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Cognitive and Motor DevelopmentChapter 2
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Domains of Human Development
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
There is a strong relationship between human intellectual function and movement: Any intellectual change is also accompanied by a change in motor function.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
ObjectivesDescribe Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development.SensorimotorPreoperations Concrete OperationsFormal OperationsPostformal OperationsExplain two general theories of intellectual development in adulthood. Discuss intellectual decline in older adulthood. Describe the link between knowledge development and sport performance.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Jean Piaget (1896 1980)Swiss psychologist, developmental theorist, and philosopher
Interested in the process of thinking
Established the clinical method of researchCollected data during question-and-answer sessions
1896-1980
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Four Stages of Piagets Theory
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Piagets TheoryAdaptationCognitive development occurs thorugh this processAdjusting to the demands of the environment and intellectualizing those adjustmentsTwo facets of adaptationAssimilationAccommodation
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Piagets TheoryAssimilation
Children interpret new experiences based upon their present interpretation of the world.
Child assimilates past experiencePast experience tells child to use one hand to grab large ball because it worked with rattles and smaller objects.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Piagets TheoryAccommodationAdjustments or modifications in the thinking process that will become a part of a childs new cognitive repetoire.Child accommodates new informationChild is unable to grasp the ball with one hand. He accommodates by using two hands or adapting the one-handed grasp.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adaption = Assimilation + Accommodation
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Criticisms of Piagets TheoryTheory lacks scientific control.Piaget used his own children to study.Subjects were not studied across the lifespan.Piaget may have underestimated a childs capabilities.Theory does not discern between competency and performance.Theory does not account for the influence of motivation and emotion.Stages of developoment were too broad.Developoment is described, but never explained.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage
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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageEXERCISE OF REFLEXES
Birth through 1 month
Repetition of reflexes helps child to form the foundation for cognitive understandingReflexive movements are innateReflexive movements lead to new behaviors
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StagePRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS
End of month 1- month 4
Increased voluntary movement
Primary reactions because always occur in close proximity to the infant
Circular reactions because conscious effort to repeat movements
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 4 months - 8 monthsContinuation of primary circular reactions but incorporation of more enduring behaviors Example: Banging pots and pansIntegration of vision, hearing, grasping and movement behaviorsExample: See rattle. Reach rattle. Shake rattle.Imitation behaviorsNo permanenceExample: Remove object. Object is gone.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Object Permanencehttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=related
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSECONDARY SCHEMATA
8 months to 1 year
New behaviors facilitated by increasing movement capabilities Example: Crawling and creeping
Repetition of experimentation and trial-and-error exploration continue
Prediction of some actions and situationsExample: Parent rolls ball to child. Child roles it back. Child anticipates parent rolling the ball to him again.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageTERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 1 year -11/2 years
Active experimentation to acheive results / learn
First level of visualizing an object beyond its immediate useExample: Child sees the ball and knows she can have fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with it right now it will be there later.
Can distinguish self from othersExample: Child seeks help from immediate family members.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageINVENTION OF NEW MEANS THROUGH MENTAL COMBINATIONS
11/2 years - 2 years
Recognition of objects and others as independent from self
Understanding of properties of an objectExamples: Size, shape, color, texture, weight, use
Semimental functioning: Thinking with the body is replaced with thinking with the mindExample: Child can recall an event without a physical reanctment of what happened.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Summary: Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageIncreasing awareness of the difference between the self and others.
Recognition that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer in view.
Production of the mental images that allow the contemplation of the past, present, and future.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
dynamicgraphics/Jupiterimages What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
(c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
(c) PhotodiscWhat Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage2-7 years
Most significant development:Verbal communication and language development linked to improved motor abilities
Most significant limitation:Children are unable to think logically
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Early Childhood ~ Preoperational StagePRECONCEPTUAL2-4 years
Use of symbols to represent someone/thingExample: A rock represents a turtle
Pretend play commonExample: Reading to Baby. Putting Baby to sleep.
Egocentrism a serious deficiency of this stageSocializing somewhat reducing egocentrism.
Flawed thinkingExample: Drooping flower is sad unrealistic.
Transductive reasoningExample: Missed breakfast, so it cant be morning.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Early Childhood ~ Preoperational StageINTUITIVE4-7 years
Reduced egocentrismExample: Better at sharing
Improvement in the use of symbolsExample: Use of symbols in mathematics
Incapable of conservation Example: When ball of clay transformed into elongated sausage child believes its bigger
Cannot consider multiple aspects of a problem at one timeExample: Bumblebee phenomenon in soccer
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
(c) Royalty Free/CORBISWhy is the activity pictured here anexample of Preconceptual Substage?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Conservationhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=related
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational Stage7-11 yearsBegins when child gains ability to conserve
Improved ability to focus on more than one variable in problem solving situationsExample: Develop strategies in game situations
Can only focus on objects, events or situations that are real or based on experienceExample: Unable to examine hypothetical or abstract situations mentally
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational StageReversibilityAbility to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought processes Example: Can reverse the order of the ball as they go through the tube
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational StageSeriationAbility to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristicExample: Recognize height can determine position in a game of basketball
Learning is enhanced through movementExample: Piaget suggests teaching space or distance by having child move through space or distance
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageBegins at 11-12 years
Able to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiences
Abstract ideas are possible
Never achieved by many individuals
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Formal Operationshttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=related
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageInterpropositional thoughtAllows child to relate one or more parts of a proposition or situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem.Applicable to complex movementExample: Position of two players represents onset of a particular play. Ability to read interrelationship (i.e., possible movement pattern) facilitates better counter play.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageHypothetical-deductive reasoningA problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best oneAids in emotional development and emerging valuesExample: Child ponders, Do I follow the crowd or do I want to fit in?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Postformal OperationsAdulthood not considered by PiagetOthers (Arlin,1975; Rybash et al., 1986) proposed a 5th stage to Piagets TheoryDiscovery of new questionsLogical thinking about abstract ideasDetect inconsistencies in ideas and attempt to reconcile themExists in a minority of people Highly educatedCulture that encourages new ideas and freethinking
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development Intellectual decline occur with age.When, how much, why, what???Growing field of study as baby boomers become seniors.Currently, two main theoriesTotal Intellectual DeclinePartial Intellectual Decline
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development TOTAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINETraditional view of agingGradual, consistent, pervasive decline in overall intellectual ability throughout adult yearsLacks strong scientific support todayStudies partially backing this theoryStudies using Welchsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)Seattle Longitudinal Study
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentWAIS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 11 components of intellectual ability6 verbal, 5 performanceFound declines in intellectLimitationsTest designed to assess psychopathological behaviors not intellectReliability issuesDated research
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentSeattle Longitudinal Study (1956-)Participants: 5000+ participants aged 25 to 88Measurement: 6 primary mental abilities meaningful in daily work and lifeResults:Performance increased until late 30s or early 40sPerformance plateaued by mid 50s to early 60sDeclines began in late 60sMore decline when process was less central part of lifeBy age 88, all participants showed decline in at least one intelligence ability, but none showed in all abilitiesConclusion: Few subjects showed global decline in intelligence.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentPARTIAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINEWidely accepted theoryIntellectual decline occurs in some areas and not othersMuch research support
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentContextual perspectiveLearning and memory depend on a large number of non-cognitive and situational factors
Culture Seniors in China are highly respected. Intellectual decline in China is substantially less than in NA.Self-fulfilling prophesyIndividuals who think negatively decline more quickly.Knowledge base Greater base of information may helps offset losses in processing efficiency.Other factorsOnes goals, motivation, social activities, daily routines, changes in emotion
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentBiological changes influence declineNeural activation slowsLess efficient circulatory systemBrain decreases in size (variable)Neuronal losses are very gradual
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentType of memory influences decline
Implicit memoryUnintentional, automatic, without awarenessTested without adult being aware of being testedDevelops until adulthood and shows no declineExplicit memoryDeliberate and effortfulTested by traditional tests of recall or recognitionDevelops until adulthood but then shows decline
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Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentTime of learning influences memory decline
Information learned early in life is easier to retrieve
Information learned in later life more susceptible to age-related decline
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentTime parameters influence decline
Decreased performance in timed tasksOlder adults respond more slowlyDecline in speed of processing information is well-documented
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Developmentthere are no simple rules about when age differences in memory will and will not occur, and if they do, whether differences will be small, modest, or large (Zacks et al., 2000)
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentRECOMMENDATIONS
Practicing cognitive abilities will delay or avoid decline.
A lifestyle that involves movement can limit the decline of intellect.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceHow do children become experts athletes?
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceTwo types of knowledge
Declarative knowledgeFactual informationWhat to doFound in a novice performer
Procedural knowledgeProduction systemHow to do somethingFound in an expert performer
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceFrench & Thomas, 1987Purpose: Examine relationship between knowledge development, skill development, and expertise.Method: 8-12 year old basketball players of varied skills; multiple instrumentsConclusion: Children learn what to do (i.e. declarative knowledge) before they acquire the physical skills to carry out their strategic plan successfully (i.e. how to do it procedural knowledge).Ongoing Research: Best combination of motor and cognitive instruction at what stages.
2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.