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Classical X-ray Detectors Ho Kyung Kim [email protected] Pusan National University Introduction to Medical Engineering
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Page 1: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Classical X-ray Detectors

Ho Kyung [email protected]

Pusan National University

Introduction to Medical Engineering

Page 2: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Outline

• Film‐screen system

• X‐ray image intensifier (XRII) for fluoroscopy

• Computed radiography

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Page 3: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Film‐screen detectors

Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film About 1–2% of the x rays are stopped by the film ( detection efficiency) Requiring an unnecessarily large x‐ray dose to the patient for direct film exposure A very inefficient way to create a photograph Use of intensifying screens on both sides of the film, but an additional image blurring due to light 

scattering should be considered

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Page 4: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

• Intensifying screens

– Base• Provided for mechanical stability• Somewhat flexible to be pushed tightly against the film• Typ. made of polyester plastic

– Reflective layer• Reflecting light from the phosphor back into the film rather than getting lost in the base• Typ. about 25 m thick• Made of magnesium oxide (MgO) or titanium dioxide (TiO2)

– Protective coating• Applied to film side of the screen to protect it from repeated film loading & unloading

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Page 5: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

– Phosphors• Converting x rays into light• Luminescentmaterials

– Fluorescence 1  10‐8 s of the excitation– Phosphorescence in which light emission can be delayed

Causing "afterglow" motion artifact, image lag• Should be highly x‐ray attenuating

– high Z (so large )• Should emit many light photons for every x‐ray photon that is stopped

– High conversion efficiency» A measure of the number of light photons emitted per incident x‐ray photon» Typ. btwn 5–20% depending on the type of phosphor & its thickness» ~103 light photons per incident 50‐keV x‐ray photon» Speed of screen

• "Faster" if the conversion efficiency is higher• Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) discovered by Thomas Edison• Rare earth phosphors in the late 1970s (terbium‐doped gadolinium oxysulfide, Gd2O2S:Tb)

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• Radiographic film– Optical film to capture the optical image created w/i the screens that sandwich the film– Common size in US: 14  17, 14  14, 10  12, 8  10, & 7  17 in.– Image quality depends on optical properties & details of chemical development

• Radiographic cassette– A holder for two intensifying screens & the film "sandwiched" in‐btwn

• Only one screen for high resolution applications such as mammography

– One side "radiolucent"; the other "a sheet of lead foil"

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Film‐screen characteristics

• Optical transmittivity = fraction of light (from a “light box”) transmitted thru an exposed film

– 𝑇

• 𝐼 = the irradiation of the incident light [energy/area/sec]

– 𝐼 = the irradiation of the transmitted light [energy/area/sec]

• Optical opacity = 𝑇

• Optical density = the common logarithm of the optical opacity

𝐷 log𝐼𝐼

– Characterizing “how black” the film is on a logarithmic scale– Usable when 0.25 𝐷 2.25– Best discrimination of shading gray by “human eye” when 1 𝐷 1.5

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Page 8: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

• H&D (Hurter & Driffield) curve– S‐shaped curve:

• Low 𝐷 toe@ low exposure / ”linear” region / high 𝐷 shoulder@ high exposure• Base fog = non‐zero optical density even in the absence of exposure (the offset in the H&D curve)

– In the linear region:

• 𝐷 Γ log

– 𝑋 = the exposure when the linear region would hit the horizontal axis (𝐷 = 0)– Γ = the slope of the H&D curve in the linear region ( “contrast”)

» Called the “film gamma”, typ. 0.5–3» Γ contrast  but latitude

• Latitude = the range of exposures over which the H&D curve is linear ( “dynamic range”)• Speed of film = the inverse of the exposure at which “D = 1 + fog level”

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• Speed: A is faster than B– A is more sensitive to x‐ray exposure than 

B

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• Speed: A = B• Contrast: A is higher than B• Latitude: A is narrower than B

– For examinations where a lot of subject contrast is expected, such as chest radiography, wider latitude screen‐film systems are required

Page 10: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

X‐ray image intensifiers

• XRII in fluoroscopy requires low‐dose, real‐time projection radiography– Continuous tube current at 0.5–5.0 mA (compared to pulse‐mode operation in the conventional 

radiography at 50–1,200 mA)– Note the image intensifier is a light‐amplifying device such as night vision devices

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• Input window– Aluminum or titanium w/ 0.25–0.5 mm thickness

minimal loss of x‐ray photons but capable of holding a vacuum

• Input phosphor– Typ. CsI(Na) w/ 0.5 mm thickness– 15–40 cm in diameter– 0.5‐mm‐thick aluminum reflector

• Photocathode– Generating free e–‘s w/i the vacuum tube

• Dynodes– A series of electrodes to accelerate e–‘s– Shaping e–‘s into an (inverted) e– intensity image (reflecting the intensity of x‐ray entering the XRII)– Altering voltage profile to provide variable image magnification

• Anode– 25–35 kV relative to the cathode

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Page 12: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

• Output phosphor screen– P20‐type phosphor

• Deposited on the output window (15‐mm‐thick glass & 25–35 mm in diameter)

– Thin Al film on the inner side of the phosphor acting as the anode & reflector

• Lens– Magnifying images

• Light sensor– Providing an automatic gain control (i.e., feedback to the x‐ray tube current) to provide a relatively 

constant image brightness

• TV camera– Capturing the light image & sending to a TV monitor for real‐time views

• Film camera– Capturing selected still images onto film

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Page 13: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Fluoroscopy: image intensifier

• Working principle– Conversion of x rays into visible light by an input phosphor (or fluorescent) screen– Emission of electrons from a photocathode hit by light– Accelerated the ejected electrons by a potential difference b/w the cathode and the output– Focused electron beam to the output phosphor screen by electrostatic or magnetic focusing– Captured visible light from the phosphor screen by a camera

• Capable of producing dynamic image sequences in real time at video rate (a process known as fluoroscopy)

• Image degradation– Less spatial resolution rather than that of a film‐screen system (because of the limited camera 

resolution)– Increased noise due to the additional conversions (light  electrons  light)– Geometric distortion, called pin‐cushion distortion, toward the borders of the image

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Page 14: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

J. A. Seibert | Pediatr. Radiol. | 2006 14

Page 15: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

• Electronic focusing allows:

– Large FOV• Large coverage• Higher gain due to minification• Pin‐cushion distortion in the periphery of the image 

(caused by mapping the spherical input phosphor electron image onto the planar output phosphor)

– Small FOV• Magnification• High spatial resolution• Lower gain (or higher patient dose)

J. A. Seibert | Pediatr. Radiol. | 2006 15

Page 16: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Computed radiography

• Photostimulable imaging plate (PSP)– Phosphor made from barium flouorohalide bromides & iodides w/ europium activators– Trapping of photo‐𝑒 s (produced by PE) in the fluorohalides, leaving ℎ s in the europium– Latent image formed by the ℎ s in the europiums, lasting for hours!

• Laser scan– Red laser (𝜆~700 nm)– Stimulating the trapped 𝑒 s which recombine w/ the ℎ s and produce blue light– Row‐by‐row raster‐scanning the PSP– Directing the emitted light by mirror to a blue‐light‐sensitive photodetector at each scanning spot– Electric signal => ADC => digital value– Erasing residual images by bright light for reuse

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Page 19: Classical X-ray Detectors - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/.../2020/17_Xray-detectors-analog.pdfFilm‐screen detectors Direct exposure of x‐rays to a photographic film

Wrap‐up

• Film‐screen system

• X‐ray image intensifier (XRII) for fluoroscopy

• Computed radiography

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