ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE FOOD AND AGRICUlTURE ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION Joint Committee on Forest Working Techniques and Training of Forest Workers SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST OPERATIONS !N MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS Krasnodar (USSR), 30 September 1971 Distr. :l.ESTRICTED LOG I S"iHP. 5 I 3 6 May 1971 Original: ENGLISH :r?JLEf:.:.SE DO NO.T RETURN TO Ll:i3.iP..ARY GE.?l-11344 CLASSIFICATION OF TERMIN AND OPE?.ATIONAL SYSTEiviS by Ivar Samset (Nor1·ray)
Transcript
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE FOOD AND AGRICUlTURE ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION
Joint Committee on Forest Working Techniques and Training of Forest Workers
SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST OPERATIONS !N MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS
Krasnodar (USSR), 30 August~11 September 1971
Distr. :l.ESTRICTED
LOG I S"iHP. 5 I 3 6 May 1971
Original: ENGLISH
:r?JLEf:.:.SE DO NO.T RETURN TO Ll:i3.iP..ARY
GE.?l-11344
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMIN AND OPE?.ATIONAL SYSTEiviS
by Ivar Samset (Nor1·ray)
FAO LIBRARY AN: 118215
baldassari
Rectangle
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page ii
Table of contents
I. TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION IN r10UNTAINOUS REGIONS
1. 0 DESCRIPTIVE 'l'ER.RAIH CLASSIFICATION
1.1 Micro-description of the terrain
1.2 ·Macro-description of the terrain
2.0 FUNCTIONAL TERRAIN CUlSSIFICATION
2.1 Logging conditions
2.2 Forest road density
2.3 Operational season
II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE TRANSPORT NET\iORK
1.0 UNDERWAY OPERATIONS AND TERMINAL OPERATIONS
2,0 TRANSPORT LINES
2.1 Fan-shaped netHork
2.2 Serpentine shaped netHork
2. 3 Collecting netvrork
3.0 TRANSPORT MEANS
J.l Tractive. unit
3.2 Payload carrier
J. 3 Terminal equipment
4.0 CABLE AND WINCH SYST~IS
4.1 Undervmy functions
4. 2 Terminal and under1.<TBY functions
4.3 Terminal functions
III. CLASSIFICATION OF CABLE SYSTEMS
IV. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TERRAIN, METHOD AND EQUIPMENT
OF CABLE SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION OF TERJlAIN AND OPERATIONAL SYSTElVfS
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page l
The classification of forest terrain gives knowledge about the operational condi
tions. The classification is arranged metl.odically in such a way that one terrain
class means the same independently of local landscape and terrain conditions. The
classification must also be based on basic knowledge of equipment and. operational
methods used in forestry. All forestry work is included, such as transport and logging;
cultivation, constructional work, road building, etc.
The classification of terrain and operational systems should take into account the
correlation between terrain, transport ;network, operational method and equipment. I
I. TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION IN MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS
The technical evolution brings forward nevi machines and equipment with an ever
increasing cross-country mobility. New methods and machines are taking over more and
more of the forest work. It is of importance to find a general terrain classification
system which is independent of technical developments. Such a system is called the
descriRtive terrain classification. This description may be divided into a mascro
gescr~ption covering the general form of the landscape, and the micro-description
covering the local conditions of terrain. In addi-tion it is useful to give a
functional terrain classification taking into account the operational methods v1hich may
be used in forestry.
The operational terrain alassification can be divided as follows:
1. 0 DESCRIPTIVE TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION
1.1 Micro-desc;ription of the terrain fLocal circular ~@lple plots vJith a
diameter of 30 metres).
1.11 Depth of soil
1.12 Regularity of terrain
1.13 Steepness of terrain
1.14 Bearing capacity
1.2 Macro-description of the terrain
l. 21 Plateaux (above steep hillsides)
1.22 Steep hillsides
LOG/ SYMP. ')/ 3 page 2
1.22.1
1.22.2
1.22.3
1.22.4
l. 22.5
Length
Long dist8nce > 1 500 m
Medium distance
Short distance
700 - 1 500 m
300 - 700 m
Long winch terrain
Short 1.Jinch terrain
Topography:
100 · - 300m
( 100m
a - Uniform hillsides
b - B~sin-shaped hiJ.J.sides
c - Closed valleys
d - Cone-shaped hillsides
Profile
a1
- convex dovmhill profile
a2
- convex uphill profile
a3
- convex summit profile
b1 - concave downhill profile
b2
- concave uphill profile
c1
- straight dmmhill profile
c2
- straight uphill profile
Surface
Even, quite regular terrain
Irregular terrain vli th large stones
Boulders and bedrocks
Cliffs and clefts
Steepness (average of hillside)
< 201~
20!~ ~ 33%
33~b - 50/~ ') 50;6
Figure 1
Figure 2
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 3
2.12 Cable-slopes
These are slopes steeper than 33% and lovrer than 300 metres
The cable-slopes can be Classified after their length, their morphology
and the dimensions of the loads cvhich have to be transported.
2.12.1 Length
2.12.2
2.13
2.13.1
2.1,3.2
Long distance
JVIedium distance
Short distance
Dimens;!on
Light <..
Small < 1,0
2.0
Medium < '3.5
Heavy <. 5.0
Oversized ) 5.0
> 1 500 m
700 - 1 500 m
300 - 700 m
ton
tons
tons
tons
tons
Horizontal cable terrain
Length
Long distance = > 1 500 m
Medium distance = 700 - 1 500 m
Short distance = 300 -· 700 m
Dimension
Light < 1. 0 ton
Smal1 < 2.0 tons
Medium / 3.5 tbns ' Heavy < 5 .• 0 tons
Oversized ) 5.0 tons
2.14 Hirich-skidding ter;rain
W~nch-terrain is difficult terrain vrith a high proportion of
obstacles and irregularities or short steep hillsides.
2.14.1 Lengih
(a) 100 - 300 m
(b) less than 100 m
LOG/SYMP.5./3 page 4
2.14.2 Topogr~J[
Steep short hillsides.
Horiz::>ntal with boulders and '3liffs,
Horizontal with minimum bearing c~pacity.
2.14. 3 .llim_ensiQ.M
Light < 1.0 ton
Small ~: 2,0 tons
Medium <; 3,5 tons
Heavy <(: 5.0 tons
Oversized :> 5.0 tons
2.2 Forest road density
2. 21 Skiddil)g_ciist~pce (from stump to truck road in 100 metres)
2. 22 Skiddi_ng roughness
(1) Tractor can move in terrain.
(2) Skidding trails necessary.
2. 23 Bearj.n_g_~9.§Raci ty
(1) Hheel tractor can pass.
(2) Wheel tractor can pass a fe1-r times only.
(3) Crawler tractor Ccln pass,
(4) Cr<:n.Jler tractor can pass a feH times only.
2,3 Operational season
In some districts the operation may be seasonal, owing to climatic
conditions, In Nordic countries some forest areas can only be operated
when the soil is frozen, owing to softness of the ground, (areas for
Hinter operations, summer operations, etc.) In tropical conditions,
the rainy season may hinder operations. This c-lassification must be
VJorked out in accordance Hith the, local conditions.
LQG/SYMP. 5/3 page 5
II~.~CJ~~XJC!'!'ION OF T.IiE TI®J§.z9.P~J'[ETWORK
The :forest produ.otion is spread over huge areas of shift,ing terrain. Tl;le forest
terrain may be subdiy·ided into terrain com12£rJ;rnent~. Ea,ch of these compartments has
the srune terrain ciifficulties. The forest conditions such as age. cla~s? site class .
etc."··may vary, .\vi thin e.ach of the terrain compartments. The border betvre,en tHo ~errain
comp13.rtments is identified by the change in terrain difficulM.es.. The. ten~ain classi
fic·atiqp a,s described in chapter 1 is parried out within each of the terrain compart~
ments.
The Planning of .. a transport network means to distribute transport lines over the
fore$t terrain in such a way that the terrain .compartments are comb.ined Hith the ' .
long-distan.ce transpor-t ;netvrork by means of the. shortest possible route (the access
roC).d,s).. lvit.hin .. thE3 ~er,:ra~n. gompartment; 1 transport lines. are distributed in s;uch a
vray as to reo,uce to a minimum the costs of operational activities over the entire forest
areas.
The tra:t}Jlport netv10rk changes inaccessible terra:ln compartments into accessible
p~erational forest unit~.
Planning of the transport network is based on:
(l) Division of the total forest area into terrain compartments.
(2) Terrain classification Hithin each of the terrain compartments.
(3) Division of the terrain compartments into operational units by
means of the transport netw.ork taking into account the operational
methods.
Operational activities in forestry are partly of a collecting nat]JJ:e and partly of
a di sv..i1?1l..~ing nai{:llre.
Collecting operational activities include the exploitation of all forest resources
such as fibre and vrood production, wild life, recreation, tourism, etc.
The transport netvrork must be planned in such a \my that all forest produce and
resource's are collected.\ln an optimal manner. The costs 'of all operational activities
in forestry must be kept do~:m~
Distributing operational activities include a variety of activities such as forest
cultivation, plantation etc. They also include allocation of men and machines to
terrain compartments and operational units, as "~:rell as technical kno1-.r-hovr and supervi-
sion. The transport netvJOrk must be laid out in such a vray that costs of distributing
operationaJ. activities are reduced to a minimum.
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 6
1. 0 UNDERI~AY OPERATIONS AND TERlviTllAJ~ OPERATIONS
There is a close correlation between means of transport and transport lines. The
transport lines are routes along which mean;· of transport are able to move to the
operational units in the forest, The transport line may be of light or heavy
construction. The lighter the construction of transport lines, the greater should be
the cross-country rurtning ability of the transport means. In ordinary terrain cross-
country running vehicles may pass ~-rithout roads. The better the roads are, the simpler
vehicles may be used.
Some parts of the road net-vrork, such as access roads have mainJy. an undervmy
function. The main purpose of these transport lines is to move the payload from the
forest to the processing industry or to return empty vehicle to the forest.
Other parts of the transport net,wrk have mainly terminal functions, (loading,
unloading etc.), i.e. landings such as terminals, processing places, etc.
figure 2.
LOG/ SYfiJP. 5 I; page 7
Undervmy functions may also be defined as lems.-tJLfun.g_tion_e because all
activities on the transport line are movements along the line or the road, (SUNDBERG,
1963). Terminal fL.lctions may be defined u cross functions ~)ecause they mostly
connect the terrain ~1ith the road by means of skid:Ung and loading activity. Some of
the termina~ functions or cross functj_ons include conversion of trees to assortments.
1'..h~_Jneal:}s of tran~:t, should be defined in a similar manner. ThUX£lctiy~_un:i,_:b
such as the tractor itself, has mainly an undervray or length function, Terminal
equipment, such as i.rinch, loading equipment, limbing tools etc. has mainly a terminal
function.
Figu.1'e 3 illustrates ho1.r the transport lines and the means of transport are
subdivided into undervmy functions and terminal functions. This figure demonstrates
the close relation beti.reen the transport line, including its subdivisions into undm'~,.m_y
(length) functions and terminal (cross) functions, and the means of transport.
2_~.Q __ '[_l}ANSPOR~ LINES
Activities in forestry have to pass over transport lines. The forest transport
netvJo:rk has as its task the collecting of produce from the entire forest or distributi.Dg
activities over the forest areas. The tasks of the network are also to ensure its
connexion with the long distance transport and to lead the traffic in ·(;he most oconomic
manner from the Hoods to the processing industry. Transport lines of greater
importance should be planned by the transport manager.
2.1 E.§Jl--.§_ha)?ed"-networl£
The general ru~e is that the skidding or Hood transportation cos0s increase as we
move away from the economic centre, for exa.11ple the place of 1wod deli very. 0I·ig1nal:Ly,
the :roe.ds were roughly built along the shortest possible route f:com the landing to the
location of the matvre stands. A fan-shaped road network bas little collecting or
d:'c.stributing capacity as illustrated in figure 4. The spacing botvreen the roads
in@eases 1-J:lth the distances from the landings or places of deli:very"
LOG/ SYMP. 5/3 page 8
Figure 4
2.2. Serpentine-shaped net1vork,
In steep terrain the roads are often located along the steepest possible route
from the landing in the valley to the top of the hillside. The result is often a
serpentine-shaped networkJ where the road spacing varies from 0 upwards, and the
network's collecting capacity is limited (figure 5).
Figure 5
z,j. Collecting network.
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 9
The object of the internal transport net-vmrk in forestry is to reduce the
logging costs, which include harvesting, terminal operations transport and other
activities of the total forest area. A striking feature of modern logging
technique is to keep down to a minimum all terminal operations (conversion of trees
to assortments, loading, reloading, etc.), This is. achieved by means of a "' collecting forest transport network (figLITe 6). Such a ramification often involves
somevJhatlonger transport distances from stump to landings. It is, however, justified
by the possibilities it offers to reduce terminal costs and thereby the total logging
costs.
LOCT/SYIV.LP, 5/3 page 10
According to the operational function of the various transport lines the transport
network may be divided into access roads, feeder roads and terminalf!..
Terminals
2.31. Access roads.
Access roads connect the terrain compartments with the landing or place of
delivery along the long distance transport network. It has mainly a length function,
i.e. underway function, along the transport line.
;;_~)~~· Feeder roads
The function of feeder roads is part collecting and part distributing.
The lo.cation of these roads over the terrain compartment .must be planned in
such a \·JaY that they enjoy greatest possible contact with the area by the shortest
possible route.
Hinch skidding, loading or ! imbing \vi th harvesting machines and other cross
functions often take place from the feeder roads. Feeder roads have also a length
function because underway operations along the road play an important part, Feeder
roads have partly a length function and partly a cross function because some terminal
operations as well as some undervmy operations take place along these parts of the
transport network,
2.33. Terminals
A transport network must include conversion sites, or processing sites, where
operations like loading, reloading, unloading, barking, conversion, delimbing etc.
nmy take place, The more difficult the terrain conditions, the more important the
inclusion of terminals in the transport net1-Jork. In tropical forests \-There the
rainy season may stop operations, or in mountainous regions 1t1ith extremely difficult
terrain conditions, the total layout of the transport network is decided by the
possible location of terminals. Figure 7 illustrates some of the main types of
transport lines in a collecting forest transportation network.
Figure 7
~ ~ ~ ' t 4
t t t t t \ tl ........ " "
~ ~ + t ~ ~ Ul
I
t t f t t
4 ~ + ~ t ~ ~
I
t t t t t
ffiilill] .
2.31. Access roads
( under1-my function)
A. Hater transport (floating).
(a)· fjords
(b) rivers
B, Land transport.
(a) railways
(b) public roads
(c)· forest roads
C. Air transport (cableways)
(a) suspended ·Hires
(b) pendulum cableways
(c) round cables
KEY.
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 11
TERMINAL FUNCTION (CROSS FUNCTION)
LOADING PLACE, CONVERSION SITE ETC.
COLLECTING-DISTRIBUTION
UNDERVIA.Y FUNCTION (LENGTH FUNCTION)
INTERNAL FOREST TRANSPORT (SHORT DISTANCE)
EXTERNAL FOREST TRANSPORT (LONG DISTANCE)
COMBINED UNDERvJAY AND TERMINAL FUNCTION
LDG/SYMP. 5/3 page 12
2.32. Feeder roads
(underHay and terminal functions),
A. Water transport (floating)
(a) fjords, lakes and rivers under hillsides Hith short skidding distances.
B. Land transport . . (a) forest roads
(b) tractor roads
(c) skidding .gates
c. Air transport ( cableways).
(a) cable cranes
(b) high lead skidding, etc.
2.33. Terminals
(terminal functions).
A. Conversion sites in the internal transport netHork.
(a) loading and unloading places
(b) bucking places
(c) barking places
(d) conversion sites (delimbing, chipping etc,)
B. Conversion sites in the external transport netHork,
(a) fjord branches
(b) lakes
(c) reloading places
(d) measuring places and measuring installations
(e) bucking places and bucking installations
(f) barking and sorting machines
(g) central conversion sites
Some of the transport netHork - floatHays, railv~ays, a major part of the public
road network, etc. - is illustrated. Owing to development in operational methodology,
part of the existing transport network is no longer actual. Gable access lines
(suspended cables, pendulum cableHays and round cables) have been replaced.by truck
roads. Rivers, fjord branches, lakes etc. in steep terrain are still of interest as
feeder roads.
operations.
Conversion sites in fjords or lakes give good possibility for rational
Access roads are built to overcome differences in height.
LOG/ SYMP. 5/3 page 13
Feeder roads such as truck or tractor roads are laid parallel to each other and
the terrain contours.
In extremely difficult terrain the spacings bet-vreen feeder roads are increased
.and the medium-distance cable cranes function as secondary feeder roads, located
perpendicular to the terrain contours.
Cable systems, such as slack-line cables, cable cranes, high-lead systems etc.
are feeder roa(B and are laid out practically parallel to each other. This gives the
cable system an optimum collecting effect.
to the terrain contours.
The location is in principle perpendicular
In some cases, m1der specific terrain conditions, a fan-shaped or cone-shaped
layout of the line is preferred. These are cases when the cost of setting up,
dismantling and all terminal costs play an important role. The cone or fan-formation
of the network is preferred in spite of a lesser collecting effect .•
Figure 8
3 • 0 • TRANSPORT 11EANS.
lvfost of the machines used in forestry have transportation as a major part of
their operational activities. All the lc;ngth functions are typical parts of the
transportation, The terminal part of the transportation plays an important role,
methodologically as well as economically. Important for the transport capacity is
whether the wood is being transported in full lengths as assortments, or in chips.
Accordingly, the terminal operations include loading, reloading, unloading etc., as
well as the conversion of trees to stems, assortments, chips etc.
Means of transport include all the terminal (cross) functions and underway (length)
functions. Accordingly the means of transport can be divided into underway or terminal
elements. A fevr examples in Fig. 9 illustrate this. Terrrinal functions, underway
functions and combined functions are reprE::sented by different symbols.
Figure 9
Truck with bogie trailer
Bogie-truck
Tractor vii th irailers
Front loader
Articulated framesteered skidding tractor
Harvesting machine
KEY
3.1
3.20
3.3
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 14
Underway functions
Terminal and underway functions
Terminal functions
3.1. Tractive unit.
(underway function)
(a) driving wheel of a truck
(b) tracks of a track-type tractor
(c) driving wheel of processor
- etc, -
3.2. Payload carrier.
(terminal and underVTay function)
(a) loading platform of truck
(b) trailer
(c) tractor sledge
(d) lifting frame of front loader
(e) backplate of skidder
(f) loading frame of processor
- etc. -
3.3. Terminal equipment.
(terminal functioris)
(a) loading equipment
(b) winch
(c) felling, limbing and bucking parts of processor
- etc. -
4,0, GABLE AND WINCH SYSTEMS.
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 15
The cable and ·Hinch systems combine transport means and transport lines. The
skyline is a transport line and the carrier a transport means. Some of the functions
are mainly underway functions. This is typical for the cableVTays which are trans
porting l·lOOd from pile to landing (pendulum cable\.,rays and round cables). Other
functions are mainly terminal functions such as hoist line and hoist winch, loading
winch, winch to pull trees through delimbing rings etc. Some parts of cable systems
have partly an underway and partly a terminal function. Figure 10 illustrates
terminal and underway fm1ctions of some types of cable systems.
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 pag.e 16•· Figure 10
4.2 EZJ Terminal and underway functions
LOG/SYMP. 5/3 page 17
The -;:,erminals or landings may be specified according to terrain condition,
location and function:
4. 31. Function
Pile
Loading platform
Sorting place
Limbing and convr:1rsion site
Le-32. Location
Upper landing
Terrain landing
Terrain terminal
LoHer landing
Roadside landing
Roadside terminal
4.33. Terrain condi~ions
Felling site
Roadside location
Riverside loca-vion
Lake or fjord location.
III. CLASSIFICATION O:F' THE CABLE SYSTEHS.
The terrain classification of forest areas is carried Oclt according to
operational diffienl ti.es Hi thin each terrain compartment, (chapter I).
The transport net\.mrk connects terrain compartments with the long dist.ance
transport netHork and divides the compartment into operational units (chapter II).
In steep terrain operational activities in the area between transport lines
are carried out by means of various types of cable systems. The classificauion of
the cable systems takes the operational method into account. The operational method
depends on the terrain class within each operational unit.
There J.s a close relation between operational methods and the cable systems.
The cable system may be subdivided into equipment elements. Elements of a general
nature may be defined on the basis of a theoretical cableway, as ill-u..strated in
figure 11. The eleme1rl1s sho1trn in this illustration may be found i::1 most cable
systems. In some systems certain parts of the elements do not exist. Their
