COLLEGE PHYSICS
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Chapter 22 PROKARYOTES: BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA
Biology
CAMPBELL
BIOLOGYReece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
TENTH
EDITION
27Bacteria and
Archaea
Figure 22.1
• Certain prokaryotes can live in extreme environments such as the Morning Glory pool, a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park. The spring’s vivid blue color is from the prokaryotes that thrive in its very hot waters. (credit: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)
Fig. 27-1
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• Animalcules
Pasteur
• Asepetic technique –
heat treatment
• Fermentation
• Pasteurization
Germ Theory of Disease
• Semmelweis childbirth fever
• Lister aseptic technique for medicine
• Robert Koch anthrax• “pure” cultures
Koch’s Postulates
• cause-and-effect relationship
between a bacteria (or any other
type of microorganism) and a
clinical disease
• 4 criteria
• Bacteria present in all animals &
isolated from
• Isolated bacteria grown in pure
culture
• Pure culture bacteria inoculated into
healthy host to reproduce
• Re-isolate the bacteria
• Limitations:
• Can’t be grown (leprosy & syphilis)
• No suitable model host
• Multiple causes
• Minor or chronic conditions
Prokaryotes
• DNA not membrane
bound
• Lack membrane bound
organelles
• No histone proteins
• Peptidoglycan
• Widespread
• Size (0.5 – 5 µm)
• Bacteria or Archaea
Figure 22.9
• Three basic categories based on their shape:(a) cocci, or spherical (a pair is shown); (b)bacilli, or rod-shaped; and (c) spirilli, or spiral-shaped. (credit a: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr, Dr. Richard Facklam, CDC; credit c: modification of work by Dr. David Cox; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
• Strepto: chain
• Staphylo: cluster
Fig. 27-3
Cellwall
Peptidoglycanlayer
Plasma membrane
Protein
Gram-positive
bacteria
(a) Gram-positive: peptidoglycan trapscrystal violet.
Gram-negativebacteria
(b) Gram-negative: crystal violet is easily rinsed away,revealing red dye.
20 µm
Cellwall
Plasma membrane
Protein
Carbohydrate portionof lipopolysaccharide
Outermembrane
Peptidoglycanlayer
Cell Surface StructuresHans Christian Gram Gram Staining
LPS component•O polysacch antigens for ID (E. coli O157:H7)
•Lipid A endotoxin toxic (fever/shock)
antibiotics
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• Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram negative. Both groups have a cell wall composed of
peptidoglycan: in Gram-positive bacteria, the wall is thick, whereas in Gram-negative bacteria, the wall is thin. In Gram-
negative bacteria, the cell wall is surrounded by an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins.
Porins are proteins in this cell membrane that allow substances to enter the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
In Gram-positive bacteria, lipoteichoic acid anchors the cell wall to the cell membrane. (credit: modification of work by
“Franciscosp2”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 22.16
Fig. 27-3c
Gram-positive
bacteria
Gram-negativebacteria
20 µm
AntibioticsAntibiotics target peptidoglycan layer
• Broad spectrum Gram + & - (ampicilin/tetracycline)
• Narrow spectrum specific families
• Both dose, duration & state of invading bacteria
Antibiotics
• Bacteriostatic inhibits or delay growth & repro
• Bactericidal kills bacteria
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• This scanning electron micrograph shows Clostridium difficile, a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium that causes severe diarrhea. Infection commonly occurs after the normal gut fauna is eradicated by antibiotics. (credit: modification of work by CDC, HHS; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Figure 22.30
Fig. 27-4
Capsule
200 nm
Glycocalyx capsule (attachment, prevents, dehydration, provides virulence)
Bacterialcell wall
Fig. 16-2
Living S cells
(control)
Living R cells
(control)Heat-killed
S cells (control)
Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells
Mouse diesMouse dies Mouse healthy Mouse healthy
Living S cells
RESULTS
EXPERIMENT
F. Griffith
1920’s
Transformation
Fig. 27-9
Endospore
0.3 µm
Resting cells Metabolically inactive
survives extreme heat, lack of water,
exposure to many toxic chemicals & radiation
Bacillus & Clostridium
Fig. 27-5
Fimbriae
200 nm
Figure 27.7
20 nmFilament
Hook
MotorCell wall
Plasmamembrane Rod
Peptidoglycanlayer
Flagellum
Chemotaxis (+/-)
Phototaxis (+/-)
Fig. 27-7
(a) Aerobic prokaryote (b) Photosynthetic prokaryote
Thylakoidmembranes
Respiratorymembrane
0.2 µm 1 µm
No complex compartments
Infolding of cell membrane specialized metabolic functions
Internal Organization and DNA
Figure 27.9
1 µm
Plasmids
Chromosome
Internal Organization and DNA
DNA replication, transcription, and translation
differences from eukaryotes?
Binary FissionQuick reproduction – why?
• Small
• Short generation time
• Binary fission
Genetically Diverse (highly variable)
3) Genetic recombination
Horizontal Gene Transfer• Transformation
• Transduction
• Conjugation
1) Rapid reproduction
2) Mutation
Fig. 16-2
Living S cells
(control)
Living R cells
(control)Heat-killed
S cells (control)
Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells
Mouse diesMouse dies Mouse healthy Mouse healthy
Living S cells
RESULTS
EXPERIMENTTransformation
F. Griffith
1920’s
Transformation
Phage infects bacterialdonor cell with A+ and B+
alleles.
Phage DNA is replicatedand proteins synthesized.
Fragment of DNA with A+
allele is packaged withina phage capsid.
Phage with A+ alleleinfects bacterial recipientcell.
Incorporation of phageDNA creates recombinantcell with genotype A+ B−.
A+
Donor cell
Phage DNA
A+ B+
A+ B+
A+
B−A−
Crossingover
Recombinantcell
Recipient cell
B−A+
1
2
5
4
3
Transduction
Fig. 27-12
Sex pilus 1 µm
Conjugation F factor
Fig. 27-13
F plasmid
F+ cell
F– cell
Matingbridge
Bacterial chromosome
Bacterialchromosome
(a) Conjugation and transfer of an F plasmid
F+ cell
F+ cell
F– cell
(b) Conjugation and transfer of part of an Hfr bacterial chromosome
F factor
Hfr cell A+A+
A+
A+
A+A– A– A–
A– A+
Recombinant
F– bacterium
F Factor & PlasmidsR Factor & Antibiotic resistance
Crossing over
Enzymesdegrade andDNA notincorporated
Conjugation F factor
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• Besides binary fission, there are three other mechanisms by which prokaryotes can exchange DNA. In (a)
transformation, the cell takes up prokaryotic DNA directly from the environment. The DNA may remain
separate as plasmid DNA or be incorporated into the host genome. In (b) transduction, a bacteriophage injects
DNA into the cell that contains a small fragment of DNA from a different prokaryote. In (c) conjugation, DNA
is transferred from one cell to another via a pilus that connects the two cells.
Figure 22.17
Horizontal Gene Transfer
Table 27-1
• Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
• Heterotrophs require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds
Oxygen Preferences
• Obligate aerobes
• Obligate anaerobes• Clostridium tetani
• C. botulinum
• C. perfringens
• Facultative anaerobes• Staphylococcus
• E. coli
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• Prokaryotes play a significant role in continuously moving carbon through the biosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)
Figure 22.18
Carbon Cycle
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• Prokaryotes play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. (credit: Environmental Protection Agency)
Figure 22.19
Nitrogen Cycle
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• Soybean (Glycine max) is a legume that interacts symbiotically with the soil bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum to form specialized structures on the roots called nodules where nitrogen fixation occurs. (credit: USDA
Figure 22.27
Nitrogen fixation
Fig. 27-14
Photosyntheticcells
Heterocyte
20 µm
Nitrogen fixation
Fig. 27-15
1 µ
m
Metabolic cooperation Biofilms – Streptococcus mutans
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• Five stages of biofilm development are shown. During stage 1, initial attachment, bacteria adhere to a solidsurface via weak van der Waals interactions. During stage 2, irreversible attachment, hairlike appendages called pili permanently anchor the bacteria to the surface. During stage 3, maturation I, the biofilm grows through cell division and recruitment of other bacteria. An extracellular matrix composed primarily of polysaccharides holds the biofilm together. During stage 4, maturation II, the biofilm continues to grow and takes on a more complex shape. During stage 5, dispersal, the biofilm matrix is partly broken down, allowing some bacteria to escape and colonize another surface. Micrographs of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm in each of the stages of development are shown. (credit: D. Davis, Don Monroe, PLoS)
Figure 22.8
Metabolic cooperation Biofilms – ex.Streptococcus mutans
Figure 22.11
• Bacteria and Archaea are both prokaryotes but differ enough to be placed in separate domains. An ancestor of modern Archaea is believed to have given rise to Eukarya, the third domain of life. Archaeal and bacterial phyla are shown; the evolutionary relationship between these phyla is still open to debate.
Figure 27.15
UNIVERSALANCESTOR
Eukaryotes
Korarchaeotes
Euryarchaeotes
Crenarchaeotes
Nanoarchaeotes
Proteobacteria
Chlamydias
Spirochetes
Cyanobacteria
Gram-positivebacteria
Do
main
Eu
kary
aD
om
ain
Arc
hae
aD
om
ain
Bacte
ria
Table 27-2
Fig. 27-17
Archaea
Figure 22.6
(a) The Dead Sea is hypersaline. Nevertheless, salt-tolerant bacteria thrive in this sea.
(b) These halobacteria cells can form salt-tolerant bacterial mats. (credit a: Julien Menichini; credit b: NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Fig. 27-20
Symbiosis mutualism, commensalism & parasite
Figure 22.21
• The (a) Great Plague of London killed an estimated 200,000 people, or about twenty percent of the city’s population.The causative agent, the (b) bacterium Yersinia pestis, is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium from the class GammaProteobacteria. The disease is transmitted through the bite of an infected flea, which is infected by a rodent. Symptomsinclude swollen lymph nodes, fever, seizure, vomiting of blood, and (c) gangrene. (credit b: Rocky MountainLaboratories, NIAID, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit c: Textbook of Military Medicine, Washington, D.C.,U.S. Dept. of the Army, Office of the Surgeon General, Borden Institute)
Figure 22.22
• The map shows regions where bacterial diseases are emerging or reemerging. (credit: modification of work by NIH)
Pathogenic Bacteria
• Exotoxin• Gram (+)
• Part of growth & metabolism
• Proteins (enzymes) secreted
• Gene location plasmids
• Antitoxins provide immunity
• Types:
» Cytotoxic (diptheria, gangrene)
» Neurotoxins (botulism,tetanus)
» Enterotoxins (cholera, staph)
• Endotoxins• Gram (-)
• Outer portion of cell wall
• LPS
• When Gram (-) dies
• Activates blood clotting
proteins
• Fever & shock
• Bioterrorism (anthrax)
Fig. 27-22
(a)
(b)
(c)
Bioremediation & Technology
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(a) Cleaning up oil after the Valdez spill in Alaska, workers hosed oil from beaches and then used a floating boom to corral the oil, which was finally skimmed from the water surface. Some species of bacteria are able to solubilize and degrade the oil.
(b) One of the most catastrophic consequences of oil spills is the damage to fauna. (credit a: modification of work by NOAA; credit b: modification of work by GOLUBENKOV, NGO: Saving Taman)
Figure 22.29
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• Some of the products derived from the use of prokaryotes in early biotechnology include (a)cheese, (b) wine, (c) beer and bread, and (d) yogurt. (credit bread: modification of work by F. Rodrigo/Wikimedia Commons; credit wine: modification of work by Jon Sullivan; credit beer and bread: modification of work by Kris Miller; credit yogurt: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)
Figure 22.28
Products derived from prokaryotes