rrans. wilfred H schoff.New York: Longmans, Green and Co. t9l2Tavernier, John Baptists. Travels in lndia. Calcurta: Bangabasi
Press, 1905
Van tinschoten, John Huyghen. The Voyage of John HuyghenVan Linschoten to the East lnAies. Vol. i ,r"n"- er.n-;ll andvol.ii trans. pieter Anton Tiele, 1gg4 Linschoren,s observa-tion on lhe contempotaty portugucsa sociery is nf immensevelue. Purchas,s fragmentary rranslation in his ptlgrims, vol.x roughly satisties our need.
Original Sources_English
A Bengal Atlos (17g3), sketched by Jamos Rennell, Calculra,1910. The volume of maps drawn by rhe frrst surveyor generalol lndia is much hetpful to us for the knowledge of rnellace-name8 and their geographieal position at the timc of tho rer-
6Ej0 I A Hlcrory ot Chitragone
mination of the Mughel ruls. Many of rhe placenamcs arectill bejng marked on the modern maps whlle others havelost their exisrence stnce thr..n.
Songlodesh District Records, Chittagong vol. i. t76O-t7g7,Dacca: Univelslly of Dacca, lgTg
Bengol District Records, Chittogong, vcl. i, 1760.1775. Calcurra,192?
Bengal Public Consultotions
Earty Trovets in tndio, 15g3-1619, ed, William Foster. Iondon:Humphrey Millord, Oxford Universiry precs. 1g21. Tha bookcontainr the travalling accounts of Ralptl Fitch, Vr,illiam Frnchhnd othore.
English Factories in lndio (The), ed. William Fortor, t6l8_t6h9,Oxford: Clarendon prees, 1906-1g27, 13 vob.
English Factories in tndio (The), 1670-1684 ed. Chartes Faw.cett, Oxford: Clarendon press, 1936_lg5S 4 vole.
Fifth Report from the Select Committre of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the Eost lndia Compony (1g12),3 vola., ed. W K Firminger. Calcutrr: R Canbrary g Co.,191i. The. reporr being a stand:rd authority on tand tenureste of great value regarding not only the ,evenue administrarionbut also the general administratioi of the district under Iaterlllughal iule. vol. r contains two lettere of vererst which throwlight on the revenueo of chitragong at the time of the cession.
Fourth Report from the Committee of Surrey oppointed to en- -quire into the stote of the East lndio Compa.ny, 171J
Francio, Phillp. Rtvenues of Bengot
Grant, JGmes. Aaolytis o.f the Finonces of Bengol published' a! appendix 4 in tho Filth Report. lt is a very valuable dc-
cumont concerning the revenue history of Chittagong. Theruthoi'o trcatment is precise and hie statements arc genrrally
lt
Bibliography | 65t
correct. These quarities make the trsatise a dependable sourceof information.
Hedgee, William. The Diary of Wittiom Hedges. ed. H yule, Lon-don,1887-lgg9
lndian Records Serres (The), Bengol l756-57, vot. i, ed. S C Hill.London: The Government of India l gO5
old maps preserved in the Dhaka Museum. otd maps are imporranreource of inlormation about the district,s geographical positionand the location of some now lorgotten places.
Orme, Robert. lndostan. Lucknow: pustak Kendra, ig74Purchas, Samuel. Purchos His ?ilgrips. Glasgow: James Macle_
hose and Sons. 1905
Vonaittart, Henry. A Narrative of the1760-1764, eds. A C Banerji anrt B
Tronsoctions in Eengal,K Ghosh. Calcutta: K p
Bagchi & Gompany, 1976
Wilson, H H. A Glossory of JudiciatMunehiram Monoharlat, l96g
end Revenue Terms. Delhi:
Original Sources-Asiatic oth€, than Arabic, persianand Bengali
chwong, Yuon (on), trans. Thomas watterr, 2 vols., London: RoyalAsiatic Sociery, I g04
Glass Palace Chronicle of the kings ol Burma (The), trane. pe Ma-ung Tin and C H Luce. London: Humohrey Milford, 1g13. Thechronicle supplements and corroboratea the evidences of theRodzawong or lho Arokopese Chronicle.
652 I A Hirtory ot Chtrtagong
l-tsing, l-tsing's Records of the Western World, eC. and trans.J Takakusu. Delhi: Munshiram Monoharlal, lg66Ma huan. 'Kingdom of Bengala, trans Georgo philrp, J R A S,18c5. Fragmentary Dortions of the accounts ol Ma huan andother Chiness travellers havs been translcted by p C Bagchiin rhe Visva Bhoroti Annols, vol i, l94SRndztwrng or tho Arakanese Chronicle. The book is indispensable. for thc trrs1p1, of the d,sr,cr. A , phayre,s translation in theJ A S B ivolumes citeo in ,ootnotes) and in lhe History ofBurma sorvos out purposS.
Sidi Ali Crelebi. Muhit. The book ie a m!ns of naurical information.The portion neceosary for us has boen translated by Von purg-stall in the / A s a, v (1816), 4ga-g7. This has further beenannorated by Abdul Karim in rho / A s g D, xvi, 233-24t.
Taranarh. Lama. History of Buddhism in lndia.trans. Lama Chimpaand Alaka Chartspsflhyaya, ed. Devi prasad Chattopadhyaya.Simla: lndian lnstitute of Advanced Srudy, lg7O. Taranath,ereal name was Kun-Snjins. He was born in 157d and com_pleted his history in 160g A D. The book has been franslatedinto a numbel of Eulopean language... Fragmenrary pa9s8ge9relating to the ancient hist.rry of Chittagong have been fans.Iated inro English by Ray S C Das Bahadur in rhe I A S A,1898. Tnis worth collection of material ie undoubtediy-a greafgift to ths readers. Fragmentary porrion of Germcn tr.rrl.tionhas been rendcred into English by N n Bay in sonskrit Budd-hism in Eurma. Though Taranath,s workr supply . to, otinformation about the political and religisut condittn oJ Cf,l_ttagong. lhey are not wholly correct and reliable. This is,pcrhaps, due to the remotenees of timo and region and tho oxclu_oive reliance on traditions. Therefore, his nairation shourd bejudged in rhe light ol olher sources such as inscriptionr, *orn,of the roreign traveuerc, the chronicres of the two neigh-bouring kingdoms, Arakan and Tripura. Thanks fo Taranathbecause he is thc firsr historian to bring ancient chittagongto limelighr.
I
I
.I
Bibliography | 653
Secondary Sources- Bengali
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