Tanzania

Prepared by Dr. Riziki Shemdoe

Climate GoveRnanCe & DeveloPmentCaSe StuDy

A Acronyms

ASDS Agricultural Sector Development Strategy

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCD Convention on Combating Desertification and Drought

CH4 Methane

CO Carbon Monoxide

CO2, Carbon Dioxide

CoP Conference of Parties

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

EMA Environmental Management Act

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHGs Greenhouse Gases

GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LDCs Least Developed Countries

LGAs Local Government Authorities [Associations?]

MCDI Mpingo Conservation and Development Initiative

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MLD Ministry of Livestock Development

MPs Members of Parliament

MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework

N2O Nitrous Oxide

NAPAs National Adaptation Programmes of Action

NEAC National Environmental Advisory Committee

NEMC National Environmental Management Council

NFP National Forest Programme

NGOs Non Governmental Organizations

NSGRP National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty

O&OD Opportunities and Obstacles to Development

OSS Sahara and Sahel Observatory

PMO-RALG Prime Minister’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

RDS Rural Development Strategy

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

SWMP Sustainable Wetland Management Programme

TFCG Tanzania Forest Conservation Group

TMA Tanzania Meteorological Authority

ToR Terms of Reference

TNRF Tanzania Natural Resources Forum

TRCS Tanzania Red Cross Society

UN United Nations

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

URT United Republic of Tanzania

USD United States Dollar

VPO Vice President’s Office

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

B Contents

04 1. IntroductIon

06 2. clImate change and development - tanzanIan context

2.1 Climate change vulnerability

2.1.1 Geographic, demographic and socio-economic overview of Tanzania

2.1.2 Brief overview of climate change predictions for Tanzania

09 3. clImate change and the economy

3.1 Implications for the water and energy sectors

3.2 Impacts on agriculture

3.3 Impacts on biodiversity and natural resources

3.4 Impacts on coastal infrastructure

3.5 Impacts on human health

3.6 Overall impacts on economic output

15 4. gender aspects of clImate change

4.1. Defining gender in the context of climate change

4.2. Gender differentiated vulnerability to climate change

4.3. Gendered impacts of climate change

4.4. Tools for integrating gender into climate policy and broader development framework

4.4.1. Gendered vulnerability assessment

4.4.2. Gender impact assessment

4.5.3. Gender budgeting

4.5.4 Gender equality audit

21 5. clImate change and natIonal governance frameworks

5.1 National legal and policy framework for climate change

5.2 Climate change and development planning

5.2.2. Institutional set up to oversee environmental management in Tanzania

Table 1. Institutional set up to oversee environmental management in Tanzania

5.2.3. The national planning and budgeting frameworks

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the national planning and budgeting process in Tanzania

5.2.4. Integration of climate change into development planning

5.2.4. Relevant government institutions for mainstreaming climate change adaptation

30 6. response optIons and entry poInts for IntegratIon

32 references

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Climate change is increasingly recognized as a developmental challenge and an impediment to achieving the Millennium Development Goals in Africa. The continent is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because of its geographical characteristics and weak institutional, human, economic and financial capacity to cope. Vulnerability to climate change on the continent is compounded by the over-dependence of economies on climate sensitive sectors, particularly agriculture. In order to deal with these impacts, African states are required to develop climate change response strategies such as National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) that articulate their vulnerabilities and impacts to climate change. These plans will guide Least Developing Countries (LCDs) in how they respond to the threat of climate change in the short and longer term. Most African countries have undertaken steps to develop such strategies and plans. However, the majority of these plans remain largely unimplemented. Moreover, in many African countries, climate change planning remains a stand-alone activity that is not integrated with development planning processes.

The need to integrate climate change adaptation into development planning and decision-making processes has become increasingly apparent with the general recognition of the multiple linkages between development and climate change adaptation. Increasing knowledge on how climate change impacts may jeopardize the results and impacts of many development efforts and compromise the achievement of development goals presents a clear case for integration. Concern that some development activities may inadvertently lead to an increase in exposure and/or vulnerability to climate change, necessitates an improved understanding of the synergies between development and adaptation, and how integration can be optimized to address the root causes of vulnerability.

There currently exists no real link at a high political level between predicted climate change impacts and development planning in most African countries, including Tanzania. Although the responsibility for climate change adaptation often lies with the Ministry of Environment, it is critical to have the issue recognized as an economy-wide concern. If not, the ability to effectively address climate change within the broader objective of poverty reduction is severely weakened.

01 Introduction

There currently exists no real link at a high political level between predicted climate change impacts and development planning in most African countries, including Tanzania.

Maize farmer, Malawi. Photographer Greg Lomas

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Country-specific evidence of the potential economic costs of climate change impacts and the benefits of investing in adaptation is key for the integration of climate change responses into central development planning processes and for ensuring that sufficient financial resources for climate change adaptation measures are allocated in national, regional and local budgets.

Tanzania’s economy and the livelihoods of its people are highly reliant on natural resources, which in turn depends on climatic conditions. Agriculture (including fisheries and forestry) accounts for some 45% of GDP and 80% of total employment in the country. Significant changes in rainfall patterns could jeopardise many livelihoods. About 55% of Tanzania’s electricity is generated from hydropower plants, which depends on healthy rivers and water flow. And tourism, which is largely centred on wildlife resources, which could come under threat by a changing climate, is an important contributor to economic output.

As Tanzania straddles the equator and borders the Western Indian Ocean, it is already subject to considerable climatic variation, particularly associated with climatic oscillations of the southern oceans, which lead to El Nino events. The country experiences frequent droughts and floods: drought in 1996-7, floods in 1997-8, drought in 1999-2000, floods in 2000-01, drought in 2005-6 and floods in 2009. The impacts of these events have been evident in the country’s economic output, with severe flood and drought events costing Tanzania up to 1% of annual GDP (GCAP et al. 2011). In neighbouring Kenya and the East African Community (EAC) as a whole, some estimates suggest that major drought years can lead to losses of up to 5% of GDP (Mogaka et al. 2006, GTZ 2009 in GCAP et al. 2011).

Climate change impacts on the economy have also to be seen in the context of a rapidly growing population, a high rate of urbanisation, the challenges of maintaining competitiveness in the context of globalisation and the country’s strategies for development over the next decades. Tanzania has committed itself to an ambitious poverty reduction strategy to transform itself into a middle-income country by 2025. Adequate consideration of climate change impacts in development planning is imperative to achieve this goal the.

Tanzania’s economy and the livelihoods of its people are highly reliant on natural resources, which in turn depends on climatic conditions. Agriculture accounts for some 45% and 80% of total employment in the country.

Drought tolerant maize, Tanzania. Photographer Anne Wangalachi/CIMMYT

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2.1 CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITy

2.1.1 Geographic, demographic and socio-economic overview of Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania is a vast country measuring a total area of 945,087 square kilometres (URT, 2007). The country shares borders with Burundi, DR Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda and Zambia and sea boarders with the Indian Ocean island states Comores and Seychelles. The country’s 800 km long coastline extends from Tanga in north-eastern Tanzania to the Mtwara region in the south. Elevations range from sea level to the highest point in Africa, the 5895 m high glaciated peak of Kilimanjaro, the expansive slopes of which constitute a unique ecosystem. Tanzania also includes the Serengeti, the site of one of the last major terrestrial mammalian migrations in the world and a prominent tourist destination (Agrawal et al., 2003).

Population density is fairly low, at approximately 43 persons per square kilometre. Tanzania, like many other developing countries, is urbanizing rapidly amidst increasing environmental challenges. Population growth data over the last four decades shows that while there has been a decline in the urban population growth rate per annum, rapid urbanization and unregulated expansion of cities have persisted. Statistics show that while the urban population was only 5.7 percent of total national population in 1967, the proportion grew to 23.1 percent in 2002 and is currently estimated to be over 30 percent.

Tanzania's economy depends on the use of natural resources, rain-fed agriculture and biomass for household energy. The economy is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change and to extreme weather events. Tanzania has about 88.6 million hectares of land suitable for agricultural production, including 60 million hectares of rangelands suitable for livestock grazing (URT, 2007). There are seven agro-ecological zones in Tanzania: costal, arid, semi-arid, plateau, the Southern and Western Highlands, the Northern Highlands and alluvial plains.

Each of these agro-ecological zones is affected differently by different climate change-induced impacts. Their problems include water shortages for the coastal zone, overgrazing

02 Climate change and development - Tanzanian context

Tanzania's economy depends on the use of natural resources, rain-fed agriculture and biomass for household energy. The economy is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change and to extreme weather events.

Bakery, Malawi. Photographer Greg Lomas

Bakery. Livingstonia, Malawi.

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for the arid land, soil erosion in the semi-arid land, deforestation in the plateaus and bush fires in the Northern highlands (URT, 2007).

Local communities’ capacity to deal with climate variability is also changing. As stated in Enhart and Twena (2006), while the intensities of droughts and floods are on the increase, local peoples’ coping strategies have eroded, making them more vulnerable. Dry land areas have been experiencing frequent crop failure and food shortage over the years, which results in low and unreliable crop and livestock production leading to food insecurity (Potter, 2006).

2.1.2 BrIef overvIew of clImate change predIctIons for tanzanIa

Climate change predictions for Tanzania indicate that the annual temperature may rise by an average of 2.2oC with higher increases of up to 2.6oC over June to August and lower values of up to 1.9oC for the period December to February by the year 2100.

Projections show that areas with bimodal rainfall pattern will experience a 5% to 45% increase in rainfall. By contrast those with unimodal rainfall pattern will experience a 5% to 15% decrease in rainfall (URT, 2007). Considerably higher variations in rainfall and temperatures are expected to be observed in 2100 in different agro-ecological zones of the country. Water flow in the Rufiji Basin is expected to increase, while a decrease in flows is expected in other key basins such as Wami-Ruvu and Pangani (Mwandosya et al 1998). De Wit and Stankiewicz (2006), predict a 136% rise in perennial drainage in central Tanzania and a 125% rise in northwest Tanzania from current levels by the turn of the century.

Meanwhile, it is projected that the availability of fresh water will decrease to half 1990s levels by the year 2025 (Sharma et al, 1996 cited in Enhart and Twena, 2006). This will cause a lot of stress to the country as more than quarter of the population is already spending more than half an hour per day working to collect water (Enhart and Twena, 2006).

SECTORS VULNERABLE TO CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS IN TANZANIA

In Tanzania, a number of sectors have been reported to be vulnerable to climate change. Most of these sectors are those that make a big contribution to poverty alleviation and development. As indicated in Watkis et al (2011), climate change has significant economic cost in Tanzania as it affects important sectors on which the GDP of the nation depends. These sectors as detailed in URT (2007) include the agriculture, water, health, forestry and wetlands, energy, coastal and marine sectors, as well as wildlife, tourism and industry.

AGrICuLTure

Agriculture, as the main economic sector in Tanzania, is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. The nature and type of vulnerability in this sector include decreased crop production that is influenced by climate variability and unpredictability of rainfall seasonality, degradation of the natural resource base as well as environmental degradation (URT, 2007).

Cattle causing dust cloud. Photographer BBC Climate Champions

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WATer

Water contributes to the development of the agricultural sector, as well as to industrial production, power generation for both industrial and domestic purposes, and other numerous services essential for development (URT, 2007). According to the projections reported in URT (2007), an increase in temperature of between 1.8-3.6oC in catchment areas of Pangani in northeast Tanzania, for example, will lead to a decrease of 6-9% of the annual river flow. This will have a lot of effects in other production sectors and hit the livelihoods of the communities in the country hard.

HeALTH

Climate change, particularly rising temperatures, will have negative health effects in the country, especially in influencing malaria and water-borne and other related diseases. URT (2007) indicates that malaria is the largest cause of loss of lives in the country, accounting for about 16% of all reported deaths. The increase in temperature is linked to the increase in deaths that are caused by malaria and other associated diseases.

enerGY

Watkis et al (2011) predicts climate change to have substantial effect on supply and demand of energy. It is indicated that, on the supply side, about 55% of the country’s power generation has been affected by drought in recent years. Projections show that an increase in temperature will exacerbate the situation. The projected 2.2oC increase in temperature will result in high demand for energy for cooling, and this will have negative effects on the national economy as a substantial amount of money will be required to import fossil fuels for power generation (Watkis et al., 2011).

CoAsTAL AnD MArIne

As reported in Bezabih et al (2010), many tropical fishes have evolved to survive in very warm waters. Nevertheless, with the expected 2.2oC rise in temperature, some species may go extinct due to high temperatures. The reproductive capacity of other fish species may be inhibited, and less fish will be available in both marine and fresh water bodies. Bezabih et al (2010) give an example of a comparative study on fisheries in the north end of Lake Tanganyika where the current levels of fish production is lower as a result changing in water levels.

BIoDIversITY

Wildlife is one of the sectors that are vulnerable to the impact of climate change in Tanzania. The vulnerability of this sector is to both change in temperature and rainfall. Most of the areas where flora and fauna are located have some characteristics of semi aridity. Thus, change in temperature will affect the availability of water and grasses for both grazers and browsers, resulting in more deaths of wild animals. Increase in the intensity of rainfall will result in floods, which will have negative impact on the habitats of both flora and fauna (Tanzania NAPA, 2007).

InDusTrY

The industrial sector will also be affected by climate change-induced impacts. Most of the industries in the country get their energy from hydropower, a sector that is sensitive to climate change and climate variability. As indicated in URT (2007) climate change will lead to reduced rainfall and drought. Poor rainfall will also result in a shortage of raw materials from agriculture. Poor rainfall will also result in reduced water supply to the industries, and hence impair production.

Climate change, particularly rising temperatures, will have negative health effects in the country, especially in influencing malaria and water-borne and other related diseases.

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The Tanzanian government has become increasingly concerned with environmental issues in recent years. Within the water sector, the Pangani River Basin has been the subject of a multidisciplinary study on integrated river basin management in which climate change scenarios have been analysed to determine the possible outcomes of different water resource management strategies. Several studies have been conducted on the impacts of climate change on a national scale. GCAP et al. (2011) conducted a comprehensive assessment of the potential impacts of climate change on the Tanzanian economy both at the sectoral and aggregate scales. Bezabih et al. (2011) have analyzed the economic impacts of climate change-induced adjustments on the performance of the Tanzanian economy, using a countrywide Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model.

3.1 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WATER AND ENERGy SECTORS

Hydropower supplies about 55% of Tanzania’s electricity, and is highly dependent on water flows at any point in time. During drought, water shortages lead to frequent blackouts and makes the national power supplier rely on purchasing power generated from thermal power plants in order to meet some of the shortfall. Droughts have cost in the order of US$70 million, and power shortfalls have reportedly cut economic growth by more than 1% (World Bank). GCAP et al. (2011) estimate that climate change has the potential to impact power generation in southern and central Tanzania. Brown et al (2011) show that climate change could have very bad consequences for power generation in the north as well. It is estimated that increased temperatures will reduce the efficiency of thermal generation, leading to costs of about US$10 million by 2030 (GCAP et al. 2011). This does not take into account any impact that shortages of cooling water supply to these plants may have. Problems with power generation will be exacerbated by increased demand

Climate change predictions indicate that water will become increasingly scarce, exacerbating existing shortages. However, there is still a high degree of uncertainty around these predictions. Even without the effects of climate change, water shortages are hampering economic development. Water is also closely linked to human welfare through its influence

03 Climate change and the economy

Hydropower supplies about 55% of Tanzania’s electricity, and is highly dependent on water flows at any point in time. During drought, water shortages lead to frequent blackouts and makes the national power supplier rely on purchasing power generated from thermal power plants in order to meet some of the shortfall.

rice sowing. Photographer Cleves Kristensen

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on nutrition status and availability of water for domestic use and other needs. A lack of water leads to conflicts between different types of water users (Madulu 2003). Problems of water scarcity will need to be addressed through integrated water resources management (IWRM) that includes catchment conservation measures and water demand management. A study in the Pangani River Basin has shown that climate change will have a serious impact on local livelihoods and the economy, and highlights the importance of IWRM (Box 1).

3.2 IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE

Agriculture plays a key role in Tanzania’s economy, and employs about 80% of the total population. The majority of agricultural output is by small-scale farmers, and much of it is low input agriculture being carried out at a subsistence level. Agriculture is crucial to the livelihoods of the majority of Tanzania’s rural population. Climate change will impact on this sector through reduced crop yields due to drought and floods, and reduced water availability, damage caused by floods, and increased evapo-transpiration as a result of higher temperatures (Levira 2009). Several studies have been undertaken on the impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector, with a wide range of assumptions, models and results. Some studies predict very large negative impacts on the sector, while others predict that impacts will be fairly minor, and that climate change may even have positive impacts in certain areas. GCAP et al. (2011) conducted a study on maize production, which is highly vulnerable to the combined effect of rising temperature and decreasing rainfall. If rainfall does not decrease, then impacts would be expected to be minor or even positive. However, if rainfall decreases by 15% as projected by some models for some areas by 2030, then production could be expected to decrease in those areas by up to 16% (1 million tonnes/year), and losses of up to 25% – 35% (2 – 2.7 million tonnes) would be expected by 2050. In a worst-case scenario this could lead to costs of up to US$330 million per year in 2030 and US$36-157 million in 2050. GCAP et al. (2011) have highlighted the fact that the actual impacts could be worse, since the existing studies do not take into account the impact of extreme events and variability, and the possible increase in pests and diseases.

BOx 1. Water management in the Pangani River Basin

The Pangani River Basin in north-eastern Tanzania provides a good opportunity for evaluating the economic issues around water resources and the impacts of climate change. The basin already experiences conflicts over scarce water resources between different sectors and between upstream and downstream users (Turpie et al. 2003). Due to the reduction in water flows, aquatic ecosystems have become degraded and water resources are polluted.

Climate change will impact on this sector through reduced crop yields due to drought and floods, and reduced water availability, damage caused by floods, and increased evapo-transpiration as a result of higher temperatures (Levira 2009

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Population growth and urbanisation in the upper basin will increase these tensions. During the past few years, a detailed study was carried out on the basin, comprising ecological and socio-economic baseline studies, the construction of basin models and the analysis of water management scenarios.

The study found that if water management continues to proceed with a focus on smallholder irrigation agriculture (the dominant rural livelihood in the basin) after meeting expanded urban demands, then this will be at the cost of hydropower generation and ecosystem services, eroding the economic output of the basin by over 20%, even when it is assumed that irrigation use will become more efficient. Focusing on hydropower generation, to the benefit of the national economy, will impact negatively on the wellbeing of people in the basin because of their dependence on agriculture, though it will result in improved ecosystem integrity. This is already a difficult trade-off to be made by managers, and a middle road has to be found while also acting to reduce opportunity costs by increasing water supply and reducing demand.

Under the influence of climate change, flow patterns are altered in such a way that all aspects will be negatively affected, no matter where the management objectives are focused. This is a major ‘wake-up call’ for the Tanzanian authorities to undertake IWRM. Source: Brown et al. 2011

In addition to crop production, livestock production would also be expected to suffer as a result of reduced water and grazing, and more favourable conditions for pests and pathogens (Mwandosya et al. 1998). Although pastoralists already deal with climate-related stresses in arid and semi-arid lands, climate change will undermine the resilience and stability of these pastoral systems, and could have significant impacts on pastoral livelihoods (GCAP et al. 2011).

3.3 IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITy AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Tanzania’s natural ecosystems, including terrestrial, wetland and coastal ecosystems, are already under stress from overutilization and fragmentation. Changing temperature and rainfall patterns may lead to further losses of biodiversity because these changes will probably occur faster than ecosystems can adapt to them. Indeed, it is projected that Tanzania’s ecological zones will undergo major spatial shifts (GCAP et al. 2011). These ecosystems play an important role in peoples’ livelihoods (see Turpie 2000), and climate change will have an impact on a resource base that plays an important role as a safety-net for the poor as well as in diversifying risk in rural households.

Fisheries are a significant source of revenue and employment in Tanzania. Although both inland and coastal fisheries are likely to suffer under the effects of climate change, no estimates have been made as to the potential magnitude of this effect. Freshwater fisheries are strongly linked to freshwater flows, as are flow-dependent marine fisheries such as prawn

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fisheries. Further declines in these fisheries will be inevitable where catchments are subject to decreased rainfall. Freshwater fisheries may also be negatively impacted by reduced oxygen levels as a result of higher temperatures (Fick et al. 2005). Inshore marine fisheries are also likely to be affected. Indian Ocean coral reefs have experienced significant bleaching since 1998, and a continuation of this trend will lead to reductions in fish stocks and may exacerbate the tendency for fishers to use illegal fishing methods, compounding the problem.

Along with these reductions in the capacity for ecosystems to deliver provisioning services, ecosystem degradation will compromise their ability to provide regulating services such as carbon sequestration and water quality amelioration, and cultural services such as opportunities for recreation. There has been very little work on the value of ecosystem services in Tanzania, let alone the impact of climate change on their economic value.

About 20% of Tanzania’s total land area is protected, and tourism generates significant income to the country. With losses in biodiversity, tourism income could be severely affected. Industries that are potentially vulnerable are wildlife tourism (e.g. if wildlife densities and migratory routes are affected) and coral reef tourism (e.g. if reefs are damaged by bleaching). Indeed, it has been found that in the Mombasa–Zanzibar area, a 30% loss of corals resulted in tourism losses of the order of US$1218 million (Payet & Obura, 2004, IPCC, 2007). No studies have been undertaken to estimate the potential overall impacts of climate change on tourism, however.

3.4 IMPACTS ON COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE

A large proportion of Tanzania’s population and infrastructure is concentrated at the coast, including many of its tourist hotels. This includes the capital city, Dar es Salaam (>3 million people), which is projected to become a mega-city (>10 million people) by 2040. This coastal infrastructure is vulnerable to damage from storm surges that extend further as a combination of sea level rise and increased frequency of storm events. According to Mwandosya et al (1998), the Kunduchi and Bahari beaches in Dar-es-Salaam have already been so badly eroded that a huge investment has been required to keep them usable.In Dar es Salaam, 8% of the land area falls below 10m altitude above sea level, making it vulnerable to a 1:100 storm surge event with sea level rise. In 2030, this would put about 100,000 people and US$400 million worth of assets at risk (GCAP et al. 2011). In the absence of adaptation measures to ensure appropriately planned development and protection

Indian Ocean coral reefs have experienced significant bleaching since 1998, and a continuation of this trend will lead to reductions in fish stocks and may exacerbate the tendency for fishers to use illegal fishing methods, compounding the problem.

Local fisherman, Malawi. Photographer Greg Lomas

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measures, some 300,000 to 1.6 million people in Tanzania would be at risk of annual flooding as a result of sea-level rise by 2030. Sea level rise could lead to significant losses of land in turn leading to forced migration of up to hundreds of thousands of people. Up to 8% of wetland areas could be lost to coastal flooding by 2050.

The overall costs of damage caused by coastal flooding have been estimated to be in the order of US$26-55 million per annum by 2030 (2005 prices; GCAP et al. 2011).

3.5 IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Climate change can be expected to impact on human health both directly, as a result of heat and climate-related disasters, and indirectly, as a result of the change in climate providing more favourable conditions for pests and pathogens. Tropical diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis (bilharzia) are two major concerns. Increasing temperatures and reduced stream flow will lead to an expansion in the range of malaria. It has been estimated that the increased disease burden in Tanzania could cost the state some US$20–100 million per year by 2030, and US$36–150 million by 2050, depending on the assumptions made about climate and development (GCAP et al. 2011). This estimate does not take into account the potential loss in human productivity as a result of high temperatures.

3.6 OVERALL IMPACTS ON ECONOMIC OUTPUT

Tanzania’s economy is highly susceptible to climate change. After the Republic was formed, massive interventions were made in the agricultural sector, including ‘villagisation’, and all land became state property. But these interventions led to declines in production. When the coffee prices declined at the end of the 1970s, the Tanzanian economy collapsed (Bezabih et al. 2011). Thereafter, Tanzania implemented a series of structural adjustment programmes during the 1980s and 1990s that led to rapid economic growth focused in the agricultural sector and in tourism (Bezabih et al. 2011). Most of Tanzania’s economic activities still depend on climate change-sensitive sectors, such as agriculture, livestock, fisheries, forestry, water, and tourism. Because of the combination of already-degraded environments, the dominance of climate-sensitive sectors in the economy, and the low adaptive capacity in some regions, Tanzania will be highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change on agriculture and food security, water resources, human health, physical infrastructure, and ecosystems (Bezabih et al. 2011; see Table 1). Unless there is a concerted effort to improve its resilience to climate change, Tanzania could face serious impacts on its economy. As such, climate change has the potential to constrain economic growth and even undo some of the gains that have been made in past decades.

TAble 1. Summary of expected climate change impacts by 2030 (based on GCAP et al. 2011)

Direct impacts of climate change on sectors such as agriculture and fisheries will lead to reductions in employment, lower agricultural export earnings and other losses associated with a decline in rural income, reduced consumption and investment and destocking.

Indicative costs of climate change without adaptation

Water Not quantified, impacts on water supply costs plus cross-cutting impacts

energy Loss of hydropower US$70 million/yLoss of thermal power efficiency - US$10 million/y

Agriculture Loss of maize production US$330 million/yImpacts on other crops and livestock unknown

biodiversity and natural resources Includes fisheries and tourism impacts, not quantified

Coastal infrastructure Damages could cost US$26–55 million/y

Human health Malaria & diarrhoea only total cost of US$18–98 million/y

Climate change can be expected to impact on human health both directly... as a result of the change in climate providing more favourable conditions for pests and pathogens.

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Significant droughts already have additional multiplier effects on the economy, the rate of inflation, interest rates, credit availability, levels of savings, the government budget deficits and external debt stocks (Seitz & Nyangena 2009). Droughts appear to have a bigger impact than floods in East Africa. During the 2000 drought, agricultural GDP in East Africa declined by 14%, leading to reduction in GDP growth of 5.8%. In Tanzania, Seitz & Nyangena (2009) found that a 10% change in annual rainfall results in a 1.9% change in GDP. Data from other East African countries suggest that the impact of change in mean annual temperature is more pronounced and adverse to the economy than a similar change in annual precipitation (Seitz & Nyangena 2009).

Aggregate models suggest that climate change will lead to losses of 1.5–2% of annual GDP by 2030 (GCAP et al. 2011). This implies economic losses of at least US$1.5 billion per year by 2030 (in 2006 prices). The cumulative effect of these losses is likely to reduce Tanzania’s chances of achieving key economic and development targets, and to delay its plans for achieving middle income status (GCAP et al. 2011).

Bezabih et al. (2011) suggest that the impact may not be so bad in the long term. Using a dynamic Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model originally developed by Lofgren et al. (2001), Bezabih et al. (2011) simulated the impacts of climate-induced changes in land-based productivity in Tanzania for the period 2010 to 2085, against a backdrop of population growth of 1.6% per annum. They found that the outcome depended more on total factor productivity growth (the part of economic growth that is as a result of increased efficiency rather than increases in the use of factors of production, such as labour, capital, or land) than on climate change. In other words, with the right response by society, much of the potential impact could be alleviated. In Tanzania, in spite of the massive losses in land productivity that may occur, farmers would be able to adapt over a 75-year period so that the overall impact may only be a small percentage of national income.

The analysis by Bezabih et al. (2011) suggests that if the country was able to maintain its growth in total factor productivity, then it could be a middle-income country by the end of 2085. In other words, overall economic development, with suitable policies, will be as important in mitigating climate change impacts as direct mitigation measures. Such policies could include cheap loans for investing in capital to make up for lost land productivity, those that develop markets for new products, and those that encourage switches to more efficient crops. Such policies could reduce the impacts dramatically. However, while this optimistic scenario may play out in the long term, current predictions suggest that adaptation is urgently required to alleviate the impacts of climate change that are projected to occur within the next 20 years.

The scope and degree to which the impacts of climate change affect different groups of society varies considerably. In a developing country context with a high percentage of rural inhabitants, women and children are usually the worst affected. Women and girls are the ones involved in fetching water, therefore water scarcity associated with drying up of water sources pose more stress to women and children than to men. Women also form the majority of rural dwellers who depend on subsistence rain fed agriculture for their livelihood. With less rain, smaller crops will be produced, thus negatively affecting household food security. Climate change adaptation measures therefore need to take the gender dimension of climate change impacts into account.

Direct impacts of climate change on sectors such as agriculture and fisheries will lead to reductions in employment, lower agricultural export earnings and other losses associated with a decline in rural income, reduced consumption and investment and destocking.

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4.1. DEFINING GENDER IN THE CONTExT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Gender refers to the differences in socially constructed roles and opportunities associated with being a man or a woman, and the interactions and social relations between men and women. Gender determines what is expected, permitted and valued in a woman or a man in a determined context.

Gender planning refers to the technical and political processes and procedures necessary to implement gender-sensitive policy. Its purpose is to ensure gender-sensitive policy outcomes through a systematic and inclusive process. (Reeves and Baden, 2000). Gender planning is not an end in itself but a means by which women, through a process of empowerment, can emancipate themselves. By applying gender based planning, critical information about who will or will not be affected by or benefit from a policy will be revealed. This pertains to women and men, and to the diversity of circumstances in the male and female populations.

4.2. GENDER DIFFERENTIATED VULNERABILITy TO CLIMATE CHANGE

The IPCC has predicted that climate change impacts will be differently distributed among different regions, generations, age classes, income groups, occupations and genders. It also predicts that the poor, primarily but by no means exclusively in developing countries, will be disproportionately affected. Gender inequalities are directly linked with poverty and the vulnerability of poor men and women to climate change and variability will aggravate inequities in health and access to food, clean water and other resources (World Bank, 2008). The gender differential vulnerability is attributed to existing inequalities such as unequal access to resources, gendered divisions of labour and decision-making power which may affect the ability to respond to the effects of climate change.

As the main natural resource users and managers in rural Tanzania, the adverse effects of climate change are likely to be felt disproportionately by women. However, as vulnerability to climate change depends on control of financial, physical, natural, human and social capital,

04 Gender aspects of climate change

Gender refers to the differences in socially constructed roles and opportunities associated with being a man or a woman, and the interactions and social relations between men and women.

Children collecting water. Photographer BBC Climate Champions

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and because women typically have less access to and control over these resources than men, they are likely to have lower adaptive capacities (Lambrou and Piana 2005).

Due to inequalities between men and women in access to assets and income, women tend to be more dependent on natural resources than men. (Howard, 2003:13) It is easier for men to respond to economic stress by selling off assets they own, migrating to town or accessing rural labour markets. Because of socially differentiated gender roles women have fewer options, and this increases their dependence on natural resources. As a result, a gendered analytical approach to climate change allows the analysis to see differences in vulnerabilities of men and women, but also provides a new approach to stimulating involvement in adaptation and mitigation initiatives.

4.3. GENDERED IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Chapter 2 of this report discusses the impacts that climate change is predicted to have on environmental resources in Tanzania. As agriculture, food production, water and health are some of the sectors that will be impacted by climate change, national climate change policy making will need to consider these from a gender perspective.

AGrICuLTure AnD fooD proDuCTIon

As agriculture in Tanzania is mostly rain-fed, drought or heavy rainfall has huge effects on agricultural. This will have adverse effects on many poor men and women in rural areas that depend for their livelihood on subsistence rain-fed agriculture.

Women and men have different sets of agricultural knowledge and skills, such as knowing which seeds to plant during a dry spell or knowing how to dig a well. Recognizing their contributions will result in a wider range of options for preparing for and coping with change.

It is important for decision makers to consider these impacts on men and women when planning climate change adaptation programmes for agriculture. For example, women in dry areas like Dodoma Singida, Shinyanga and Tabora have come up with different measures like using indigenous storage infrastructure for both seed and crop harvest to avoid the risk of post-harvest decay. They have also formed village or community cereal banks (CCBs) for food security and other benefits associated with banking the crops. (Mketto, 2009).

WATer

Water is an important resource to ensure agricultural productivity for many poor communities and subsistence farmers in Tanzania. A decrease in water availability will result in less agricultural production (Noel, 2011). Moreover, water insecurity increases women’s workload in subsistence farming as they have to dig deep for land preparation and spend more time in the protection and control of diseases caused by climate change (Mketto, 2009).

Gendered expectations also mean that as drought and other natural disasters reduce opportunities for employment at home. Men who are expected to provide for their family have to migrate elsewhere to look for work where they may face exploitation, dangerous working conditions and pressures associated with absence from households.

At a household level, women and girls are the ones that fetch water. Therefore, water scarcity associated with drying up of water sources poses more stress to women and children. To ensure continuous and available water supply, women have asked to government for help with building deep water-wells, tanks and rainwater harvesting systems (Mketto, 2009).

HeALTH

Climate change, particularly a rise in temperature, will influence the malaria pandemic in Tanzania. There is growing evidence to suggest that climate-driven threats to health are already on the increase. For instance, in the recent past it has been reported that malaria

Due to inequalities between men and women in access to assets and income, women tend to be more dependent on natural resources than men.

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has been affecting people in the highlands including the Usambaras and Kilimanjaro regions where the disease was not found in the past. This is reported to be due to rises in temperature in these highlands (Shemdoe, 2011). This will affect women since taking care of sick people is often the responsibility of the women. Sometimes, they are responsible with no resources to support them. In adapting to such situations, rural women have been reverting to the use of low cost traditional medicines and indigenous knowledge and health care (Mketto, 2009). This is a good example of how women are responding to the impact of climate change using resources available to them, such as indigenous knowledge systems.

4.4. TOOLS FOR INTEGRATING GENDER INTO CLIMATE POLICy AND BROADER

DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

Gender analysis tools are used to determine potentially differentiated impacts of policy measures on women and men. However, for all the tools to work, they require training on gender issues for all the staff involved in the process. This involves training on how to communicate in a gender sensitive way, consult women and gender experts and use participatory procedures in all processes (Röhr, 2009).

Tools that can be useful to climate change experts and decision makers for integrating gender into climate policy include the following:

4.4.1. Gendered vulnerability assessment

It is important to undertake gender analysis of all climate change related policies and programmes right at their beginning in order to ensure that the different needs and priorities of women and men are adequately addressed. In addition, national climate change policies and programmes should be matched with the national women policies and international commitments for women.

During a gender vulnerability assessment there are queswtions that should be asked to gather the correct information. These include the following:

• Is the national government is making available climate change information for women and men’s livelihoods? How is this information being disseminated and is it equally accessible to both men and women?

• Do those responsible for climate change policies and programmes demonstrate understanding and awareness of the link between gender and vulnerability? Is this knowledge and recognition being translated into policy and implementation of programmes?

• Do policies and programmes support the empowerment of vulnerable groups? Are women and gender experts involved in planning for adaptation?

Climate change, particularly a rise in temperature, will influence the malaria pandemic in Tanzania.

rural family. Photographer Meaduva

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4.4.2. Gender impact assessment

Gender impact assessments help identify the impact of climate change policies, programmes, projects, and strategies on gender equality and to counter any unintended effects on women or on men. They allow decision makers to plan and implement measures in a tailored and concrete way. They encourage gender equality in policy measures, improve the quality of the assessed policy as a whole and save costs.

The following questions may guide gender impact assessments:

• Care economy (unpaid care-work for the family and community): Does the policy take into account the requirements of care-work adequately, which is mostly done by women?

• Resources: Do the financial resources and measures benefit women to the same extent as men? Does the project lead to a more balanced distribution of public resources?

• Androcentrism (societal fixation on masculinity): Does the policy enforce the centrality of male lifestyles and ways of thinking while those of women are seen as “different”? Or does it help to revise the widespread generalisation of the masculine experience and perspective?

• Women in decision-making: To what extent does the policy contribute to increasing women’s influence in policy design, planning and decision-making processes?

• Symbolic order (positive or negative connotations of female attributes): Does the policy or project contribute to changing gender-based power relations and allocation of duties?

• Harassment: Does the policy contribute to reducing the harassment of women? Does it contribute to relieving women of threats, restrictions and sanctions?

4.5.3. GenDer BuDGeTInG

One of the critical tools for integrating gender into climate policy is gender budgeting. It is mainly important in making a connection between traditionally two separate areas, i.e. gender inequality, and public finances and programmes. It is also about recognizing that finances are not gender neutral.

Gender budgeting does not entail developing separate budgets for women and for men. It is about analysing the government’s main budget according to its benefits to and impacts on women and men, and different groups of women and men. The idea is that financial flows to and from public coffers can put burdens, or allocate benefits, to women and men differently.

In surveying initiatives around adaptation and mitigation, with respect to both national and international funding flows, it is important to detail how much of the money goes to men and how much to women. Tracking systems need to monitor indicators for gender equity, as well as marking what funding goes to gender equality work, to ensure that climate change governance does not have an adverse effect on existing power imbalances.

Tanzania is remarkable in Africa for having an internationally recognized gender budgeting system. It has taken gender budgeting seriously and has invested much work into developing accounting procedures. Part of the reason for its success has been not only political will but also sustained civil society campaigns. (ECA, 2001:12) It will be critical that when Tanzania initiates a process of developing its national climate change response policy, the gender budgeting tool is implemented from the start.

Tanzania is remarkable in Africa for having an internationally recognized gender budgeting system. It has taken gender budgeting seriously and has invested much work into developing accounting procedures.

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There are three steps that should be taken to ensure gender budgeting:

• Analysing the situation in terms of what is the actual distribution of resources between women and men? What is their contribution to and benefits from public services/revenues? What are the reasons for unequal distribution?

• Assessing resource distribution with a view to gender equality. Should resources be distributed equally or differently between women and men so as to create equity? Have gender-differentiated needs been taken into account? What are the root causes for gender-related disparities? Which other objectives shall be pursued in order to reduce unequal distribution?

• Participation measures for gender equality in resource distribution. Whose interest will prevail in the existing budgetary procedure? How powerful are the different groups in achieving their interests? Who needs to be included in order to avoid gender-specific distortions?

4.5.4 Gender equality audit

A gender equality audit examines if and to what extent government is complying with its own or international gender equality standards. Gender equality audits help to identify shortcomings and strategies to overcome them. They also help to motivate government to commit to a set of gender equality targets and build gender-related capacity among the staff.

Gender equality audits are further used to assess whether government’s capacity, resources, strategies and rules for cooperation foster gender equality in a particular organisation and/or its partner organisations. In order to undertake a gender equality audit, information must be provided by government departments. Often compiling the necessary information serves as the first step in sensitising staff to gender inequalities. Gender segregated data must also be collected regularly over time to monitor progress.

A gender equality audit considers whether internal practices and support systems for gender mainstreaming are effective and reinforce each other. They also look at whether and whether such systems are being followed; evaluates the relative progress made in gender equality and gender mainstreaming; establishes a baseline regarding gender equality in the audited organisation; identifies critical gaps and challenges; recommends ways of addressing gaps and suggests new and more effective strategies; and documents good practices for the achievement of gender equality.

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5.1 NATIONAL LEGAL AND POLICy FRAMEWORK FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

Tanzania does not have in place a designated climate change policy as yet. However, in response to climate variability and change impacts to natural and social systems, several national programmes and strategies have been devised which address climate change issues both directly and indirectly. These plans and programmes are in line with international agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol. The following are some of the relevant legal frameworks, plans and strategies:

envIronMenT MAnAGeMenT ACT (eMA, 2004)

Section 75 of Tanzania’s Environment Management Act addresses issues on climate change by giving the Minister of Environment in consultation with relevant sector ministries the mandate to: take measures to address climate change, particularly impacts of climate change and adaptation measures; issue guidelines periodically to Ministries and any other institutions in order to address climate change and its impacts as a result of global warming; require ministries and independent Government departments to put in place strategies and action plans to deal with climate change and to advise schools and higher learning institutions to include matters relating to climate change in their curriculum; review and approve any measure undertaken to address climate change by any institution, firm, sector or individuals be it foreign or local, including those related to the use of land water, forest or any other ecosystems within the republic to sequester greenhouse gases; and project national positions at global level on how to deal with the problem of climate change in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and its related protocols. If well implemented, this legal framework could contribute a lot in addressing climate change issues.

KeY seCTor DeveLopMenT pLAns

Tanzania national Adaptation programme of Action (nApA, 2006)

This was completed as a part of the UN initiatives to help developing countries identify priority activities that respond to their urgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate change. Tanzania’s NAPA preparation has been a timely opportunity to look at the country’s

05 Climate change and national governance frameworks

Tanzania does not have in place a designated climate change policy as yet. However, in response to climate variability and change impacts to natural and social systems, several national programmes and strategies have been devised which address climate change issues both directly and indirectly.

flood damaged area. Photographer us Army Africa

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climate change related vulnerabilities in sectors important for the economy (Tanzania NAPA, 2007). The NAPA comprehensively identified vulnerable sectors to climate change including but not limited to agriculture, water, forestry and wetlands, coastal and marine resources and tourism. The NAPA also puts forward a range of adaptation strategies and priorities. It indicates the existing and potential adaptation activities required for each sector.

Issues addressed in the NAPA include: identifying and developing immediate and urgent activities to adapt to climate change and climate variability; protecting life and livelihoods of the people, infrastructure, biodiversity and environment; and mainstreaming adaptation activities into national and sectoral development policies and strategies, development goals, visions and objectives.

Other issues that are given priority in the NAPA include: the need to increase public awareness to climate change impacts and adaptation activities in communities, civil society and government officials; the need to assist communities to improve and sustain human and technological capacity for environmentally friendly exploitation of natural resources in a changing climate; complementing national and community development activities that are hampered by adverse effects of climate change; and to create long-term sustainable livelihood and development activities at both community and national level in changing climatic conditions.

All these objectives address macro and micro levels of vulnerability and climate change impacts in Tanzania.

Tanzania Development vision 2025

This vision was developed by the Tanzania planning commission to guide economic and social development efforts up to the year 2025. Its objective is to awaken, coordinate and direct the people’s efforts, minds and national resources towards sectors that will enable Tanzania to attain development. Development Vision 2025 is a crucial strategy critically addressing development, economic, environmental and social issues. However, this document has completely sidelined issues of climate change. As highlighted in Agrawala et al (2003), despite the vision’s long time frame, climate change is not mentioned. The vision neither discusses climate-related risks, nor strategies to mitigate or to adapt to them (such as irrigation, reforestation, and crop diversification).

nATIonAL sTrATeGIes

The national strategy for Growth and reduction of poverty (MKuKuTA I & II)

The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, popularly known by its Swahili acronym MKUKUTA, is an organizing framework putting poverty reduction high on the country’s development agenda. It is informed by the aspirations of Tanzania’s Development Vision 2025 for high and shared growth, high quality livelihood, peace, stability and unity, good governance, high quality education and international competitiveness. It is committed to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as internationally agreed targets for reducing poverty, hunger, diseases, illiteracy, environmental degradation and discrimination against women by 2015.

The MKUKUTA I was put in place in June 2005 and now there’s MKUKUTA II which was developed in March 2010. MKUKUTA I touches on the issues of climate change in generic terms. One of the operational targets put forward under this strategy is on vulnerability and environmental conservation and disaster management.

The MKUKUTA II, however, gives some weight to the issue of climate change. For instance, goal 4 under cluster one of the MKUKUTA II advocates for “Ensuring food security and climate change adaptation and mitigation” and the operational target is on having measures pursued and implemented to mitigate and adapt to climate change. It also provides some cluster

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strategies, such as strengthening research, to enable the introduction and adoption of crop varieties able to withstand conditions brought by climate change and improve monitoring of crops and livestock health and management.

Tanzania reDD strategy

The process to develop this strategy is underway. It is anticipated that upon completion, the strategy will enable climate change mitigation through avoided deforestation. So far, the draft national REDD framework is in place and this will guide the formulation of the national REDD strategy. The current national REDD framework addresses crucial issues for addressing climate change such as baseline establishment, monitoring, reporting and verification, governance, necessary institutional arrangements, stakeholder engagement in all aspects of climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions.

rural Development strategy (rDs)

This is a framework for the implementation of the Rural Development Policy, and will enhance the realization of the Poverty Reduction Strategy. The overall objective of the Rural Development Strategy is to provide a strategic framework that will facilitate the co-coordinated implementation of sector policies and strategies concerned with the development of rural communities (RDS, 2001). While sectors such as agriculture which are expected to be highly affected by the impact of climate change are in the rural areas, there is nowhere in the RDS document where issues related to climate change are mentioned.

The poverty reduction strategy paper (prsp)

This is a paper prepared in broad consultation with stakeholders and development partners, including staff of the World Bank and the IMF, to describe the country’s macroeconomic, structural, and social policies in support of growth and poverty reduction, as well as associated external financing needs and major sources of financing.

As noted in Agrawala et el (2003), although Tanzania’s PRSP recognizes the grave impact of weather and climate hazards on development, and particularly on the poor, it neglects climate change. The important impact of climate related risks, however, is clearly recognized. Apparently the PRSP laid a foundation for the development of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) which in one way or the other has eluded issues related to the existing linkages between climate change and poverty.

nATIonAL proGrAMMes

The Tanzania Agriculture sector Development programme (AsDp)

This programme was formulated from 2002-2005 and attempts to address issues such as enabling farmers to have better access to and use of agricultural knowledge, technologies, marketing systems and infrastructure, all of which contribute to higher productivity, profitability, and farm incomes; as well as promoting private investment based on an improved regulatory and policy environment. It is well known that agriculture will be one of the hardest-hit sectors by climate change. Therefore ASDP should mainstream issues of climate change, particularly adaptation and mitigation measures. But analysis shows that issues related to climate change have not been addressed in this programme. This shortcoming is amplified by the ASDP review conducted in 2008, which indicates that climate change was found to have significant impact on crop production, water availability for irrigation and other uses (ASR/PER report 2008). However, integration of adaptation to climate change in planning and implementation of ASDP interventions has not been well covered.

The national forest programme (nfp, 2001-2010)

The NFP is an instrument meant to implement the National Forestry Policy. This was developed in order to address the challenging responsibilities and to increase the forest sectors

The overall objective of the Rural Development Strategy is to provide a strategic framework that will facilitate the co-coordinated implementation of sector policies and strategies concerned with the development of rural communities.

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contribution to the national economy and more so in poverty reduction. The NFP document discusses crosscutting issues, linkages and implications and underscores the need for formal cross-sectoral coordination. Similarly, the NFP document stresses that the government of Tanzania has realized that more comprehensive approaches are needed to ensure sustainable forest management in the country. However, climate change is not discussed and addressed comprehensively. The document only outlines obligations, opportunities and implications of international initiatives to Tanzania’s forest management in the context of the international treaties and initiatives such as United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the Convention on Combating Desertification (CCD), but without providing a clear roadmap on how climate change related issues would be addressed. This is a notable shortcoming given the clear linkages between forestry resources and climate change.

5.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Tanzania has two spheres of government; central government and local government. In the central government, the roles of ministries are confined to the core functions of policymaking, regulation, and monitoring and evaluation of service delivery by local governments, service boards and/or executive agencies, NGOs and the private sector.

Local government comprises of urban and rural authorities. The former are responsible for the administration and development of urban areas ranging from townships to municipalities and cities. Rural authorities, commonly known as district councils, form the second category. Both categories of local authorities are responsible for planning, financing and implementing development programmes within their areas of jurisdiction. Since the planning and budgeting of different activities and programmes at local level start at this stage, local government could be a good entry point for mainstreaming climate change activities into the overall planning and budgeting process at the national level1.

5.2.2 Institutional set up to oversee environmental management in Tanzania

The Environmental Management Act (2004) and the Local Government Acts No. 7 and 8 of 1982 provide for a range of relevant institutions and actors responsible for environmental management, from national to local levels. They include the National Environmental Advisory Committee, the National Environmental Management Council, the Sector Environmental Section (in the Ministry), the Regional Secretariat, the Standing Committee on Urban Planning and Environment (Local Government Acts No. 8 of 1982), the Standing Committee on Economic Affairs, Works and Environment (Local Government Act Nos. 7 of 1982), Village Development Committee and Environmental Management Committee. The functions of these institutions relevant to climate change are described in Table 1.

1 See further detail on the budgeting process in section 5.2.3

The NFP is an instrument meant to implement the National Forestry Policy. This was developed in order to address the challenging responsibilities and to increase the forest sectors contribution to the national economy and more so in poverty reduction.

Harvested cassava in Bungu. Photographer IITA Image Library

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Sn Institution Function

1 National Environmental Advisory Committee (NEAC)

Provides the link between the Minister of Environment and Sector Ministries (for advice, either to and from the Minister and Sector Ministries); Provides recommendations in case of environmental degradation.

2 National Environmental Management Council (NEMC)

Undertakes and co-ordinates research, investigations and surveys in the field of environment and disseminates those information; Enforces and ensures compliance of the national environmental quality standards; Undertakes environment impact assessments as well as education and awareness creation programmes.

3 Sector Environmental Section (in the Ministry)

Ensures that all environmental matters contained in other laws falling under Sector Ministries are implemented (and the report for their implementation reported to the Director of Environment);Prepares and co-ordinates the implementation of environmental action plans at the national and local levels;Promotes public awareness of environmental issues through educational programmes and dissemination of information; Ensures compliance with various regulations, guidelines and procedures issued by the Minister.

4 Regional Secretariat A coordination unit at regional level. It also provides a link between the Ministry and the National Environmental Management Council.

5 Standing Committee on Urban Planning and Environment (for Urban Authorities) and the Standing Committee on Economic Affairs, Works and Environment (for District Authorities)

These committees are responsible, in liaison with LGAs, to perform functions stipulated in the Environmental Management Act. They also carry out all directives given to them by the Minister in relation to promotion and enhancement of sustainable management of the environment.

6 Village Development Committee

Responsible for proper management of the environment

7 Environmental Management Committee

Charged with management function. Also resolves conflicts between individuals, companies, agencies, NGOs, government departments or institutions.

TAble 1. Institutional set up to oversee environmental management in Tanzania

note that standing Committee on urban planning and environment (for urban Authorities) and the standing Committee on economic Affairs, Works and environment (for District Authorities), village Development

Committee and environmental Management Committee are part of the Local Government Authorities.

5.2.3 THE NATIONAL PLANNING AND BUDGETING FRAMEWORKS

The planning practice in Tanzania follows the opportunities and obstacles to development (O&OD) approach, which is essentially a bottom-up approach. The O&OD provides the general framework within which issues and areas of actions are identified in the development planning and budgeting process. Issues are identified at the village level and then forwarded to the ward level where they are consolidated into a Ward Development Plan in a prioritized way. These are then submitted to respective Local Government Authorities (LGAs) at the district level, where they are again consolidated into a District Council Development Plan. This is the important level where issues related to climate change/environmental protection and management are channelled through the Urban Planning, Natural Resources and Environment department of the District Council at the LGAs level. The exercise is normally coordinated by the Planning and Coordination Unit under the Council Director. This is the department that deals with issues related to environment but not climate change per se, implying that issues of climate change might be given little or no attention given the generality of the issues tabled under this department at the district level.

The planning practice in Tanzania follows the opportunities and obstacles to development approach...it provides the general framework within which issues and areas of actions are identified in the development planning and budgeting process.

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The District Council Development Plan is prepared following the guidelines for the preparation of medium term plans and budget frameworks issued by the ministry of finance. Each Ministry, independent Departments and Agencies (MDAs), regions and LGAs prepare their MTEFs as required by the Planning and Budget Guidelines Committee in order to achieve coherent national objectives. Using examples of the guidelines for the preparation of medium term plan and budget framework for the year 2009/2010 – 2011/2012, Local Government Authorities are given the mandate to provide social and economic services in line with macro and sectoral policies.

At the district level the budget is divided into two equal parts. Half of the budget is set aside for village projects and the other half is allocated for the district development projects. If climate change adaptation projects are to be effectively mainstreamed, the village and district projects have to be developed with the understanding that there is a need to include adaptation in these developmental plans and that adaptation measures have to be budgeted for.

After the budget is endorsed at the district level, all districts in a given region submit their approved budget based on the priorities that each district has highlighted to the Regional Administrative Secretary. The consolidated regional budget is then submitted to the Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs for scrutiny. Other plans and budgets from MDAs are also submitted to the ministry of finance alongside with the budgets from the LGAs that are submitted through the regional secretariats. The Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs evaluates the budgets based on the MTEF priorities and associated development plan framework. Once all the regional budgets have been harmonized, two books are produced, one for the recurrent and the other for developmental projects. These books are then submitted to the Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMTC) for discussion and endorsement by the cabinet. The cabinet discusses the budget and endorse it to the Parliamentary Sectoral Standing Committee for further discussion and to the National Assembly where the budget is presented by the Minister of Finance, discussed by the members of the National Assembly and finally approved by the National Assembly.

5.2.4 Integration of climate change into development planning

There is yet to be robust capacity and institutional arrangements at various levels. What appears to be the case now is uncoordinated organizational management for not only addressing climate change-induced impacts, but most importantly to identify them beforehand and plan for their management. Apart from the higher central government level, which seems to be well staffed, the lower levels of LGAs where actual implementation is required to take place are highly understaffed.

At present general environmental issues rather than climate change specifics issues are considered in the planning and budgeting cycle.

people of Tanzania. Photographer CIfor

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At present general environmental issues rather than climate change specifics issues are considered in the planning and budgeting cycle. Even in the budgets that are developed by different LGAs through the O&ODs, little attention is given to climate change mitigation and adaptation, although a lot of issues related to environment and natural resources are included in the budgeted plans. It is therefore essential that climate change adaptation awareness is raised considerably both at LGA and sector ministry level. This is particularly important at the ministry of finance where all plans and budgets are harmonized before they are approved in the National Assembly.

5.2.4 relevant government institutions for mainstreaming climate change adaptation

Overall, integration of climate change adaptation measures should first be clearly defined and entrenched in the national policies and legislations in order to gain legitimacy. There possibly needs to be a review of the Environmental Policy of 1997 and the Environmental Act of 2004 to clearly include climate change issues. These also need to be brought in line with the Tanzanian NAPA and the current NSGRP II, since in the present situation they are broadly treated under environmental management and protection. Possibly, the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) could be charged with more technical rather than administrative responsibilities. This should also be clearly stated in policy and legislation documents. The lower levels of the LGAs should also be strengthened by employing technical personnel with requisite professional knowledge and the necessary working tools. Moreover, climate change adaptation and mitigation awareness raising should be carried out at the ministry of finance, the level at which plans and budgets are being harmonized before the budgets are submitted for approval by the higher level organs and finally by the National Assembly.

FIG. 2. Schematic diagram of the national planning and budgeting process in Tanzania

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sTrATeGIC TeCHnICAL enTrY poInTs To ensure InTeGrATIon of CLIMATe CHAnGe CHALLenGes InTo DeveLopMenT pLAnnInG In THe sHorT, MeDIuM AnD LonG TerM.

Tanzania is taking climate change impact as one of the main issues in the NSGRP. The goal no 4 of the national strategy has been stated clearly that there is a need of ensuring food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation and mitigation.

As this an identified national priority for economic development and poverty alleviation, it is important to ensure that all other developmental programmes are geared to address strategies that are provided by NSGRP II. In order to ensure that climate change adaptation is included in the national budget allocation, there is a need to include climate change adaptation issues in the guidelines for the preparation of the respective planning and budgeting year as well as inclusion of the climate change issues in the five year development plan framework that the government has just introduced. In the current guideline (Guidelines for the Preparation of Medium Term Plan and Budget Framework for 2009/10–2011/12), climate change issues are not emphasized. The current guideline is based on the NSGRP I, which did not put much emphasis on climate change issues. Issues that have been emphasized in the 2009/10–2011/12 framework are on growth and reduction of income poverty, improved quality of life and social wellbeing and on governance and accountability.

Raising awareness and sensitization of climate change adaptation to the committee that is involved in the formulation of the guideline for the preparation of the medium term plan and budget framework is critical for the committee to be able to include those issues in the guidelines. This will form a good entry point for influencing the inclusion of climate change agenda in the guidelines.

There is also a need for raising climate change awareness to the committees at all levels i.e. MDAs and LGAs that are involved in the preparation of the MTEFs this will help ensure that climate change issues are included in the MTEFs at various levels. As the budget is approved by the parliament during the general assembly, climate change awareness raising to the

06 Response options and entry points for Integration

Tanzania is taking climate change impact as one of the main issues in the NSGRP. The goal no 4 of the national strategy has been stated clearly that there is a need of ensuring food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation and mitigation.

safari ngorongoro. Photograhper Berlotti

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members of parliament should also be taken as a serious entry point, to ensure that if climate change issues are not included in the budget of the respective year, members of parliament will be in a position of recommending the inclusion of those issues before the budget is approved.

sTrATeGIC pArTners for proMoTInG THe InTeGrATIon of CLIMATe CHAnGe InTo DeveLopMenT pLAnnInG

In order to promote integration of climate change into development planning, there are a number of strategic partners that should be included. Such partners may include civil society, development partners, private sector, media, research institutions, the multi stakeholder task force for preparation of guideline for the preparation of medium term plan and budget framework as well as the parliamentary committees.

CIvIL soCIeTY

Local and international NGOs dealing with environment, e.g. the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG), Mpingo Conservation and Development Initiatives (MCDI), WWF, IUCN, CARE International in Tanzania, Tanzania Natural Resources Forum (TNRF), etc are potential strategic partners in facilitating adaptation to climate change. The activities that these civil societies are doing could integrate a number of climate change adaptation strategies that at the end of the day will prepare communities in areas where there organizations are working for climate change. These groups can be brought together in special stakeholder consultative meetings to deliberate how climate change mitigation can be mainstreamed in their ongoing initiatives in the country.

DeveLopMenT pArTners

The presence of a range of development partners in the country may help to mainstream the issues of climate change adaptation and mitigation into different developmental projects that they support. Therefore there is a need to approach them and request that they include climate change adaptation and mitigation in their funding programmes to ensure that communities in the areas where these development partners are active are prepared towards climate change mitigation and adaptation.

prIvATe seCTor

This is another important stakeholder suitable to be used as an entry point in mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation. The private sector may be encouraged to invest in areas where communities will benefit. That is to say that the private sector investment should also integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation so that communities could work on those investments.

MeDIA

The variety of media channels such as television, radio and newspapers that are produced in Kiswahili could be useful in awareness raising and information sharing on issues related to climate change mitigation and adaptation. Different programmes that give evidence on the impacts of climate change and the possible mitigations could be prepared and sent out frequently.

reseArCH InsTITuTIons

This is another strategic partner that should be included in promoting the integration of climate change into development planning. Research based findings will help in advocating which strategies should be used to ensure negative climate change impacts are reduced and policy makers make informed decisions.

CLIMATe CHAnGe AWAreness CreATIon To THe pLAnnInG AnD BuDGeT GuIDeLInes CoMMITTee

This is an important entry point for promoting integration of climate change in planning and budgeting. Climate change awareness creation in the committee that is involved in the

In order to promote integration of climate change into development planning, there are a number of strategic partners that should be included. Such as civil society, development partners, private sector, media, research institutions, etc.

Tanzania | 29

preparation of planning and budgeting guidelines is essential for the committee to be able to include climate change issues in its work, which guides the preparation of the MTEFs.

esTABLIsHMenT of pArLIAMenTArY CoMMITTee for CLIMATe CHAnGe, ADApTATIon AnD MITIGATIon

In the parliament of Tanzania there are a number of committees that were established to deal with different sectors. The current committee that could deal with climate change issues is the Committee on Land, Natural Resources and Environment. There is a need form a new parliamentary committee that will deal with climate change matters, or alternatively climate change issues could be included as part of the terms of reference of the Committee on Land, Natural Resources and Environment. This committee could be working on all issues related to climate change in parliament. It could mainstream the climate change agenda in parliamentary plans and policy issues. Such a committees has been established in Botswana’s parliament, a model that could be replicated in Tanzania.

Local fisherman, Malawi. Photographer Greg Lomas

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IPCC, (2007): Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New york, Ny, USA, 996 pp.

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World Bank World Development Report 2008

06 References

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