Course File On ENGINEERING GEOLOGY By G. JAYARAM...

Course File On

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

By

G. JAYARAM

Assistant Professor,

Civil Engineering

K. G. Reddy College Of Engineering and Technology

2019-2020

HOD PRINCIPAL

CIVIL ENGINEERING KGRCET

COURSE FILE CONTENTS

PART-1

2019-20 : Academic Year

Civil Engineering : Department

IIND / IST : Year / Semester

R 18 / CV304ES : Regulation /Course Code

Assistant Professor : Designation

G. JAYARAM : Faculty Name

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY : Subject Name

COURSE FILE

COURSE FILE CONTENTS

S.No. Topics Page No.

1 Vision, Mission, PEO’s, PO’s & PSO’S

2 Syllabus (University Copy)

3 Course Objectives, Course Outcomes And Topic Outcomes

4 Course Prerequisites

5 Course Information Sheet (CIS)

a). Course Description

b). Syllabus

c). Gaps in Syllabus

d). Topics beyond syllabus

e). Web Sources-References

f). Delivery / Instructional Methodologies

g). Assessment Methodologies-Direct

h). Assessment Methodologies –Indirect

i). Text books & Reference books

6 Micro Lesson Plan

7 Teaching Schedule

8 Unit Wise Hand Written notes

9 OHP/LCD SHEETS /CDS/DVDS/PPT (Soft/Hard copies)

10 University Previous Question papers

11 MID exam Descriptive Question Papers

12 MID exam Objective Question papers

13 Assignment topics with materials

14 Tutorial topics and Questions

15 Unit wise-Question bank

1 Two marks question with answers 5 questions

2 Three marks question with answers 5 questions

3 Five marks question with answers 5 questions

4 Objective question with answers 10 questions

5 Fill in the blanks question with answers 10 questions

16 Course Attainment

17 CO-PO Mapping

18 Beyond syllabus Topics with material

19 Result Analysis-Remedial/Corrective Action

20 Record of Tutorial Classes

21 Record of Remedial Classes

22 Record of guest lecturers conducted

Part – 2

S.NO TOPICS

1 Attendance Register/Teacher Log Book

2 Time Table

3 Academic calendar

4 Continuous Evaluation – marks (Test, Assignments etc)

5 Status Report Internal Exams & Syllabus coverage

6 Teaching Dairy/Daily Delivery Record Micro lesson Plan

7 Continuous Evaluation – MID marks

8 Assignment Evaluation-marks/Grades

9 Special Descriptive Tests Marks

10 Sample students descriptive answer sheets

11 Sample students assignment sheets

G.JAYARAM, ASST PROFESSOR

1. VISION, MISSION, PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs),

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) & PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

Vision

To give the world new age civil engineers who can transform the society with their creative vibe for the

sustainable development by instilling scientific temper with ethical human outlook.

Mission

To make the department a centre of excellence in the field of civil engineering and allied research.

To promote innovative and original thinking in the minds of budding engineers to face the challenges

of future.


Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO 1 Graduates will utilize the foundation in Engineering and Science to

improve lives and livelihoods through a successful career in civil

Engineering or other fields.

PEO 2 Graduates will become effective collaborators and innovators, leading or

participating in efforts to address Social, Technical and Business

challenges.

PEO 3 Graduates will engage in Life-Long Learning and professional

development through Self-Study, continuing education or graduate and

professional studies in engineering & Business.

Program Outcomes (POs)

PO1 Fundamental engineering analysis skills: An ability to apply

knowledge of computing, mathematical foundations, algorithmic

principles, and civil engineering theory in the modelling and design

of to civil engineering problems.

PO2 Information retrieval skills: An ability to design and conduct

experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data.

PO3 Creative skills: An ability to design, implement, and evaluate a

system, process, component, or program to meet desired needs,

within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social,

political, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability.

Graduates have design the competence.

PO4 Teamwork: An ability to function effectively on multi-disciplinary

teams.

PO5 Engineering problem solving skills: An ability to analyze a

problem, and identify, formulate and use the appropriate computing


and engineering requirements for obtaining its solution.

PO6 Professional integrity: An understanding of professional, ethical,

legal, security and social issues and responsibilities. Graduates

must understand the principles of ethical decision making and can

interpret the ASCE Code of Ethics. Graduates will understand the

proper use of the work of others (e.g., plagiarism, copyrights, and

patents). Graduates will understand the special duty they owe to

protect the public's health, safety and welfare by virtue of their

professional status as engineers in society.

PO7 Speaking / writing skills: An ability to communicate effectively,

both in writing and orally. Graduates are able to produce

engineering reports using written, oral and graphic methods of

communication.

PO8 Engineering impact assessment skills: The broad education

necessary to analyze the local and global impact of computing and

engineering solutions on individuals, organizations, and society.

PO9 Social awareness: Knowledge of contemporary issues. Students

are aware of emerging technologies and current professional issues.

PO10 Practical engineering analysis skills: An ability to use the

techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for

engineering practice.

PO11 Software hardware interface: An ability to apply design and

development principles in the construction of software and

hardware systems of varying complexity.

PO12 Successful career and immediate employment: An ability to

recognize the importance of professional development by pursuing

postgraduate studies or face competitive examinations that offer

challenging and rewarding careers in Civil Engineering


Program Specific Outcomes (PSOS)

PSO DESCRIPTION

PSO 1 Educating students with fundamental mathematical, scientific, and engineering

knowledge to have a significant and positive long-term impact on the field of civil

engineering.

PSO 2 Emphasizing the importance of working in a team effectively and to

communicate properly within the team to achieve the desired outcome.

PSO 3 Motivate students in learning to learn and the ability to keep learning for a lifetime

to increase their professionalism, update and deepen their knowledge through the

development of the profession.


2. SYLLABUS (University copy)

G.VENKATA SAI PRASAD, ASST PROFESSOR


3. COURSE OBJECTIVES, COURSE OUTCOMES AND TOPIC OUTCOMES

COURSE OBJECTIVES

a) Illustrate case histories of failures in civil engineering constructions due togeological drawbacks and importance of geology from civil engineering point of view about

structural geology, mineralogy and petrology.

b) Identify various types of minerals and rocks on the basis of their properties. c) Demonstrate about subsurface and groundwater potential sites throughgeophysical

investigations.

d) Apply the knowledge of geological principles for mitigation of natural hazardsand select sites for dams and tunnels

COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, the students will be able to:

CO1 Determine the role of geology in the design and construction process of underground

openings in rock.

CO 2. Classify and characterize intact mineral/rock mass properties.

CO 3. Identify subsurface information and groundwater potential sites through geophysical

investigations.

CO 4. Interpret mitigation of natural hazards and select sites for dams and tunnels.


Lectur

e no.

Topic to be covered Topic outcome

(at the end of this course, the student

will be able to)

1 Introduction geology from civil engineering point of

view and syllabus

Illustrate geology from civil

engineering point of view

2 Brief study of case histories of failures of

some civil constructions due to

geological draw backs

Summarize study of case histories of

failures of some civil constructions

due to geological draw backs

3 Importance of Physical geology Determine Importance of Physical

geology

4 Petrology and Structural geology. Classify Petrology and Structural

geology.

5 Meaning of Weathering of Rocks and

Weathering effects on Rock properties Summarize Weathering of Rocks and

Weathering effects on Rock properties

6 Importance of weathering with reference

of dams, reservoirs and tunnels Interpret of weathering with reference

of dams, reservoirs and tunnels

7 Weathering of common rock

like “Granite”

Identify Weathering of

common rock like “Granite”

8 Definition of mineralogy, importance of

study of mineralogy

Determine mineralogy, importance of

study of mineralogy

9 Different methods of study of minerals Classify methods of

study of minerals

10 Advantages of study of minerals by

physical properties

Summarize Advantages of study of

minerals by physical properties


11 Role of study physical properties of

minerals in the identification of minerals Elaborate Role of study physical

properties of minerals in the

identification of minerals

12,13,14,1

5

Study of physical properties of the

following common rock forming minerals:

feldspar, quartz, flint, jasper, olivine,

Augite, hornblende,Biotite, asbestos, talc,

chlorite, kyanite, garnet, calcite,pyrite, hematite, galena, magnetite.

Identify the physical properties of

minerals

16 Petrology: definition of rock Illustrate about Petrology

17 Geological classification of rocks into

igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks

Classify rocks into igneous,

sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

18 Dykes and sills. Determine Dykes and sills.

19 Common structures and textures of

igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks

Interpret Common structures and

textures of igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks

20,21 Distinguishing features of rocks

Megascopic & microscopic study of

granite, dolerite, basalt, pegmatite, laterite

, conglomerate, sandstone, shale,

limestone, gneiss, schist, quartzite, marble,

and slate.

Identify features of rocks Megascopic

& microscopic study of granite,

dolerite, basalt, pegmatite, laterite ,

conglomerate, sandstone, shale,

limestone, gneiss, schist, quartzite,

marble, and slate.

22 Introduction to structural geology Demonstrate structural geology

23 Out crop, strike and dip meaning Simplify Out crop, strike and dip

24 Study of common geological structures

associating with rocks such as folds,

faults, joints and unconformities and their

types

Distinguish common geological

structures associating with rocks such

as folds, faults, joints and

unconformities and their types


25 Introduction to ground water and Water

table and its types Determine ground water and Water

table and its types

26 Springs, cone of depression Interpret Springs, cone of

depression

27 Geological controls of ground water

movement and Ground water exploration

Examine Geological controls of

ground water movement and Ground

water exploration

28 Earth quakes, causes and effects Illustrate Earth quakes, causes and

effects

MID TERM-1 EXAMINATION

29 Shield areas and seismic belts. Identify Shield areas and

seismic belts.

30 Seismic waves, Richter scale and

Precautions to be taken for building

construction in seismic areas

Perceive Seismic waves

31 Landslides, landslide hazards Analyse

32 Water in landslides their causes and

effect and Measures to be taken to

prevent their occurrence

Evaluate water in

landslides their causes and

effects

33 Importance of study of ground water Importance

34 Earthquake and landslides Classify Earthquake and

landslides


35 Types of dams and bearing of geology of

site in their selection

Classify the types of dams

and their site selection

36 Geological considerations in the

selection of a dam site

Evaluate

37 Analysis of dam failure of the past Summarize of dam failure

of the past

38 Factors contributing to the success of a

reservoir

List contributing to the

success of a reservoir

39 Geological factors influencing water

tightness and life of reservoirs

Evaluate

40 Geo hazards, ground subsidence. Compare Geo hazards and

ground subsidence.

41 Importance of geophysical studies and

Principles of geophysical study by

gravity methods

Importance of geophysical

studies and Principles of

geophysical study by

gravity methods

42 Magnetic & electrical methods Compare

43 Seismic, radio metric &

geothermal methods

Compare Seismic, radio

metric & geothermal

methods


44 Special importance of electrical

resistivity methods, and seismic

refractive methods

Interpret the special

importance of electrical

resistivity methods, and

seismic refractive methods

45 Improvement of sites by grouting Improvement of sites by

grouting

46 Fundamental aspects of rock mechanics

and environmental geology

Discuss the fundamental

aspects of rock mechanics

and environmental geology

47 Purposes of Tunnelling Purposes of Tunnelling

48 Effects of tunnelling on the ground Analyse the effects of

tunnelling on the ground

49 Role of geological considerations in

tunnelling over break and lining in

tunnels

Discuss the role of

geological considerations

in tunnelling over break

and lining in tunnels

50 Tunnels in rock Classify the tunnels in rock

MID TERM-2 EXAMINATION


4. COURSE PRE–REQUISITES

Environmental Studies.

Engineering Chemistry.

Social studies.


5. COURSE INFORMATION SHEET (CIS)

a) Course Description

PROGRAMME: B. Tech.

(Civil Engineering.)

DEGREE: B.TECH

COURSE: Engineering Geology YEAR: II SEM: II CREDITS: 3

COURSE CODE: CV404ES

REGULATION: R16

COURSE TYPE: CORE

COURSEAREA/DOMAIN:

Architecture/organization

CONTACT HOURS: 3+0 (L+T))

hours/Week.

b) Syllabus

Unit Details Hours

I

Introduction: Importance of geology from Civil Engineering point of

view. Brief study of case histories of failure of some Civil Engineering

constructions due to geological draw backs. Importance of Physical

geology, Petrology and Structural geology. Weathering of Rocks : Its

effect over the properties of rocks importance of weathering

with reference to dams, reservoirs and tunnels weathering of common

rock like “Granite”

08

II

Mineralogy: Definition of mineral, Importance of study of minerals,

Different methods of study of minerals. Advantages of study of minerals

by physical properties. Role of study of physical properties of minerals in

the identification of minerals. Study of physical properties of following

common rock forming minerals: Feldsper, Quartiz, Flint, Jasper,

Olivine, Augite, Hornblende, Muscovite, Biotite, Asbestos, Chlorite,

Kyanite, Garnet, Talc, Calcite. Study of other common economics

minerals such as Pyrite, Hematite , Magnetite Chrorite , Galena ,

10


Pyrolusite, Graphite, Magnesite, and Bauxite. Petrology: Definition of

rock: Geological classification of rocks into igneous, Sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks. Dykes and sills, common structures and textures of

igneous. Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Their distinguishing

features, Megascopic and microscopic and microscopic study of Granite,

Dolerite, Basalt, Pegmatite, Laerite, Conglomerate, Sand Stone, Shale,

Limestone, Gneiss, Schist, Quartzite, Marble and Slate..

III

Structural Geology: Out crop, strike and dip study of common

geological structures associating with the rocks such as folds, faults

uncomfornities, and joints – their important types and case studies. Their

importance Insitu and drift soils, common types of soils, their origin and

occurrence in India, Stabilisation of soils. Ground water, Water table,

common types of ground water, springs, cone of depression, geological

controls of ground water movement, ground water exploration

11

IV

Earth Quakes: Causes and effects, shield areas and seismic belts.

Seismic waves, Richter scale, precautions to be taken for building

construction in seismic areas. Landslides, their causes and effect;

measures to be taken to prevent their occurrence. Importance of study

of ground water, earth quakes and landslides. Importance of Geophysical

Studies: Principles of geophysical study by Gravity methods. Magnetic

methods, Electrical methods. Seismic methods, Radio metric methods

and geothermal method. Special importance of Electrical resistivity

methods, and seismic refraction methods. Improvement of competence of

sites by grouting etc. Fundamental aspects of Rock mechanics and

Environmental Geology.

12

V

Geology of Dams, Reservoirs, and Tunnels: Types of dams and

bearing of Geology of site in their selection, Geological Considerations

in the selection of a dam site. Analysis of dam failures of the past.

09


Factors contributing to the success of a reservoir. Geological

factors influencing water Lightness and life of reservoirs – Purposes of

tunneling, Effects of Tunneling on the ground Role of Geological

Considerations (i.e. Tithological, structural and ground water) in

tunneling over break and lining in tunnels.

Total No. of classes 50

c) Gaps in the Syllabus - To Meet Industry/Profession Requirements: Nill

d) Topics beyond Syllabus/ Advanced Topics: Nill

e) Web Source References

Sl. Name of book/ website

a. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105106/

b. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTVDiRtRook

c. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fvoYHzAhvVM

f) Delivery/Instructional Methodologies

CHALK & TALK STUD. ASSIGNMENT WEB RESOURCES

LCD/SMART

BOARDS

STUD. SEMINARS ☐ ADD-ON COURSES

g) Assessment Methodologies-Direct

ASSIGNMENTS

STUD.

SEMINARS

TESTS/MODEL

EXAMS

UNIV.

EXAMINATIO

N

☐ STUD. LAB

PRACTICES

☐ STUD. VIVA ☐ MINI/MAJOR

PROJECTS

☐

CERTIFICATIO

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105106/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTVDiRtRookhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fvoYHzAhvVM


NS

☐ ADD-ON

COURSES

☐ OTHERS

h)Assessment Methodologies-Indirect

ASSESSMENT OF COURSE

OUTCOMES

(BY FEEDBACK, ONCE)

STUDENT FEEDBACK ON

FACULTY (TWICE)

☐ ASSESSMENT OF MINI/MAJOR

PROJECTS BY EXT. EXPERTS

☐ OTHERS

i) Text/Reference Books

T/R BOOK TITLE/AUTHORS/PUBLICATION

Text

Book

N. Chennkesavulu, Engineering Geology, Mc Milan India Ltd., New Delhi,

India, 12th Edition 2009.

Text

Book

Venkat Reddy ,Engineering geology, Vikas Publications, New Delhi,

India,2nd Edition 2011.

Referenc

e Book

K. V. G. K. Gokhale , Principles of engineering Geology, BS Publications,

New Delhi, India,3rd Edition ,2012.

Referenc

e Book

F.G. Bell, Fundamental of Engineering geology butterwoths, Publications,

New Delhi, 3 rd Edition, 1992.


6. MICRO LESSON PLAN

S.NO. Topic Schedule data Actual Date

UNIT-I

1 Introduction geology from civil engineering point of view and syllabus

24/12/2018

2 Brief study of case histories of failures of some civil constructions due to geological draw backs

28/12/2018

3 Importance of Physical geology 29/12/2018

4 Petrology and Structural geology. 2/01/2019

5 Meaning of Weathering of Rocks and Weathering effects on Rock properties

4/01/2019

6 Importance of weathering with reference of

dams, reservoirs and tunnels

5/01/2019

7 Weathering of common rock like “Granite” 8/01/2019

UNIT-II

8 Definition of mineralogy, importance of study of mineralogy

9/01/2019

9 Different methods of study of minerals 11/01/2019

10 Advantages of study of minerals by physical properties

16/01/2019

11 Role of study physical properties of minerals in the identification of minerals

18/01/2019

12 Study of physical properties of the following common rock forming minerals: feldspar,

quartz, flint, jasper, olivine, Augite, hornblende

19/01/2019

13 Study of physical properties of the following

muscovite, Biotite, asbestos, talc, chlorite,

kyanite, garnet, calcite

22/01/2019

14 Study of other common economic minerals: pyrite, hematite, galena, magnetite, chlorite,

23/01/2019

15 Study of other common economic minerals: pyrolusite, graphite, magnesite, and bauxite

25/01/2019

16 Petrology: definition of rock 29/01/2019

17 Geological classification of rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

30/01/2019


18 Dykes and sills. 1/02/2019

19 Common structures and textures of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

2/02/2019

20 Distinguishing features of rocks Megascopic & microscopic study of granite, dolerite, basalt,

pegmatite, laterite ,

5/02/2019

21 Distinguishing features of rocks conglomerate,

sandstone, shale, limestone, gneiss, schist,

quartzite, marble, and slate.

6/02/2019

22 Rock excavation 8/02/2019

23 Stone aggregation. 12/02/2019

Unit III

24 Introduction to structural geology 13/02/2019

25 Indian Stratigraphy and Geological Time Scale 15/02/2019

26 Out crop, strike and dip meaning 16/02/2019

27 Study of common geological structures associating with rocks such as folds, faults,

joints and unconformities and their types

19/02/2019

28 Introduction to ground water and Water table and its types

20/02/2019

29 Springs, cone of depression 22/02/2019

30 Geological controls of ground water movement and Ground water exploration

23/02/2019

Unit IV

31 Earth quakes, causes and effects 25/02/2019

32 Shield areas and seismic belts. 26/02/2019

33 Seismic waves, Richter scale and Precautions to

be taken for building construction in seismic areas

28/02/2019

34 Landslides, landslide hazards 1/03/2019

35 Water in landslides their causes and effect and

Measures to be taken to prevent their

occurrence

2/03/2019

36 Importance of study of ground water 5/03/2019

37 Earthquake and landslides 6/03/2019


Unit V

38 Types of dams and bearing of geology of site in their selection

8/03/2019

39 Geological considerations in the selection of a dam site

12/03/2019

40 Analysis of dam failure of the past 13/03/2019

41 Factors contributing to the success of a reservoir

15/03/2019

42 Geological factors influencing water tightness and life of reservoirs

16/03/2019

43 Geo hazards, ground subsidence. 19/03/2019

44 Importance of geophysical studies and

Principles of geophysical study by gravity

methods

20/03/2019

45 Magnetic & electrical methods 22/03/2019

46 Seismic, radio metric & geothermal methods 23/03/2019

47 Special importance of electrical resistivity methods, and seismic refractive methods

26/03/2019

48 Improvement of sites by grouting 27/03/2019

49 Fundamental aspects of rock mechanics and

environmental geology

29/03/2019

50 Purposes of Tunnelling 30/03/2019

51 Effects of tunnelling on the ground 2/04/2019

52 Role of geological considerations in tunnelling over break and lining in tunnels

3/04/2019

53 Tunnels in rock 5/04/2019

54 Subsidence over old mines 6/04/2019

55 Mining substances 9/04/2019


7. TEACHING SCHEDULE

Subject ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Text Books (to be purchased by the Students)

Book 1 N. Chennkesavulu ,Engineering Geology, Mc Milan India Ltd., New Delhi, India,12th Edition 2009.

Book 2 Venkat Reddy ,Engineering geology, Vikas Publications, New Delhi, India,2nd Edition 2011.

Reference Books

Book 3 K. V. G. K. Gokhale , Principles of engineering Geology, BS Publications, New Delhi, India,3rd Edition ,2012.

Book 4 F.G. Bell, Fundamental of Engineering geology butterwoths, Publications, New Delhi, 3 rd Edition,1992

Unit Topic Chapters Nos No of

classes Book 1 Book 2 Book 3 Book 4

I

Introduction: Importance of geology

from Civil Engineering point of

view.

1

1

2

Brief study of case histories

of failure of some Civil

Engineering constructions

due to geological draw

backs

1

8

2

Weathering of Rocks 2 3 7 3

II

Mineralogy 3 2 1 6

Petrology 5,6,7,8

1

1,2,3

7

III

Structural Geology

Ground water

9,10

1,2 4 6

11,12

7,11

6

5

IV

Earth quakes 13,14

10

3

Geophysical studies 15,16

6

6

V

Geology of Dams and Reservoirs

Tunnels

18,19,20

9

6

Contact classes for syllabus coverage 50

Tutorial classes 0

Total No. of classes 50


8. UNIT WISE HAND WRITTEN NOTES


9. UNIT WISE PPT


10. UNIVERSITY PREVIOUS

QUESTION PAPERS


11. MID EXAM DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION PAPER WITH KEY

MID EXAM – I

K. G. Reddy College of Engineering &Technology (Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH)

Chilkur (Vil), Moinabad (Mdl), RR District

College Code

QM

Name of the Exam: I Mid Examinations Marks: 10

Year-Sem & Branch: III-I & CIVIL ENGINEERING Duration: 60 Min

Subject: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Date & Session

13/09/17 & FN

Answer ANY TWO of the following Questions 2X5=10

1) (a) Define a mineral?

(b) Define streak? (c) Define luster? (d) Define cleavage?

2) (a) Describe the different types of rocks. Give the classification, texture and structure of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks?

(b) Write different methods of study of Minerals?

3) (a) What is meant by weathering of rocks? (b) Explain in detail different geological agents responsible for weathering of rocks?

4) (a) Discuss the relationship between the Engineering Geologists and Civil Engineers? (b) Describe the importance of Engineering Geology in Civil Engineering?


MID EXAM – II

K. G. Reddy College of Engineering &Technology (Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH)

Chilkur (Vil), Moinabad (Mdl), RR District

College Code

QM

Name of the Exam: II Mid Examinations, SEP - 2017 Marks: 10

Year-Sem & Branch: III Year I CIVIL ENGINEERING

Duration: 60 Min

Subject: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Date & Session

FN

Answer ANY TWO of the following Questions 2X5=10

1. a) What is a tunnel? Explain the terms that are used in tunnels with neat sketches. Also

explain the purpose of tunneling?

b) Write a short note on over break

2. a) Explain in detail about radiometric method? b) Explain in detail about Magnetic method?

3. a) What are the Geological Considerations necessary in the selection of a Dam Site? b) Explain in detail the role of electrical methods of subsurface investigation in civil

engineering practice?

4. a) What is a water table and what are the types of ground water which occurs in the zone

of aeration and saturation?

(b) Classification and Causes of Earthquakes?


12. MID EXAM OBJECTIVE QUESTION PAPER

MID- I


13. ASSIGNMENT TOPICS WITH MATERIALS

UNIT-I

a. Define engineering geology?

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:

The principles and methods of geology is adopted for the purpose of civil engineering operations. Broadly

speaking, engineering geology has two divisions:

(1) The study of raw materials

(2) The study of the geological characteristics of the area where engineering operations are to be carried out such as

Groundwater characteristics

The load bearing capacity of rocks

The stability of slopes; excavation

Rock mechanics etc for civil engineer

GEOLOGY (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science)

Is a branch of science dealing with the study of the earth . It is also known as earth science. The study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure, composition and the nature of the processes which have

given rise to its present position is called as geology. Geology comprises the following

Branches:

1. Crystallography 2. Mineralogy 3. Petrology 4. Geophysics 5. Geochemistry 6. Structural Geology 7. Stratigraphy 8. Physical Geology 9. Geomorphology

10. Paleontology 11. Hydrogeology 12. Engineering Geology 13. Photo Geology 14. Economic Geology 15. Mining Geology


b. Write case histories of failures of some civil engineering construction due to geological draw back?

BRIEF STUDY OF CASE HISTORIES OF FAILURES OF SOME CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION DUE TO GEOLOGICAL DRAW BACK

CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF DAMS

The most common causes of dam failures includes the following considerations:

1. Failure due to earthquake

2. Failure due to landslide

3. Failure due to chemical weathering of foundation rocks ( Alkali-Silica Reaction , Sulfate & Chloride on concrete)

4. Failure due to physical weathering (temperature variations, or by heavy rain, or by physical breaking).

5.Failure due to increase of fractures in geological structures (fault, folds & unconformities).

DAM FAILURES

1. The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity-arch dam, designed to create a reservoir.

The dam was built between 1924 and 1926 under the supervision of William Mulholland The dam Height is 195 feet (59 m) & its length is 608 feet (185 m). The dam was constructed on the foundation of Schists and conglomerates and in turn, separated by a

distinct fault. In addition, conglomerates also had veins of gypsum, a soluble mineral and hence both

Schists and conglomerates are unsuitable to serve as a foundation to such a dam. Several temperature

and contraction cracks appeared in the dam when the reservoir had reached full capacity.

Enormous leakage of stored water occurred through the conglomerate and the dam failed by sliding in 1928 resulting more than killing of 450 people

Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam was carried out by dam water

The block is approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet high, and 54 feet wide. It was concluded that the disaster was primarily caused by the landslide on which the western abutment of the dam was built.


Before failure After failure

2. Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India: The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth fill dam with a

height of 23.08 m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m.

The storage of full reservoir level was 13.98 million cubic mts. The foundation was made of shale. The spillway was of ogee shaped and ungated. The depth of cutoff was 3.21 m below the river bed. In spite of a freeboard allowance of 1.83 m at the normal reservoir level and 3.96 m at the maximum

reservoir level the energy dissipation devices first failed and later the embankment collapsed due to

the weak foundation bed in 1959.

4. Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India:

This dam was constructed in 1977 on Cauvery River as an earthen dam with regulators. The dam was 15.75 m high above the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height above the river

bed.

The storage at full reservoir level was 12.3 million cubic mts. The dam failed due to overtopping by flood waters which flowed over the downstream slopes.

There was an earthquake registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong. Water gushed over the rear slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding the slopes. Breaches of length

20 m to 200 m were observed. It appeared as if the entire dam was overtopped and breached.


5. Tigra Dam, Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917: This was a masonry gravity dam of 24 m height, constructed for the purpose of water supply. A depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the dam over a length of 400 m. This was equivalent to an

overflow of 850 m3s-1(estimated).

Two major blocks were bodily pushed away. The failure was due to sliding. The dam was reconstructed in 1929.

BRIDGES FAILURE

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse:

The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, completed in 1940, probably stands as the greatest civil engineering failure in history.

When constructed, it was to be the third longest suspension bridge in the world. Narrow and graceful, the bridge would connect the Kitsap Peninsula to Tacoma, Washington

The bridge failed on November 7th of 1940, a mere four months after opening. Fortunately, the only life lost in its spectacular failure was that of a cocker spaniel named Tubby. Structural engineers were

left with the question of analyzing how the bridge failed. As with any civil engineering failure, a

thorough analysis is a necessary part of avoiding similar catastrophes in the future.

One long-term result of the lessons which were learned from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster is that modern structural engineers now use computer simulations of wind flow programs to better

understand and design for the natural resonance of bridges, buildings and other structures. This helps

reduce greatly the possibility of another disaster like this in the future.

Koror–Babeldaob Bridge:

The original Koror–Babeldaob Bridge was a balanced cantilever pre-stressed concrete box girder bridge with a main span of 240.8 m and total length of 385.6 m (1265 ft).

It was designed by Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG and Alfred A. Yee and Associates. It was constructed by Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG, contractor was Palau based Korean company, Socio Construction

Co.

It was the world's largest bridge of its type, until its record was broken by the 260 m span of the Gateway Bridge in Brisbane, Australia, finished in 1985


The 18-year old, Koror-Babeldaob bridge (KB bridge) collapsed abruptly and catastrophically


TUNNELS FAILURE

Ramganaga diversion tunnel (Himalayas)

Umiam-Baraoani stage I tunnel(Meghalaya)

Koyna iii stage tail race tunnel(Bombay)


Unit II

1) Define mineral? Mineral

A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed with a definite chemicalcomposition, with a certain physical properties and crystalline structures Under favorable conditions, the internal atomic structure

of minerals result in the development of a definite external geometrical shape ie crystal form

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid

A mineral is Inorganically formed

A mineral has definite (but not necessarily fixed) chemical composition

A mineral has definite atomic structure

A mineral is a homogeneous substance

2) What are the different methods of study of minerals?

Different methods of study of minerals

According to the mineral definition, every mineral has its own chemical composition and atomic structure and it is unique for every mineral. This fact facilitates the study of mineral in different ways. Common methods of study

and identification of minerals based on their

(i) physical properties

(ii) chemical properties

(iii) optical properties and

(iv) x-ray analysis.

(i) Study of Physical properties: Physical properties like Color, Form, lustre, Hardness (resistance toscratching), Density (Specific Gravity), cleavage etc., can be studied with simple observations. These properties are dependent

on chemical composition and atomic structure i.e., if the atomic structure and chemical composition remains the same, the resulting properties should also be similar. This principle is the basis for the study of minerals.

For example, any galena mineral irrespective of its place of occurrence, size, shape, association consistently

exhibits lead grey colour, metallic shine, opaque character, high Sp gr (density = 7.4 – 7.6), tendency to break

easily along three different directions and is scratched easily by knife. This set of physical properties is never exhibited by any other mineral .Therefore, if such properties are observed an unknown mineral it must be only

galena.

(ii) Study of Chemical composition: According to the definition, every mineral which is expected to have its own individual chemical composition, which is not to be found in any other mineral. Therefore, by chemical analysis if

composition is known it should be possible to identify the mineral.

For example, if the composition of an unknown mineral is found to be lead sulphide (PbS), then that must be only

galena because galena always has the composition lead sulphide and no other mineral has this composition.


(iii) Study of optical properties: In this method of study, the minerals are made very fine (0.03 mm ) and fixed over glass slide by means Canada balsam such skillfully prepared slides are called thin sections. They are studied under petrological microscope. Different optical properties such as interference colours, their order, interference

figures, optic sign, twinning, alteration etc., are studied under crossed nicols with help of some other accessories, if

necessary. The optical properties of every mineral are also distinctive and hence helpful in the identification of minerals.

For example, quartz is characterized by: anhedral shape, clourless, no cleavage, transparent, low relief, non-

pleochroic, grey or yellow, interference colours of first order, positive uniaxial interference figure, positive

elongation, no alteration etc,.

(iv) Study of X-ray analysis: When a beam of x-rays falls on a crystal, it is diffracted by the layers of the atoms within the crystal. In making an x-ray analysis of atomic structure of the crystal, the diffracted x-rays are allowed to fall on the on photographic plate and resulting photograph shows a series of spots or lines which form more or

less symmetrical pattern. From measurements made on the photograph, the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal

can be deduced and also the distances between them. The results of x-ray analysis of minerals reveal their atomic structure, which is distinctive, for each mineral. This enables the accurate identification of minerals.


Unit III

1) Write the classification of igneous rocks?

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Igneous rocks are the first formed rocks in the earth’s crust and hence these are called PRIMARY ROCKS, even though igneous rocks have formed subsequently also.

Igneous rocks are the most abundant rocks in the earth crust and are formed at a very high temperature directly as a result of solidification of magma since magma is the parent material of igneous rocks.

The temperature increases proportionately with the depth this is one of the reasons for the formation ofigneous rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed out of hot magma or lava. The lava on solidification over the earth’s surfacegives rise to Extrusive igneous rocks

While the magma on solidification below the earth’s surface gives rise to intrusive igneous rocks

Forms of intrusive Igneous Rocks

Dykes and sills

Igneous intrusions occur in different sizes and forms depending on the conditions during the formationof intrusion. eg: Dykes and Sills are the common forms.

If the intrusion is parallel to the layering in the host rock, it is called as a sill where as the intrusion cutting across the trend of the host rock, it is called as a Dyke.

Dykes are the common form of igneous rocks and are vertical or inclined intrusive igneous bodies.

Dykes occur cutting across the bedding planes of the country rocks in which they are found. Due to forceful pressure, magma intrudes through the fractures, cracks, joints, shear zones, weak planes and subsequent solidification of this gives rise to dykes

Sills

Are similar to dykes but are formed due to penetration of magma into bedding planes of country rocks.

The spreading capacity depends on the viscosity of magma, its temperature and the weight of the overlying rocks.

Sills which spread over large areas are generally thin with uniform thickness. Eg: 1 The great whin soil of England spreads over 3900 sq.kms

Eg: 2 Karroo sills (dolerite composition ) spreads over 510000 sq kms in South Africa.


Sills act sometimes as mineralizing bodies. eg: Barytes, Asbestos deposits of cuddapah.

Sills occur as horizontal and inclined bodies.

Lava flows may resemble sills closely because both are relatively thin, horizontal sheet like igneous bodies spreading over large areas. But they can be distinguished from one another as follows:

Lava flows show an irregular lower surface whereas sills have more or less flat on both sides.

Lava flows shows vesicular character on the upper surface, whereas sills present no such characters.

Lava flows undergo quite cooling producing fine grained rocks whereas sills cool slowly causing coarse to medium grained rocks.

Sills give out tongues (minor intrusions) into the overlying rock masses, Whereas lava flows do not.

Laccoliths

If the intrusion takes place forcibly in stratified rock, resulting a mushroom shaped (reverse bowl) intrusive in the host rock, it is termed as Laccoliths.

Phaccolith

In the folded rocks, if the intrusion takes place at a later stage, it occupies theopenings at the crest (in case of anticlines) and trough (in case of synclines) of folds, the resulting form of intrusive is denoted as Phaccolith.

Lopolith

Large igneous intrusions of several kilometers in extent having a form which is the top in nearly flat and the bottom is convex downwards is known as Lopolith

Batholiths

The term is applied to any large intrusive mass of igneous rock (eg granite). Batholiths, occupy a large areaof out crop extending to greater depths with the presence of Roof Pendants and Xenoliths.

Batholiths occur usually in mountain regions and are parallel to the folded regions. Compositionally, batholiths are either granites or granodiorites.

Eg: British Colombia batholiths of 1250 miles extension and a width of 50 miles.


Unit-IV

1) Explain different Terminology of an earthquake? Terminology of an earthquake: • Focus: Place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earth. • Epicenter: A point on the ground surface, which is vertically above the focus. • Seismic waves: The enormous energy released from the focus at the time of earthquake is transmitted in alldirections in the form of waves. • Elastic waves: A wave propagated by a medium having inertia and elasticity in which displaced particles transfer momentum to neighboring particles and are themselves restored to original position.

• Isoseismic: The imaginary line joining the points of same intensity of the earthquake.

• Hodograph: time - distance curve • Seismograph: an instrument is used to detect/ record the seismic waves • Seismogram: Recorded data in seismic method

2) Discuss classification and causes of earthquakes?

CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES:

Earthquakes are grouped based on their depth of origin, and described as shallow or intermediate or deeper

earthquakes.

If the depth is < 60 kms shallow

If the depth is > 60 kms but < 300 kms, they are called intermediate earthquakes.

Other which have a focus depth > 300 kms are called deeper earthquakes.

Earthquakes originating at depths > 700 kms are extremely rare.

3) Explain landslides and their causes?

LANDSLIDES

The term landslide refers to the downward sliding of huge quantities of land masses. Such sliding occurs along

steep slopes of hills or mountains..

It may be sudden or slow in its occurrence. Also, in magnitude, it may be major or minor.

Often, loose and unconsolidated surface material undergoes sliding. But sometimes, huge blocks of

consolidated rocks may also be involved. If landslides occur in places of importance such as highways, railway

lines, valleys, reservoirs, inhabited areas and agricultural lands leads to blocking of traffic, collapse of

buildings, harm to fertile lands and heavy loss to life and property. In India, landslides often occur in Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh and in the mountains of Uttar Pradesh.

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTH MOVEMENTS: All movements of land masses are referred to as landslides

and grouped them under “earth movements”. The classification of earth movements us as follows:

EARTH MOVEMENTS

EARTH FLOWS Solifluction,Creep

Rapid flows

LANDSLIDES

Debris slides and

slump Rock slides,Rock falls

SUBSIDENCE Compaction Collapse


Unit-V

1) Explain parts of dam? Parts of a Dam:

Heel: It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the upstream side.

Toe: It is that part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the downstream

side

Free board: It is the difference in level between the top of the dam wall and the high

storage level

Galleries: These are small rooms left within the dam for checking operations

Spillway: An arrangement is made in a dam near the top or inside to allow excess water of

the reservoir to the downstream side

Sluice: It is an opening in the dam near the ground level. It is useful in clearing the silt

of the reservoir


Cut-off wall: It is an underground wall-like structure of concrete in the heel portion.

It is useful in preventing leakage under the foundation

Terminology

Tunnel: An underground passage for vehicles or pedestrians, especially one which is created

by digging into earth.

Axis: The lengthwise course of a tunnel, especially along the center line.

Cross section: The shape of a tunnel for eg: horseshoe, round or square.

Excavation: The process of digging or the hole which results.

Muck: Debris removed during excavation.

Grouting: Unstable rock and soil is strengthened by the injection of chemicals, cementious

materials.

Lining: Materials used to finish the inside surface of the tunnel.

Overburden: The soil and rock supported by the roof of a tunnel.

Portal: The open end of a tunnel. Usually includes a wall to retain the soil around the

opening.

Adit: Main entrance location of a tunnel

Profile: A side view of the tunnel.

Shaft: A vertical, underground passage from the top to the bottom where there is initially

noaccess to the bottom.


16. Unit wise-Question bank


UNIT-I

Two marks of questions with answers

Q1. Define geology


Is a branch of science dealing with the study of the earth . It is also known as earth science.

The study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure, composition and the nature of the

processes which have given rise to its present position is called as geology.

Q2. Define Mineralogy

The study of the characters of minerals ( eg: quartz, pyroxene, amphibole, mica,

chlorite, garnet) is known as Mineralogy. A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous

substance, inorganically formed with a definite chemical composition, with a certain physical

properties and crystalline structures

Q3. Define Petrology

The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies, textures, structures

(systematic description of rocks in hand specimen and thin sections); origin and their

relationships to other rocks

Q4. What is WEATHERING OF ROCKS? Ans The process by which rocks are broken down and decomposed by the action of external agencies such as wind, rain, temperature changes etc is called as weathering.

Weathering is a process involving disintegration and decomposition of rocks. If these materials are transported from the site with the help of natural agencies such as wind,

running water etc, the process is called as erosion. Weathering is categorized as a

1) Mechanical or physical weathering 2) Chemical 3) Biological

Q5. Define Structural Geology

Ans The study of rock structures such as folds that have resulted from movements and

deformation of the earth’s crust.


Three marks of questions with answers

Q1. Write the importance of geology from civil engineering point of view

Ans: Before constructing roads, bridges, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs and buildings, selection of

site is important from the point of stability of foundation.

Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and their properties.

The knowledge about the nature of the rocks in tunneling and construction of roads.

The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology of the area where they are to be built.

The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with excavation works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes.

The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface water

helps in soil conservation, river control.

Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering

projects.

If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds are found, they have to be

suitably treated. Hence, the stability of the rock structures is important.

Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of planning work. .

Q2. Write the importance of physical geology?

Ans:

It deals with the geological processes which bring about changes in the crust and upon the

surface of the earth.

It also deals with the surface features of the earth (land forms) or its topography. The earth is concentrically divided into a number of spheres

(1)Atmosphere

(2) Hydrosphere and

(3) Lithosphere


Deposition : The material is transported mechanically and deposit (eg: sand )

Earth movements include the uplift and depressions of land areas & sea floors.

Igneous activity includes emission of lavas, gases, other volcanic products etc

Metamorphism: The process by which changes are brought about in rocks within the

earth’s crust by the agencies of Heat, Pressure and Chemical fluids.

IMPORTANCE OF PETROLOGY:

Rocks are divided according to their origin into three classification Physical

Chemical

Geological

The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogy, textures, structures; origin and their relationships to other rocks plays a major role in civil engineering

operations.

In physical classification is divided into two types Stratified

Un -stratified

In chemical classification based on chemical composition In geological classification is divided into three types

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are formed when hot molten rock material called magma solidifies (or) igneous rocks form through cooling and crystallization of molten rock material.

If the molten material is below the Earth’s surface, it is called magma or else it comes out

about the surface , it is known as lava

The molten material of rock is semi-solid in nature and consists of liquid , gas and earlier

formed crystals.

The volatiles ( elements and compounds which are dissolved in a silicate


melt ) are dominantly water vapour, CO2 and elements like O2, Si, Al, Ca, Na, K, Fe

and Mg.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks are formed due to weathering and erosion of the pre-existing rocks. Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the character of the material and

process

which leads to its deposition.

In addition, the depositional environment plays a major role in the formation of sedimentary rocks . Deposited the material by wind action or water action.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks are formed through the transformation of the pre-existing rocks under increased temperature and pressure conditions.

This process of transformation is known as metamorphism.

Q3. Write the importance of structural geology?

Ans: Geological structures are the evidences of crustal deformation. Depending on the

process involved, the following various types of structures develop in the geological

formations.

FOLDS: Folds are best displayed by stratified formations such as sedimentary or

Volcanic rocks or their metamorphosed equivalents. Folds can be seen in Granite

Gneiss, iron formations etc.

FAULTS: When formations subjected to stress deform resulting in the development of

fractures or a fracture in rock along which there has been an observable amount of

displacement can be seen.

JOINTS: Joints are fractures or openings in the rock formations. These differ from the

faults in that there is no displacement along them.

UNCONFIRMITIES: An unconformity represents a long interval of non – deposition

during which erosion takes place.

Q4. What is the scope of geology in civil engineering ?

Ans: It is defined as that of applied science which deal with the application of geology for a safe, stable and economic design and construction of a civil engineering project.


It enables a geologist to understand the nature of the geological information that is absolutely essentially for a safe design and construction of a civil engineeringprojects.

The scope of geology can be studied is best studied with reference to major activities of the profession of a civil engineer which are

Construction

Water resources development

Town and regional planning

Geology provides necessary information about the construction materials at the site used in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and

bridges.

Geological information is most important in planning stage, design phaseand construction phase of an engineering project.

Geology is useful to know the method of mining of rock and mineral deposits on earth’s

surface and subsurface.

Geology is useful for supply, storage and filling up of reservoirs with water..


Five marks of questions with answers Q1. Write in detail about engineering geology.

Ans: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:

The principles and methods of geology is adopted for the purpose of civil engineering

operations. Broadly speaking, engineering geology has two divisions:

(1) The study of raw materials

(2) The study of the geological characteristics of the area where engineering operations are to be carried out such as

Groundwater characteristics

The load bearing capacity of rocks

The stability of slopes; excavation

Rock mechanics etc for civil engineer


Is a branch of science dealing with the study of the earth . It is also known as earth science.

The study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure, composition and the nature of the

processes which have given rise to its present position is called as geology. Geology

comprises the following

Branches:

1. Crystallography 2. Mineralogy

3. Petrology 4. Geophysics 5. Geochemistry 6. Structural Geology 7. Stratigraphy 8. Physical Geology 9. Geomorphology 10. Paleontology 11. Hydrogeology 12. Engineering Geology 13. Photo Geology 14. Economic Geology 15. Mining Geology


Q2. Describe brief study of case histories of failures of some civil engineering

construction due to geological draw back

Ans: CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF DAMS

The most common causes of dam failures includes the following considerations:

1. Failure due to earthquake

2. Failure due to landslide

3. Failure due to chemical weathering of foundation rocks ( Alkali-Silica Reaction , Sulfate & Chloride on concrete)

4. Failure due to physical weathering (temperature variations, or by heavy rain, or byphysical breaking).

5.Failure due to increase of fractures in geological structures (fault, folds & unconformities).

DAM FAILURES

1. The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity-arch dam, designed to create a reservoir.

The dam was built between 1924 and 1926 under the supervision of William Mulholland

The dam Height is 195 feet (59 m) & its length is 608 feet (185 m). The dam was constructed on the foundation of Schists and conglomerates and in turn,

separated by a distinct fault. In addition, conglomerates also had veins of gypsum, a

soluble mineral and hence both Schists and conglomerates are unsuitable to serve as a

foundation to such a dam. Several temperature and contraction cracks appeared in the

dam when the reservoir had reached full capacity.

Enormous leakage of stored water occurred through the conglomerate and the dam failed by sliding in 1928 resulting more than killing of 450 people

Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam was carried out by dam water

The block is approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet high, and 54 feet wide. It was concluded that the disaster was primarily caused by the landslide on which the western

abutment of the dam was built.



2. Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India: The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth

fill dam with a height of 23.08 m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m.

The storage of full reservoir level was 13.98 million cubic mts. The foundation was made of shale. The spillway was of ogee shaped and ungated. The depth of cutoff was 3.21 m below the river bed. In spite of a freeboard allowance of 1.83 m at the normal reservoir level and 3.96 m at

the maximum reservoir level the energy dissipation devices first failed and later the

embankment collapsed due to the weak foundation bed in 1959.

4. Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India:

This dam was constructed in 1977 on Cauvery River as an earthen dam with regulators. The dam was 15.75 m high above the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height

above the river bed.


The storage at full reservoir level was 12.3 million cubic mts. The dam failed due to overtopping by flood waters which flowed over the downstream slopes.

There was an earthquake registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong. Water gushed over the rear slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding the

slopes. Breaches of length 20 m to 200 m were observed. It appeared as if the entire

dam was overtopped and breached.

5. Tigra Dam, Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917:

This was a masonry gravity dam of 24 m height, constructed for the purpose of water supply.

A depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the dam over a length of 400 m. This was equivalent to an overflow of 850 m3s-1(estimated).

Two major blocks were bodily pushed away. The failure was due to sliding. The dam was reconstructed in 1929.

BRIDGES FAILURE

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse:

The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, completed in 1940, probably stands as the greatest civil engineering failure in history.

When constructed, it was to be the third longest suspension bridge in the world. Narrow and graceful, the bridge would connect the Kitsap Peninsula to Tacoma,

Washington

The bridge failed on November 7th of 1940, a mere four months after opening. Fortunately, the only life lost in its spectacular failure was that of a cocker spaniel

named Tubby. Structural engineers were left with the question of analyzing how the

bridge failed. As with any civil engineering failure, a thorough analysis is a necessary

part of avoiding similar catastrophes in the future.

One long-term result of the lessons which were learned from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster is that modern structural engineers now use computer simulations of

wind flow programs to better understand and design for the natural resonance of


bridges, buildings and other structures. This helps reduce greatly the possibility of

another disaster like this in the future.

Koror–Babeldaob Bridge:

The original Koror–Babeldaob Bridge was a balanced cantilever pre-stressed concrete box girder bridge with a main span of 240.8 m and total length of 385.6 m (1265 ft).

It was designed by Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG and Alfred A. Yee and Associates. It was constructed by Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG, contractor was Palau based Korean

company, Socio Construction Co.

It was the world's largest bridge of its type, until its record was broken by the 260 m span of the Gateway Bridge in Brisbane, Australia, finished in 1985

The 18-year old, Koror-Babeldaob bridge (KB bridge) collapsed abruptly and catastrophically


TUNNELS FAILURE


Ramganaga diversion tunnel (Himalayas)

Umiam-Baraoani stage I tunnel(Meghalaya)

Koyna iii stage tail race tunnel(Bombay

Q3. Define weathering and its type in detail?

Ans: WEATHERING OF ROCKS

The process by which rocks are broken down and decomposed by the action of external agencies such as wind, rain, temperature changes etc is called as

weathering.

Weathering is a process involving disintegration and decomposition of rocks. If these materials are transported from the site with the help of natural agencies such

as wind, running water etc, the process is called as erosion.

Weathering is categorized as a 1) Mechanical or physical weathering 2) Chemical 3) Biological

Mechanical weathering:

In mechanical weathering, the process involves only fragmentation or break down of the rock into smaller fragments / pieces.

In nature, the physical breaking of rocks is caused by several processes. Waterfalls, landslides during their fall cause extensive break down of rocks. Thus gravity

contributes to mechanical disintegration of rocks. However, all the processesinvolve

widening of the fractures, resulting in the detachment of blocks surrounded by the

weak planes.

Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks throughdirect contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure.

Chemical weathering:

Chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals in the breakdown of rocks, minerals

Chemical weathering involves chemical reactions resulting in the alteration of the rock leading to the formation of new alteration


products.

Water is the best fluid that directly affects rocks by way of Dissolution; Leaching (making porous); Hydration; Oxidation, Hydrolysis etc

Biological weathering:

Involves breakdown of rocks by living organisms (Bacteria & fungi).

Living organisms release organic acids viz., Oxalic acid; Phenolic acid; Folic acid, Acetic Acid, Humic acid etc which cause decomposition of rocks.

Man is also responsible for unnatural weathering of rocks for construction ofbuildings, dams, bridges etc.

Weathering effect over the properties of rocks:

Weathered minerals exhibit change in color intensity or different colors. They will be less compact, and hence their specific gravity will be less. Their hardness will decrease so that the minerals become softer and weak. They become less transparent or tend to become opaque. The minerals loss their original shine and exhibit a dull luster.

Weathered minerals loose their internal cohesion & become easily powdered. Weathered rocks usually appear as brown,red & yellow colors on the surface.

IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING

Weathering transports smaller fragments, pieces etc after the process of weathering.

Weathering initiates the erosion of rock, causing alterations in minerals as well as in

the

surface layers. Weathering is a process that applies major role of engineering mechanics,

e.g.

kinematics (study of bodies which are in motion), dynamics and fluid mechanics to

predict the mechanical behavior of erosion. Together, soil and rock mechanics are the

basis for solving many engineering geologic problems with references to dams, reservoirs

and tunnels.

Advantages of weathering from civil engineering point of view:

• Weathering produces soil which is vital for agriculture and for the production of agricultural crops.


• Weathering makes rocks into porous and permeable which allow the movement of groundwater in case of hard rocks like granites.

• Economic minerals like bauxite deposits are also form due to weathering. • Oxidation of chemical weathering is important in the formation of some oredeposits particularly sulphides.

Disadvantages of weathering from civil engineering point of view:

• Weathering is not a welcome process, because it reduces the strength, durability and good appearance of rocks

• Therefore, the weathered rocks are unfit to be at the site of foundation in case of civil structures like dams and bridges.

• Since weathered rocks are characterized by loose characters ie strength, durability etc, they become unfit for the formation of road metal or as a building stone.

• Weathered rocks are being weak, therefore unsuitable for tunneling. • Occurrence of weathered zone in the upstream side creates silting problem in case of reservoirs as the accumulation of rapid silt reduces the reservoir capacity.

• Loose boulders due to weathering along steep slopes may turn out landslides which is civil engineering hazard.

Q4. Write the effect of weathering of a common rock granite Ans:

Among different rocks, Granite ( an acidic rock ) is one of the most abundant rockon the

earth’s surface. Therefore, it will be appropriate to analyses the process of weathering in

granite.

Granite consists of quartz, feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase), and accessory minerals

(amphiboles, pyroxenes; biotite / muscovite, magnetite / haematite, rutile, zircon, apatite,

garnet.)

During the oxidation, feldspars in granite converts into sericite and then to kaolinite there

by silica removed from the reaction by ground water.

Feldspars sericite ( mica ) kaolinite ( clay )

Quartz minerals remain unchanged whereas muscovite or biotite becomes chlorite on

decomposition. Pyroxenes ( augite / diopside ) decompose and pass into hornblende or

breakdown into chlorite.


The above changes due to weathering causes failure of civil construction projects and

hence the study of weathering of rocks is important for any civil project.

Finally, Geological considerations such as Topography and geomorphology of the site,

impact of geological structures; Lithology of the formations ; Identification of weak zones

in addition to weathering of rocks plays an important role in civil engineering

constructions.


Multiple choices

1. The main processes which does not come under chemical weathering are a) Solution b) Hydration and hydrolysis c) Insolation d) Carbonation Answer: c

2. Factor not affecting weathering is a) Colour of the rock b) Nature of the rock c) Climate d) Physical environment Answer: a

3. The process that is not considered under mechanical weathering is a) Carbonation b) Temperature variation c) Unloading d) Insolation Answer: a

4. What is the change in volume when water freezes? a) 10% decrease b) 20% increase c) 20% decrease d) 10% increase Answer: d

5. The processes by which Scree deposits are formed are a) Chemical attack

b) Exposure to sunlight c) Water movement d) Heaving and rolling Answer: d

6. The depth up to which the mantle is said to exist is


a) 2000 km b) 1500 km c) 2900 km d) 1800 km Answer: c

7. The thickness of the 2 layers of the upper mantle is approximately said to be a) 400 and 600 km b) 300 and 500 km c) 450 and 800 km d) 300 and 400 km Answer: a

8. Who was the first person to tell about the Core? a) Graham Bell b) Albert Einstein

c) Isaac Newton d) R.D. Oldham Answer: d

9. Which state in India has most number of large dams? a) Karnataka b) Orissa c) Maharashtra d) Madhya Pradesh Answer: c

10. Which is the longest dam in India? a) Hirakud dam b) Bhakra dam c) Krishnarajasagar dam d) Nagarjun sagar dam Answer: a


FILL THE BLANKS

1. The main processes which does not come under chemical weathering are

Insolation

2. The rock-mineral insoluble in water is Pyrite 3. Minerals like Orthoclase and Felspar undergo which method of chemical

decomposition Hydrolysis

4. The zone consisting of mixed composition is Zone B 5. The stress developed in the top layers of the rocks which disintegrate due to

repeated variations in temperatures is Tensile stress

6. The large-scale development of fracturing in confined rock masses occurs under

which process Unloading

7. Where can one find the process of exudation occur Seashore 8. Stratification can be seen widely in which of the following rocks Sedimentary

rocks 9. The branch of geology which deals with the morphology, classification,

mechanism and causes of development of these rock structures is called as

Structural geology

10. The maximum angle of inclination of a layer of a rock with the horizontal is Dip


1) Define mineral?

UNIT -II

A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed with

a definite chemical composition, with a certain physical properties and crystalline structures

Under favorable conditions, the internal atomic structure of minerals result in the

development of a definite external geometrical shape ie crystal form

• A mineral is a naturally occurring solid • A mineral is Inorganically formed • A mineral has definite (but not necessarily fixed) chemical composition • A mineral has definite atomic structure • A mineral is a homogeneous substance

2) Define Form?

Form:

The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of mineral reflects the internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs as a well-developed crystal, it is

called crystallized. If the growth of the crystals is hampered due to interference of other

crystal grains then the resulting form is called crystalline.

3) Define Streak?

Streak:

The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit a different color in

the powder form compared to form of mass.

The powder of the mineral is obtained either by scratching the mineral with a pen knife or rubbing it across piece of unglazed porcelain plate called streak plate.


4) Define lustre?

Lustre:

Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under reflected light. It

varies considerably depending upon the amount and type of light reflected.

Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-metallic.

Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of the metal.

Nonmetallic lustres are named considering the type of shining that appears insome common materials

5) Define cleavage?

Cleavage:

The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends to break easily is called the

cleavage of that mineral

Crystallized and crystalline minerals can have cleavage.


Five marks of questions with answers

1) Define mineral its properties?

Mineral

A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed with a

definite chemical composition, with a certain physicalproperties and crystalline structures

Under favorable conditions, the internal atomic structure of minerals result in the

development of a definite external geometrical shape ie crystal form

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid

A mineral is Inorganically formed

A mineral has definite (but not necessarily fixed) chemical composition

A mineral has definite atomic structure

A mineral is a homogeneous substance

Explanation:

Homogeneous: all parts of the minerals should possess the same physical and chemical

characters.

Crystalline: possess atomic structure in a mineral.

Crystal: A crystal may be defined as a natural solid body bounded by smooth and plain

surfaces, arranged geometrically.

Crystals develop under favorable conditions depending on:

(1) Slow cooling (2) Surroundings to facilitate the crystal growth in different directions. (3) Non-interference by the adjacent growing minerals during solidification

Exceptions for Definition of Mineral:

l. Precious gemstones like diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are synthetically

produced under controlled laboratory conditions.

2. Coal, amber, petroleum, etc., are typical organic substances which can be considered as minerals.

3. Amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine, cat's eye, aventurine quartz are some varieties of quartz. Colour or appearance peculiarity in them is because they possess some impurities or

inclusions or in homogeneities.


4. Asphalt ( a variety of bitumen, semi-solid in nature, black in color) , mercury and natural gas are semisolids, liquids or gases. Though these are called minerals, they are not solid

substances.

5. A good number of minerals are now found to be members of isomorphic groups. Isomorphic minerals do not have a definite chemical composition, but have a definiterange

of composition.

6. Some minerals like flint, chert, jasper and agate are cryptocrystalline, i.e., they do not have a well-developed crystal structure. A few others like opal, bauxite, Psilomelane, pitchblende

etc are typically amorphous, i.e., they do not possess any regular internal atomic structure

2) Write different methods of study of minerals?

DIFFERENT METHODS OF STUDY OF MINERALS

According to the mineral definition, every mineral has its own chemical composition and

atomic structure and it is unique for every mineral. This fact facilitates the study of mineral in

different ways. Common methods of study and identification of minerals based on their

(i) physical properties

(ii) chemical properties

(iii) optical properties and

(iv) x-ray analysis.

(i) Study of Physical properties: Physical properties like Color, Form, lustre, Hardness (resistance to scratching), Density (Specific Gravity), cleavage etc., can be studied with

simple observations. These properties are dependent on chemical composition andatomic

structure i.e., if the atomic structure and chemical composition remains the same, the

resulting properties should also be similar. This principle is the basis for the study of

minerals.

For example, any galena mineral irrespective of its place of occurrence, size, shape,

association consistently exhibits lead grey colour, metallic shine, opaque character, high Sp

gr (density = 7.4 – 7.6), tendency to break easily along three different directions and is

scratched easily by knife. This set of physical properties is never exhibited by any other


mineral .Therefore, if such properties are observed an unknown mineral it must be only

galena.

(ii) Study of Chemical composition: According to the definition, every mineral which is expected to have its own individual chemical composition, which is not to be found in any

other mineral. Therefore, by chemical analysis if composition is known it should be possible

to identify the mineral.

For example, if the composition of an unknown mineral is found to be lead sulphide (PbS),

then that must be only galena because galena always has the composition lead sulphide and

no other mineral has this composition.

(iii) Study of optical properties: In this method of study, the minerals are made very fine (0.03 mm ) and fixed over glass slide by means Canada balsam such skillfully prepared

slides are called thin sections. They are studied under petrological microscope. Different

optical properties such as interference colours, their order, interference figures, optic sign,

twinning, alteration etc., are studied under crossed nicols with help of some otheraccessories,

if necessary. The optical properties of every mineral are also distinctive and hence helpful in

the identification of minerals.

For example, quartz is characterized by: anhedral shape, clourless, no cleavage, transparent,

low relief, non-pleochroic, grey or yellow, interference colours of first order, positive

uniaxial interference figure, positive elongation, no alteration etc,.

(iv) Study of X-ray analysis: When a beam of x-rays falls on a crystal, it is diffracted by the layers of the atoms within the crystal. In making an x-ray analysis of atomic structure of the

crystal, the diffracted x-rays are allowed to fall on the on photographic plate and resulting

photograph shows a series of spots or lines which form more or less symmetrical pattern.

From measurements made on the photograph, the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal can

be deduced and also the distances between them. The results of x-ray analysis of minerals

reveal their atomic structure, which is distinctive, for each mineral. This enables the accurate

identification of minerals.


3) Explain the physical properties of minerals?

STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Form Color

Streak

Lustre

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

Specific Gravity ( density )

Transparency

Form:

The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of mineral reflects the internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs as a well-developed crystal, it is

called crystallized. If the growth of the crystals is hampered due to interference of other

crystal grains then the resulting form is called crystalline.

Color:

Minerals show great variety of colors and can be identified by their color. Color wise the minerals are of two types

(i) Dark colored minerals and (ii) Light colored minerals

Mineral colors are generally related to the spatial arrangement of the constituent atoms or the impurities present in the minerals or all of these.

Streak:

The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit a different color in the powder form compared to form of mass.

The powder of the mineral is obtained either by scratching the mineral with a pen

knife or rubbing it across piece of unglazed porcelain plate called streak plate.


Most transparent minerals show a white streak. Colored minerals show a dark color streak of the mineral. Sometimes the streak is altogether different in color from the

color of the mineral.

Lustre:

Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under reflected light. It varies considerably depending upon the amount and type of light reflected.

Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-metallic.

Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of the metal.

Nonmetallic lustres are named considering the type of shining that appears insome

common materials

Non-metallic

Lustre

Description Minerals

Vitreous lustre Shining like a glass Quartz, Calcite

Subvitreous lustre Subvitreous lustre is similar to vitreous lustre

but with less shining

Pyroxenes (augite)

Pearly lustre Shining like pearl Talc, Muscovite(mica)

Silky lustre Shining like silk Asbestos

Resinous lustre Shining like resin Opal, Agate

Greasy lustre Shining like grease Graphite, Serpentine

Adamantine lustre Shining like diamond Garnet, Diamond

Earthy or Dull lustre No shining like earth or

chalk

Magnesite, Bauxite

Cleavage:

The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends to break easily is called the cleavage of that mineral

Crystallized and crystalline minerals can have cleavage.

Amorphous minerals do not show cleavage

Cleavage, if present , occurs as innumerable planes along which mineral is equally weak. Hence all such parallel planes of weakness are referred to as a set.


Depending upon their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will have 1 set ofcleavage (or) 2 sets (or) 3 sets (or) 4 sets (or) 6 sets of cleavag

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