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Criticism in Italy

Author(s): Benedetto Croce and Francis J. ThompsonReviewed work(s):Source: The Kenyon Review, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Autumn, 1948), pp. 629-637Published by: Kenyon CollegeStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4332989 .

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Benedetto Croce

CRITICISM N ITALY'(Translated by FRANCIS J. THOMPSON)

RITICISMf poetryandarthas had a very mportant istoryJ in Italy since the time in the Renaissancewhen Aristotle's

Poetics and other treatisesof the ancientswere rediscovered.Their

doctrines were then expanded and adapted in the new poetry,

literature,and art which were in full bloom, and made the object

of fruitful controversies. A learned American,whose prematurepassing we still lament, my friend, Joel Elias Spingarn, devoted

one of his books to this period of criticism,and showed that these

doctrines then became the poetic of all civilized countries, Latin

and Germanic;and a German historian, Borinski, recognized in-

dependently that the maestro of German criticism, Lessing, had

based his work on that same source.

In spite of disturbedconditions in national politics, a weighty

Catholic Counter-Reformation nd the triumph of the baroque,in

the following age the quickItaliangenius continued to make prog-ress in that field, forming new concepts and opening new paths

which are still quite serviceable n modern thought. Among these

was taste or judgment of sense, an exact judgment,neither n-tellectual nor hedonistic,which distinguishedbetweenthebeautiful

and ugly. Another was wit or genius, the inventive or creative

ability. Yet anotherwas style, the expressionof the individuality

of the writer; and, above all, there was imagination, conceived to

be the faculty properto poetryand art.

1. 'This essay was written for the symposium on "The Great Critics," at Johns HopkinsUniversity, and read by the translator on that occasion, April 15, 1948.

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630 KENYON EVIEW

Between the 17th and 18th Centuries, the treatises of Gravina

and Muratori, and the dissertations of Calepio, had considerable

influence even outside Italy. Still later they worked upon the

so-calledSwiss School of Bodmer and Breitinger to such an extent

that an English historian, Robertson, has traced the origin of

romanticism o these Italians. This is true if it means by 'roman-

ticism" the discovery of a more intimate meaning and a newdignity in poetry. At the same time Vico, in his Scienza Nuova,

with philosophic profundity and rigor marked out the exact place

in the human spirit which belongs to poetry and to language,

which has its origin in poetry and song; and celebratedas supreme

poets not Virgil and Petrarchwhose refined culturewas preferred

in the Renaissance,but the genuine, powerful, though sometimes

rude, Homer and Dante.

This tradition had its effect on Italian criticism and literary

history at the beginning of the 19th Century, on Foscolo amongothers. Soon it entered into the aesthetic speculations of the

Germans - Kant, Schiller, Schelling, Solger, and Hegel - and

into the criticism of the two Schlegels and other German and

Italian Romantics.

FrancescoDe Sanctis gave birth to his theoryin the middle of

the 19th Century amid these cultural surroundings,and worked

among them for many years, selecting and rejecting,with fresh

intuition and with a sure sense of what is the truth and reality

of poetry. For such work he has been and must be recognizedasthe founder of the new criticism n Italy. And he deservedthat his

influence should spread through the culture of Europe, though it

did not at that time. As early as the period between 1850 and

1860 De Sanctishad pointed out what the scope of the new criti-

cism should be. He opposed two schools the merits of which he

recognizedbut which basically did not satisfy him: the German,

which sought ideas in poetry and reduced it to philosophical dia-

lectic, not realizingthat the true importanceof poetryis elsewhere,

namely in its frank and a-philosophical representationof the

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BENEDETTOROCE 631

human soul; and French criticism,which neglected or trespassed

against poetry in order to make it a document of the emotional

and everyday life of the writer. Against these two schoolsDe Sanctis maintained that poetry is neither philosophy nor his-

tory, let alone biographical chroniicle. It is the creation ofaesthetic life. Similarlyhe ruled out all the infinite and various

disquisitions that had been toiled over for centuries and whichwere concernedwith the theoriesand intentions which poets held,or were supposedto hold, about their "poetics" and their "ends."

On the contrary,he insisted on the essential point that poetry is

not what the poet resolves, or thinks he has resolved to do. But

it is only what he reallyand successfullyaccomplishes n the poeticecstasywhich inspiredhis song, of which he is sometimesunaware,

and which the reader and the critic must be able to relive. Andthey do relive it and feel it again when, in reading a poem, they

yield themselvesand gather the pure impression,that is, the sameimage which was the end-productof the creative process of the

poet. Anyone who fails to gather that impression, anyone wholoses it after having gatheredit, yet keeps on reasoningabout art,

inclines toward subtleties and wearies himself in empty thoughts,

becausehe has lost the only compassthat could have guided him.De Sanctis proposed his doctrine in conformity with this and in

spite of the aestheticsof his own time, which in Germanyaboveall was notoriously productive of philosophical treatises, setting

"aesthetics of content" against "aestheticsof form," and findingno peace, becausenone could be found in eclectic efforts to unifythe two points of view. For De Sanctis, aesthetic is, to be sure,form and nothing but form;but it is not dead form separablefrom

content or added to content in a rhetoricalway. It is what hecalled "living form," form which overcomesthe chaos which is its

matteror abstractcontentand makesit concreteby transfiguring tinto the aesthetic image.

De Sanctis had few followers except in Naples, where he

taught. For it is a region singularly favorable to philosophizing,

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632 KENYON EVIEW

as Herder had already observed a century before, saying that

"freedom of thought illuminates and favors the Bay of Naples."

De Sanctis' words were reechoed at first, but his thought was not

thoroughly understood because no theory is truly understood

except in the light of the critical judgment which continues and

perfects it. When he put down his pen, the positivisticand anti-

philosophic age was alreadyin full bloom. Closed to the life ofthe spirit,it vainly sought truth where it could not be found, in the

natural sciences. And contemporarywith the European age of

positivism, there was "philologism" in the study of poetry and

art. Even at its best the result was certainlynot the understanding

of poetryand art; it specialized n acquaintancewith the surround-

ings of art, bibliography and the study of the fortunes of works,

searchingand editing the texts to make them as exact as possible,

providing the biography of artists in their everyday life, the

formation and succession of their works considered extrinsicallyand not felt or understood aesthetically, and other similar things.

There resulted, on the part of philologists, a scorn for De Sanctis,

who was considered a dilettante and eccentric. They did not find

him a colleague in their work, for such in effect he was not, and

they could not understandthat in him whiclhdeparted so much

from and was so far superior o and more complex than the sphere

of their quite useful labors. A periodical entitled the Giornale

storico della letteratura talianta s one to be rememberedecause

in its own provinceit was very importantand worthy. It was op-posed to what De Sanctis stood for in its very program,and pro-

claimed its forebearsand masters (to whose examplesit wished to

return) to be Tiraboschi, Quadrio and Crescimbeni,and such

erudites of the 18th Century. The journal still ekes out its life

today, although disturbed and contaminated,even in its philo-

logical and bibliographicalprobity, by Fascism, the corruptorand

murderer of life, which twisted even that philological shop to

factious and wretched political propaganda.

The recoveryof the tradition of De Sanctis became evident in

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BENEDETTOROCE 633

the last years of the 19th Century. It grew and waxed strong in

the first half of our own century, with the resurgenceof truly

philosophical speculations as opposed to the hybrid variety of the

natural sciences, puffed up into positivistic pseudo-philosophy.

It was necessaryabove all to reduce to a rigorous and coordinated

philosophical form that which De Sanctis had formulated some-

what aphoristically, and not without lacunae, uncertainties andwith some contradictions. And this was achieved by interpreting

the concept of "form," which he considered to be the queen of

art, as an a priori synthesisof a Kantian type but of which Kant

had not thought, a synthesis which, in analogy with the logical

synthesisof judgment, is "emptywithout material (which is senti-

ment) just as sentiment is blind without category (which, in this

case, is intuition)." This, therefore, may, from the categorical

element which shapes it, be named briefly "intuition," a word

which here designates the office or proper characterof poetryandof art, and gives the definition of it which Kant did not succeed

in giving in his Critique of Judgment, where art remains not a

synthesis but an amalgamationof intellect and imagination. In

De Sanctis, aesthetic form, which is made up of poetry, art, lan-

guage, becomes the first act of frank and unreflecting cognition,

and, for that reason, necessarilyprecedesthe act of logic. Whereas

in Kantwhat went before abstractand arbitraryudgmentwere the

forms or, as he called them, the categories of intuition, space

and time, that possess a different importanceto the understandingand requirethe intellect. In De Sanctis,in additionto the absence

of a methodical criticismof all other theories of art that had been

proposed, there lingered residtuesof old distinctions which had

been virtually, though not logically and expressly, surmountedby

him. Among these were the longstanding distinction between the

beautiful and art, where an identificationshould have been made;

the doctrine of literarygenres, which should be rejectedbecause it

is extrinsicallyclassificatoryand not serviceableas a criterioneither

in artistic production or judgment; the doctrine of the specific

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634 KENYON EVIEW

characterof each art; the relation between intuition and expres-

sion, which is one of identity,and so on; points which were all re-

examined and resolved in conformitywith the principle of intui-

tion.

De Sanctis' dea of the historyof poetrywas also corrected,an

idea which, due to a certain Hegelian bent, showed not a few

traces of a dialectic of forms bound one to the other by thesis,antithesis and synthesis. But every poem is an original creative

processand for that reasondemandsa monographichistorywhich

will tie it in securelywith the whole historyof the human spirit,

not merely with one or several works of art. Thus an aesthetics,

extensively developed and particularized,replaced the principles

expressed by De Sanctis. From these principles it received its

original impluse and they are all contained in it, but placed in

new relations,betterclarifiedand thought out, and enrichedwith

the many complementsand consequenceswhich they bear withinthemselves,but which had not been deducedor not well deduced.

Anyone who would like readilyto know a great manyof these

principles may refer to the book of the distinguished American

thinker Dewey, Art as Experience (1934). By the spontaneous

virtue of his acute mind, contraryto the intentionsof the author,

this containsa good speculativephilosophy (or "organic"philos-

ophy, as he might distastefullycall it). Although Italian aesthetic

does not figure therein,except for a few rare critical allusions

(which I find not justified), in innumerable points it entirely

conforms to the aestheticwhich for half a centurynow has been

cultivatedand is widely spreadover Italy,as I showed in an article

of minewhen the bookbyDewey appeared.2 saythis, not in order

to make the least protestationof priority,but only to point out the

coincidence; because if Dewey came to these conclusions inde-

pendentof Italianworks in aesthetics(and that is somethingquite

possible), I should be quite happy about it, as a spontaneous

2. It can be seen now in Discorsi di vatia filosofia (Bari, Laterza, 1945), II, 112-119.

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BENEDETTOROCE 635

confirmation brought by him to the truth, which is all that

matters.

It is also worth rememberingthat in Italian aesthetics the

distinction between the concept of poetry and that of literature

has been expresslytreated,not in the usualmanner,by considering

literature as a kind of inferior or conventionalor bad poetry; but,

differentiating it entirely from poetry, its own particular andproper character and value have been recognized. In poetry,

content and form are one and the same thing: a poem cannot be

'translated" into other words or rhythmswithout being destroyed

or changed. But, in literature, aesthetic form dresses a content

whichmaybe expressedalso non-aesthetically,n a phonic, graphic

or any other systemof signs. Hence, for literature,the conceptsof

ancient rhetoric are valid, such as the distinction which is basic

to those concepts, that of "bareform" and "adorned form." As

distinguished from poetic genius, the positive function of litera-ture is to respect and cultivate the aesthetic disposition of the

humanmind and to make use of it for didactic anddiversrhetorical

ends, whence the attention to rhythm of the sentence, to appro-

priate images and other ingredients of what is called good taste.

Literature so conceived, even if it never deserves the epithet

"divine" with which poetry has been acclaimed,must be held in

high esteem as a powerful instrument of refinement and civiliza-

tion.

If you would like a formula to express the figure of the criticwhich arises from the preceding development and intellectual

education, I should say that it is not that desired by aestheticians

who, by a curiousreduplicationof the artist, would proclaimwith

d'Annunzio that the critic must be an artifex additus artifici;be-

cause, even if the critic, having identified himself with the poetic

work, needs to capturethe moment in which he becomes himself a

poet; and even if his poetic sensibilityneeds to be cultivated and

refined: equally necessaryfor criticism is precisionof concepts by

which to determinethe nature of the sentiment which has been

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636 KENYONREVIEW

experienced,whether it be pleasant or unpleasant,whether it be

approval or disapproval, that is, whether it has an aesthetic

characteror not; whether it is poetic, or instead to some degree

literary; whether it is entirely of an emotional nature, or of a

practical nature extraneous to art; for all of which, clarity in

aesthetic concepts is required. And since the critic must also be

able to state in reflective terms (and to the extent which that ispossible) what the state of mind is which given poetry expresses,

and since for this is required a wide experiencewith the human

soul and the abilityto describe its aspects,the critic, besides being

a philosopher, must be a subtle and balanced "psychologist."

Poetry, like painting, cannot be rendered in logical terms; to the

question,What does it mean, no satisfactoryanswercan be given

except to read it again, or, in the case of painting, to look at it

again. But those psychological characterizations,altlhough they

may always remain somewhat commonplaceand abstract, mpartto criticism an added and special function that may be called

educational,similarto that of one who points out to the spectator

the right spot from which a painting should be viewed and who,

as he speaks of the painting, directs the attention to certain lines

and planes, to certain shadows and colors. These are useful

subsidia,even though, in the last analysis, everyonemust look and

feel for himself.

Modern Italian aesthetics could not and has not limited itself

to the criticismandhistoryof poetry n the usual sense of theword,but inevitablyhas invaded all the other arts. This has occurred n

the arts of design, in architecture,n music, accompaniedby many

theoreticaltreatisesand, betteryet, many acute histories;work in

this field is thriving. And what happened undeservedly to the

work of De Sanctis has not happened to the new aesthetics and

criticism,namely, to remainconfined to Italy. For, due in part to

the more general characterof its treatises and in part to favorable

conditions of internationalculture,especiallybefore the two great

wvars,t penetratedmore or less extensivelyeverywhere,and espec-

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BENEDETTOROCE 637

ially in England (where, among many others, the sharp mind of

Walkley, criticof the Times, embracedand defended it); in Ger-

many (where it was effective in the formation of a new Sprach-

philosophie); and in the United States of America (where it found

a zealouschampion,alreadymentioned,in Spingarn,who publish-

ed The New Criticism n 1911). Italian aesthetics was translated

even into Japanese,andalso therefound disciples;and in the early

yearsof the Bolshevikrevolution,when as yet a philosophy and a

poetry of the state and of the party had not been established,

there was even one who translatedit into Russian.

But all this exceedsmy theme,which was to inform you of the

condition of criticism in Italy; where, to conclude, I should tell

you that the school which was formed in the course of the first

half of the centuryand is now in full vigor, has been and is today

opposed by current "hermetic"or "stylistic"criticism,the younger

sister of decadent "purepoetry."This oppositionactuallyoffersnothing of anyscientific nterest,

although I have amusedmyself sometimes in commentingon the

pronouncementsof these critics in Italy. In doing this I do not

know if I did well or not. Everyonehas his own temperament.

I approve and admire the stern resolution of my venerable

ancestorBaumgarten,who baptizedthe sciencewhich I foster and

called it Aesthetics. In reply to the stupiditieswhich were being

printed against his theory, misunderstandingand perverting his

characterization of poetry as oratio sentsitiva perfecta to oratioperfecte (that is, onmnino) ensitiva, [i.e., a perfect sensitive dis-

course to a wholly senzsitive iscourse] he prayedthe Lord never to

give him the time to terere (wear down), dilapidare (destroy),

perdere (ruin) in such disputes. But 1, for my part, have not

always found the calm to imitate him. In my turn I shall imitate

him, however, by not causing you to waste time with such things.