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X-rays in Clinics Ho Kyung Kim [email protected] Pusan National University Introduction to Medical Engineering
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Page 1: X-rays in Clinics - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/... · 2020. 11. 16. · – Skeletal x rays – Chest images ... – lumber spine:

X-rays in Clinics

Ho Kyung [email protected]

Pusan National University

Introduction to Medical Engineering

Page 2: X-rays in Clinics - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/... · 2020. 11. 16. · – Skeletal x rays – Chest images ... – lumber spine:

Outline

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Page 3: X-rays in Clinics - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/... · 2020. 11. 16. · – Skeletal x rays – Chest images ... – lumber spine:

Equipment

• Radiographic imaging chain– X‐ray source– Aluminum filter (often complemented by a copper filter)

• Remove low‐energy photons (beam hardening) (why to remove?)

– Collimator to limit the patient area to be irradiated– (Collimating) Scatter grid to stop photons with large incidence angle

• Not always used in paediatrics (why?)

– Detector

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General purpose radiographic room

• Both an image intensifier and a storage phosphor are available.

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• Siemens system with large‐area amorphous silicon detector coupled to a CsI scintillator plate (which replaces the cassette and image intensifier)

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3D rotational angiography system

• C‐arm with x‐ray tube and image intensifier at both ends

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• Active matrix flat‐panel detector

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3D image of the blood vessels

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Clinical use

• Static (or still or radiographic) images– Skeletal x rays– Chest images (radiographs of the thoracic cavity and heart)– Mammography (image of the breasts)– Dental x rays (images of the teeth and jaw)

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Page 10: X-rays in Clinics - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/... · 2020. 11. 16. · – Skeletal x rays – Chest images ... – lumber spine:

Double mandibular fracture with strong displacement to the left.

Solitary humeral bone cyst known as "fallen leaf sign".

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Radiographic chest image showing multiple lung metastases.

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Dense opacity with spicular border in the cranial part of the right; histological proven invasive ductal carcinoma.

Cluster of irregular microcalcifications suggesting a low differentiated carcinoma.

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• Dynamic (or fluoroscopic) images– Interventional fluoroscopy

• responsible for the majority of fluoroscopic sequences• typically used to guide and quickly verify surgical actions, particularly in bone surgery, such as for 

osteosynthesis (traumatology, orthopedics)– Angiography

• imaging of blood vessels through the injection of an iodine‐containing fluid into the arteries or veins• usually subtraction images are made by subtracting postcontrast and precontrast images

– motion blurring & subtraction artifacts• used for diagnosis of conditions such as heart ischemiae caused by plaque buildup• recently to guide minimally invasive interventions of the blood vessels, such as for vascular 

repermeabilization, by radiologists, cardiologists, and vascular surgeons• barium fluoroscopy of the gastrointestinal tract after the patient swallows barium contrast solution and/or 

where the contrast is instilled via the rectum• Urography (image of the kidneys and bladder) using an iodine‐containing contrast fluid

• Contrast agent: a substance with a high attenuation coefficient– Intravascular (blood vessels, heart cavities) imaging– Intracavitary (kidney, bladder, etc.) imaging

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Postoperative fluoroscopic control of bone fixation with plate and screws after a complete fracture of the humerus.

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Cerebral angiogram obtained by injecting an iodine containing fluid into the arteries. The contrast dye subsequently fills the cerebral arteries, capillaries and veins.

Cerebral angiogram showing an aneurysm or saccular dilation of a cerebral artery.

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Post-injection image

Subtracted image

Motion artifacts in subtracted image

Pre-injection image

Y. Bentoutou et al. | Pattern Recognition | (2002) 17

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Double contrast (barium + gas insufflation) enema with multiple diverticula in the sigmoid colon (arrows). 

Polypoid mass proliferating intraluminally (arrowhead on the spotview).

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Page 19: X-rays in Clinics - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/... · 2020. 11. 16. · – Skeletal x rays – Chest images ... – lumber spine:

Biologic effects and safety

• Ionization  chemical changes  biologic damage– cell can be destroyed– cell can lose the ability to divide– cell may divide in an uncontrolled way– cell can repair itself

• Deterministic effects– injuries to a large population of cells where repair mechanisms fail and the complete tissue is 

damaged– characterized by a “threshold dose” and an increase in the severity of the tissue reaction with 

increasing dose

• Stochastic effects– malignant disease and heritable effects, for which the probability but not the severity is 

proportional to the dose, without any threshold• probability always exists that modifications in single cells  could be lead to malignancy (cancer) or genetic 

changes by deposition of energy by ionizing radiation• the frequency of cell damage and the occurrence of cancer increases, but not the severity of the cancer 

with increasing dose

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• Radiation dose

– Absorbed dose, 𝐷• gray (Gy) = 1 J/kg• independent of the type of irradiation• 𝐷 = the average absorbed dose in organ or tissue 𝑇

– e.g. 5 Gy in a single exposure at the level of the eye lens can cause visual impairment due to cataract (deterministic effect)

– Equivalent dose, 𝐻• biologic damage varies not only with the absorbed dose but also depends heavily on the type of radiation

– 𝐻 ∑ 𝑤 · 𝐷 ,

– 𝐷 , = the average absorbed dose from radiation of type R in tissue or organ 𝑇– 𝑤 = the radiation weighted (or quality) factor (1 for x rays, electrons, muons; 2 for protons, charged 

ions; 20 for heavier particles (alpha); energy‐dependent for neutrons)• sievert (Sv) = Gy  radiation quality factor• nominal risk coefficient: 1.14%/Sv for lung cancer occurred on average in 114 cases per 10000 persons per 

Sv

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– Radiation detriment: a concept used to quantify the harmful effects of radiation exposure in different parts of the body

– Effective dose, 𝐸• biologic damage also depends on the irradiated organ• to assess the overall radiation detriment from stochastic effects• tissue weighted sum of equivalent doses in all irradiated tissues or organs of the body• 𝐸 ∑ 𝑤 · 𝐻

– 𝐻 = the equivalent dose in tissue or organ T– 𝑤 = the tissue weighting factor, ∑ 𝑤 1

» 0.12 for red bone marrow, colon, lung, stomach, breast» 0.08 for gonads» 0.04 for bladder, oesophagus, liver, thyroid» 0.01 for bone surface, brain salivary glands, skin» the sum of remainders = 0.12 for adrenals, extrathoracic region, gall bladder, heart, kidneys, 

lymphatic nodes, muscle, oral mucosa, pancreas, small intestine, spleen, thymus, prostate (male)/uterus/cervix (female)

• Sv = Gy  radiation quality factor  tissue weighting factor

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• Effective dose– dental x‐ray: 0.005 – 0.02 mSv– chest: 0.01 – 0.05 mSv– skull: 0.1 – 0.2 mSv– pelvis: 0.7 – 1.4 mSv– lumber spine: 0.5 – 1.5 mSv– mammography: 1.0 – 2.0 mSv/image (usually four images for screening)– fluoroscopy ~5 mSv: 10x for diagnosis, 100x for interventional use

• intravenous urography: 3 mSv• barium enema: 8 mSv• endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (4 mSv)• interventional procedures in angiography room or catheterization lab: reaching the thresholds for 

deterministic effects for skin dose– cerebral angiography: 5 mSv– transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt procedures (TIPS): 70 mSv

– note that the dose equivalent due to natural sources: 2 – 3 mSv/yr

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• ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection)– the relative radiation detriment adjusted nominal risk coefficient for cancer

• 5.5%/Sv (4.1%/Sv for adults (18‐64 yrs))• 0.2%/Sv for heritable effects up to the second generation (0.1%/Sv for adults)

– ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable)• no dose limits for patients but every exposure should be justified

– Limiting dose• Public = 1 mSv/yr• Workers = 20 mSv/yr (when averaged over five years)

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Future expectations

• Replaced x‐ray examinations by US, CT, & MRI– arthrography (joints)– myelography (spinal cord)– cholangiography (bile ducts)– cholecystography (gall bladder)– pyelography (urinary tract)

• Flat‐panel detector is becoming available for 3D imaging– 2D projective imaging will further be augmented by 3D volumetric imaging– Expected the improved DQE of the detectors for reduced radiation doses or images with enhanced CNR

• Photon counting detectors will become commercially available with vary fast readout.

• Smart hospital– electronic hospital information systems

• CAD: computer‐aided diagnosis

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Wrap‐up

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