65
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Contents ................................................................................................................................ 4
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ဂ .......................................................................................................... 53
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5
2
( )
3 “ )4
ဂ -
-
2 ၂ ၃၇ [India Act
V, 1898](၂ ) ၇ ၃ ( ) ( ) 3 4 (FIR) ( ) ၉ )
6
( ) ဂ
Justice Base
Justice Base
Justice Base
7
( )
(၂)
(၃
( ) /
( )
(
ဂ
ဂ
8
႔
(၇
(၈)
(၉)
(Myanmar Pilot Courts) USAID Promoting the Rule of Law Project
( )
( )
( ၂
( ၃)
ဂ
9
( )
(International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR)) ႔
႔ ႔
10
( )
၂
)5
6
၈၂ - ၈၂ ၈ ၂- ၈ ၃ ၈၈ ဂ -
ဂ
(common law system) 7
( ၉ ၈)
( ၈ ) ( ၈၉၈)
8
5 Andrew Huxley, The Importance of the Dhammathats in Burmese Law and Culture, vol.
1, The Journal of Burma Studies. (1997) pp. 1-17 http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs19/AH-Huxley-The_Importance_of_the_Dhammathats-
ocr.pdf 6
7 Jared Downing, “Myanmar History 101: How Britain defeated Burma,” Frontier Myanmar,
(February 21, 2017), available at: http://frontiermyanmar.net/en/myanmar-history-101-how-
britain-defeated-burma. 8 See Code of Civil Procedure [India Act V, 1908] (as amended 2014]; Penal Code [India Act
XLV, 1860] (as amended 2016); Code of Criminal Procedure [India Act V, 1898] (as
amended 2016); see also, e.g., Code of Civil Procedure (Amendment) Act of 1956; Criminal
Law Amending Law (1963); Code of Criminal Procedure Amending Law (1973); Law
Amending the Code of Civil Procedure (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 29/2014); Law
Amending the Penal Code (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 6/2016); Law Amending the Code
of Criminal Procedure (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 16/2016).
11
၉ ၂
“ ”9
၉၇၂ -
-
၉၇ “
”10
၉၈၈
၂ “
” 11
၉၇
၉ ၃ ၉၉
12 ၉၇
13
9 Myint Zan, “Judicial Independence in Burma: No March Backwards Towards the Past,” 1
Asian- Pacific Law & Policy Journal 5 (2000), at 13. 10 ၂ 11 Nick Cheesman, “Thin Rule of Law or Un-Rule of Law in Myanmar?” (2010) 82(4)
Pacific Affairs 597 at 612. 12 Myint Zan, “Legal Education in Burma since the Mid-1960s,” 12 Journal of Burma Studies
63 (2008) at p. 4. 13 )
12
14
ဂ
15
(Common Law)
(
(Legal Practitioners Act) ( ၉၉၉)16 (Bar
Council Act) ( ၉၈၉)( )17
၂ ၈
(၂ )
18
“
” 19
Justice Base ၂
14
၇- ၈ International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), “Myanmar: Legal
Education), 20 March 2014, available at: https://www.icj.org/cijlcountryprofiles/Myanmar-
introduction/legal-education/ 15 ၂ ၃ 16
The Legal Practitioners Act [India Act XVIII, 1879] (amended 1999) 17 The Bar Council Act [India Act XXXVII 1926] (amended 1989), Sections 10-13. The
Courts Manual provides guidance in relation to the Legal Practitioners Act and the Bar
Council Act. See generally The Courts Manual, 4th ed. (1999), Part I, Chapter I. 18 ၂ ၈ (၂ ) 19
Burma Laws Act (1898), Section 13(3) (related to “any question regarding succession,
inheritance marriage or caste, or any religious usage or institution.”).
13
“ ဂ
( )
” 20
႔
“ ”
International Commission of Jurists
( )
( )
21
22
23 (၇)
20 Justice Base, “Voices from the Intersection: Women’s Access to Justice in the Plural Legal
System of Myanmar,” (2016), available at: http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/digital-
library/publications/2016/04/womens-access-to-justice-in-the-plural-legal-systems 21 ( ) ၂၉၃ ၃၂၂ 22 (၂ ) ၃ 23
14
24
25
26 ( )
27
28
29
ဂ
30 (၂)
( )
(
) 31
32
24 http://www.unionsupremecourt.gov.mm/?q=content/township-courts http://www.unionsupremecourt.gov.mm/?q=content/district-courts 25 26 ၂ -၂ ၉ ၂ -၂ ၉ 27 ( ) ( ) 28 ( ) ( ) 29 ( ) ( ) ( ) (ဎ) 30 ( )( ) 31 ၉၃ ( ၂၂/၂ ၂ ၂၈) ၃ ၃ (ဂ) ၃ (ဍ) 32 ၂ ( )
15
Justice Base
၂ ၃-၂
၂ -၂
( )
ဂ
Justice Base
Justice Base
Justice Base
(
)
Justice Base
(Code of Conduct) Justice Base 33
33
16
Justice
Base
34
Justice Base
၈ 35
ဂ
36
Justice Base
ဂ ဂ
Justice Base
34
Justice Base
35 ၂၂ ၈ ၉ ၇ ၇၈ ၈ 36
International Commission of Jurists, “Trial Observation Manual for Criminal Proceedings”
(22 July 2009) < https://www.icj.org/criminal-trials-and-human-rights-a-manual-on-trial-
observation/> at pp. 4, 17-18.
17
Justice Base
( )
37
37
18
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHR)
(International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights ICCPR) ဂ
(the Convention Against Torture
and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment CAT)
ဂ (the United Nations Convention Against
Corruption UNCAC) ဂ
(UN Basic Principles on the Independence of Judiciary)
ဂ (Bangalor Principles of Judicial
Accountability) ဂ (UN Basic
Principles on the Role of Lawyers)
38
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UDHR)
38
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 December 1948, G.A. Res. 217A(III),
U.N. Doc. A/810 at 71 (1948); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted
16 December 1966, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc.
A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force 23 March 1976; Convention Against
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted 10
December 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/51
(1984), entered into force 26 June 1987; United Nations Convention Against Corruption,
adopted 31 October 2003, GA Res. 58/4, U.N. Doc. A/58/422, entered into force 14
December 2005; “Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, endorsed 29
November 1985,” G.A. Res. 40/32, and 13 December 1985, G.A. Res. 40/146; “Bangalore
Principles of Judicial Conduct,” adopted by the Judicial Group on Strengthening Judicial
Integrity, as revised at the Round Table Meeting of Chief Justices held at the Peace Palace,
25-26 November 2002; “Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers,” adopted by the 8th U.N.
Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders, 27 August to 7 September
1990
19
39 UDHR
“
”
UDHR ၉
ICCPR UDHR
Justice Base
39
“
” Restat. 3d of the Foreign Relations Law of the U.S., Section 102. see also
International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press (2d ed.) (12 February 2014) at p.
271 (the “fundamental principles of fair trial form part of customary international law,”
including Article 10 of the UDHR).
20
40
41
42
43
ဂ
44
“
…” “ ”
ဂ 40 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (၃)(ဃ) 41
42
UN Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers, ၃ Principle ၃ 43 Ed Cape, “Improving Pretrial Justice: The Roles of Lawyers and Paralegals,” Open Society
Foundations (April 2012) at Sections 4.1-4.4, 4.7
https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/reports/improving-pretrial-justice-roles-lawyers-
and-paralegals UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR), “Preventing Torture: An Operational Guide for National Human Rights
Institutions,” HR/PUB/10/1, (May 2010) at p 32. 44 Cape, above n. 48, Section 4.2.
21
(The United Nations Principles and Guidelines on
Access to Legal Aid in Criminal Justice System)
45
46
၈
47
48
၂
၂ ၈
49
၃ ( ) ( ) ၇( )
50
45 U.N. General Assembly, United Nations Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid
in Criminal Justice Systems, adopted 28 March 2013, GA Res. 67/187, Principle 3, para 20. 46 ၃ ၃- 47 UN Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers, above n 29 at Principles 5, 7. 48 Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid, above n. 50, Principle 3, para. 20-
21. (Legal Aid) ဂ “ ” UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur
on the independence of Judges and Lawyers, Gabriela Knaul,” A/HRC/23/43 (15 March
2013) ၂ http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/23/43 49 ၂ ၈ ၉(ဂ) ၃၇ 50 ( ) ၇( )
22
51
“ ”
၂
(၂ ၇ ) 52
ဂ 53
Justice Base
54
၃
( ) 55
၃
၈၇
51 ၂ ၈ ၃၇၉ ၂ ( ) 52 (၂ ) (၂ ၇ ၈) 53 (၂ ) ၂ ၈ 54 Legal Practioners Act, Sections 13(a) and (b). 55
23
56 ၇
“ ”
၃
၂
56 Right to Counsel,
above n 11 at 35
24
( )
Justice Base
( )
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25
57
58
၂
59
57 ၃(၂) ( ) 58
၂( ) [India Act I, 1872] (၂ ) ၂ ၂၇-၂၈ ၂ 59 ( ) - ၃
26
ဂ
“ ”
60
61
62
63
“ ” 64
65
60 Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 32, Article 14: Right to equality before
courts and tribunals and to a fair trial, CCPR/C/GC/32 (23 August 2007) at [13]. 61 Amnesty International Fair Trial Manual, Chapter 19, 2d ed. (2014) at p. 119, available at:
https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/POL30/002/2014/en/ 62 ICCPR (၃)( ) 63 Amnesty International Fair Trial Manual, ၇ ၇ ၇၈ 64
General Comment ၃၂ 65 ၃၃-၃ UN Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers, 29 Principle 8
27
66
၂
67
“ ”
“ ” 68
69
“ ”
70
71
72
73
၃
( )
66 Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid, above n 36, at Guideline 3 ၃ ( ) (ဃ) 67 ၉(ဂ) 68 ၇(၂) 69 ၂(၂) 70 ၂ ၃( ) (၃) - 71 The Prisons Act 1894 [India Act IX 1894] Section 40. 72 ( ) 73 (၂)
28
( )
(၂)
(ဃ)
“ ”
29
74
(၃)
(
-
( )
“ ”
“ ”
74
(၂ )
[India Act VII, 1870] (၂
) ၂ ၇ -၉၇
30
“
”
( )
31
ဂ
“ ”
75
76
77
78
၂
“ ” 79
80
75 ICCPR (၃)(ဂ) ၂ ၃ 76 ၂ ၃ Fair Trial Manual 77 ၂ ၃ Yasseen and Thomas v
Guyana, HRC Communication 676/1996, UN Doc CCPR/C/62/D/676/1996 (30 March
1998) at [7.11]; (finding delay of two years to violate ICCPR Article 14(3)(c), despite
defendants’ own requests for adjournments); see also Legal Digest of International Fair
Trial Rights, OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)
(2012) at p 127. 78
Fair Trial Manual, above n. 51 at p. 144; Legal Digest, above n. 65 at pp. 126, 128-129; see
Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, above n. 29, at Principle 7. 79 80 ၂- ၈ (
) ၂ ၃-
32
“
” 81
82
83
84
85 (
86
87
88 “
”
89
၃
( )
( )
၂ ၂၂-၂၇ ) 81 ၂ ၃ ၃
(၂ ၇ ဂ ၂ ) ၃ ၂ 82 ၃ ( ) 83 84 ၂ ၂၂ 85 ၂ ၂ 86
87 ၈ ၉ 88 ၉ ( ) 89 ၉ ( )
33
“ ” (
၃
90
၇ ၃
91
92 ( - )
( ၂ )
( ၇
)
90
91 Justice Base 92
34
93
93 ၈ -၈၈
35
ဃ
94
95 ( )96
ဂ
97
ဂ ဂ ဃ
98
99 ဂ
100 UNCA
94 ICCPR ( ) UDHR , General Comment No. 32 above n. 52 at para. 18. 95
96
ဂ . 97 Legal Digest, above n 65 at 58; Fair Trial Manual above n 51 at 110. 98
Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, above n. 29, at Principle 2;
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 32, above n. 52, at para. 21 99 ၂ ၂ 100
36
ဂ
101
၂
၂ ၈
102 ( )
“ ” 103
104
၂ ၇
“
”
105
106
“
” 107
UNCAC ( ) UNCAC ( ) UNCAC ( ) 101
UNCAC ၂ ၂ ၂ 102
၉( ) 103 ( ) 104 ၈( ) 105 ၇ ၂ ၃ 106 ၂ 107
၂ ၈ ၃ ( ) ၃ ( )
37
“
ဂ ”
108
“
”109
၂ ၂ UNCAC UNCAC
ဂ (၂ ၃)
110
111
112
113
ဂ
114
“
108 ၇ 109 ၂ 110 ၂ ၃ ဂ ၂၃ ၂ ၃ 111 112
ACC ACC Democratic Voice of Burma (DVB), “Anti-Corruption Commission tackles Regional
Administrations” (12 April 2014) http://www.dvb.no/news/anti-corruption-ommission-
tackles-regional-administrations-burma-myanmar/39577 ၂ ၇ ဂ ၃၂ ၇ See Eleven, “Corruption
complaints top 3,200” (6 August 2017) < http://www.elevenmyanmar.com/local/9903 >. 113
- ၇ 114 ၇ ၂
38
” 115
116 “
”
117
၃
( )
ဂ
( )
( )
115 ၂ ၃ 116
117
(၃) ၄
39
118
၂
ဂ
118
40
ဂ
ဂ
ဂ
“ ”
“ ” “ ”
(၂)
၃
“ ”
41
119
“
”
ဂ
“ ”
“ ”
119 ၇၇( ) ( ) General Comment No. 32, ၂ ၃
42
(၃)
120
Justice Base
ဂ
121
120
Corruption in Myanmar’s judiciary can be understood in terms of public and hidden
transcripts, a theoretic framework attributed to James C. Scott. See Nick Cheesman,
“Myanmar's Courts and the Sounds Money Makes,” in Nick Cheesman, Monique Skidmore
and Trevor Wilson (ed.), Myanmar's Transition Openings, Obstacles and Opportunities,
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) (2002) at pp 231-248. 121
၃ ၃
43
၂
122
“
ဂ ”
“ ”
(၂ - ၂ ) 122
44
/
( .၃၇ )
( )
( ၃. )
( )
” ”
၃
၃
45
( ) (
၂၃ )
46
123
ဂ
124
125
/
( )
126
127
123
ICCPR ( ) UDHR ( ) UDHR “ ” General Comment No. 32, ၂ ၂၈ 124 ICCPR ( )
See also U.N. Commission on Human Rights,
“The Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,” E/CN.4/1985/4, (28 September 1984), para.
38(a). 125 126
Human Rights Committee, above n. 52, at para. 29. For guidance regarding the scope of
restrictions on the right to a public hearing, see The Siracusa Principles, above n. 104. 127
47
၂
၂ ၈ ၉( ) (၂ )
၃( ) “ ”
128
၃ ၂
၈
“
General Comment No. 32 ၂ ၂၈ 128
Justice Base ၂ ၇
“ -
”
Justice Base, “Behind Closed
Doors: Opportunities and Obstacles for Public Access to Myanmar’s Courts,” (2017),
available at: http://user41342.vs.easily.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Justice-Base-
Behind-Closed-Doors.compressed.pdf
48
”
၈ ၂ “
… ”
၉၉၃
၂( )
129 ၉၂၃
130
131
132
133
134
129 ၉၃( ၉၉၃) 130 The Official Secrets Act [India Act XIX,
1923], Sections 2(8), 14. 131
132 ၂ ( ) 133 ၃ 134
၂
49
၃
(
)
ဂ
135
ဂ
၇၈
135
50
၂၈
ဂ
႔
႔ ၃ ႔
႔
( ႔) ႔
႔ ႔
51
- 136
ဂ
ဂ
၃
ဂ ဂ
၂
( )
၃
Justice Base
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ဂ
137
136
137
52
ဂ ဂ
ဂ
ဂ
ဂ
၇၈
ဂ
( ) ၂
၉
၂၈ ၃
ဂ
53
ဂ
ဂ
(
)
54
138
ဂ
Justice
Base
(ICCPR)
Optional Protocols
ဂ
ဂ
႔
138
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Document of the
Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, para.12, 29
June 1990. Available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/14304.
55
ICCPR
56
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/
( )
57
(Myanmar Pilot Courts) USAID Promoting the
Rule of Law Project
58
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59
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60
Justice Base “
- ႔
”
႔ ( ႔ ) ႔
႔ ႔
၂ ၈ ၉
၂ ၃
ဂ
61
၃
ဂ (UNCAC) ( ) UNCAC United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) Article 15 (b)
62
( )
၇
CSA
63
၂
၂ ၃ ၂ ၂ ၃
၇
64
CSA )
(CSA ) -
ဂ
၂
CSA -
၃
CSA -
ဂ
CSA -
ဂ
65
ဂ
CSA -
