Crude Oil Hedging Broucher

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CRUDE OILHEDGING PRICE RISK



2

CRUDE OIL: HEDGING PRICE RISK

INTRODUCTION

Crude oil may be considered light if it

has low density with an API gravity of

less than about 40. Typically, heavy

crude has high density with API gravity

of 20 or less. Brent crude is an important

benchmark which has an API gravity of38 to 39. Crude oil is referred to as sweet

if it contains less than 0.5% sulphur, or

sour if it contains substantial amounts of

sulphur. Sweet crude is preferred to sour

because it is more suited to the

production of the most valuable refined

products. Moreover, the geographical

location of crude oil production is

another main count. In the crude oil

market, the two current references or

pricing markers are West Texas

Intermediate (WTI) and Europe Brent.

The former is the base grade traded as‘light sweet crude’ on the New York

Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for

delivery at Cushing, Oklahoma.

Events around the world can affect

prices in India for oil-based energy

sources like gasoline and heating oil. Oil

prices are volatile due to uncertainty in

demand in the developing world

(primarily Asia). Political unrest in some

oil-producing nations also contributes

to high prices as there is a fear that

political instability could shut down oil

production in these countries. OPEC, the

large oil-producing cartel, does have

some ability to influence world prices,

but OPEC's influence in the world oilmarket is shrinking rapidly as new

supplies in non-OPEC countries are

discovered and developed.

Due to the chemical structure of oil, its

long hydrocarbon molecules can be

“cracked” or recombined into shorter

molecules that have different

characteristics. It is because of this

property that crude oil can be made

into a variety of products, including tar,

gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating oil, andnatural gas. Crude oil can also be found

in products such as fertilizer, plastic,

synthetic fibres, rubber, petroleum jelly,

ink, crayons, bubble gum, dishwashing

liquids, and deodorants.

Risk management techniques are of

critical importance for participants, such

as producers, exporters, marketers,

CRUDE OIL FACTS

PRICE RISK MANAGAMENT

processors, and SMEs. Modern

techniques and strategies, including

market-based risk management

financial instruments like ‘Crude Oil

Futures’, offered on the MCX platform

can improve efficiencies and

consolidate competitiveness throughprice risk management. The importance

of risk management cannot be

overstated; the government too has set

up high-level committees to suggest

steps for fulfilling the objectives of price

discovery and price risk management

on commodity derivative exchanges.

The role of commodity futures in risk

management consists of anticipating

price movement and shaping resource

allocations, and these ends can be

achieved through hedging.

Hedging is the process of reducing or

controlling risk. It involves taking equal

and opposite positions in two different

markets (such as physical and futures

market), with the objective of reducing

or limiting risks associated with price

change. It is a two-step process, where a

gain or loss in the physical position due

to changes in price will be offset by

HEDGING MECHANISM

Crude oil or petroleum is a naturally occurring and

flammable liquid found in rock formations in the earth.

It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of

various molecular weights plus other organic compounds.

The main characteristics of crude oil are generally classified

according to its sulphur content and density, which the

petroleum industry measures by its American PetroleumInstitute (API) gravity. Crude oil is one of the most

economically mature commodity markets in the world.

Even though most crude oil is produced by a relatively

small number of companies, and often in remote locations

that are very far from the point of consumption, trade in

crude oil is both robust and global. Nearly 80% of

international crude oil is transported through waterways in

supertankers.

Oil traders are able to quickly redirect transactions

towards markets where prices are higher. Oil and coal are

global commodities that are shipped all over the world.Thus, global supply and demand determine prices for these

energy sources.

Source: E-prints, DSJS Jones, Dept of Energy and Mineral engineering, Wikipedia




changes in the value on the futures

platform, thereby reducing or limiting

risks associated with unpredictable

changes in price.

In the international arena, hedging in

Crude Oil futures takes place on a

number of exchanges, the major onesbeing Chicago Mercantile Exchange

(CME), Intercontinental Exchange (ICE),

Multi Commodity Exchange of India Ltd.

(MCX) and Tokyo Commodity Exchange

(TOCOM).

Hedging is critical for stabilizing

incomes of corporations and

individuals. Reducing risks may not

always improve earnings, but failure to

manage risk will have direct

repercussion on the risk bearers’ long-term income.

To gain the most from hedging, it is

essential to identify and understand the

objectives behind hedging. A good

hedging practice, hence, encompasses

efforts by companies to get a clear

picture of their risk profile and benefit

from hedging techniques.

MCX offers a transparent platform,

besides bringing about economic andfinancial efficiencies by de-risking

production, processing, and trade.

The Exchange's engagement has led to

large efficient gains in supply chains,

with exporters gaining a larger share of

global prices, and producers getting

better prices and much better access

to markets.

All those who take or intend to have

positions in Crude oil are participant

hedgers. These are:

IMPORTANCE OF HEDGING

PARTICIPANT HEDGERS

! Producers! Refiners! Importers! End Consumer

!

Prices ruling in the internationalmarkets

! Currency exchange rate movements,

especially, the US dollar! Economic factors: industrial growth,

global financial crisis, recession, and

inflation! OPEC announcements! Weather variability! Government trade policies (import

duties, penalties, and quotas)! Geopolitical events

! Understand the risk profile and

appetite while formulating clear

hedging objectives.! Hedging can shield the revenue

stream, profitability, and balance

sheet against adverse price

movements.! Hedging can maximize shareholder

value.! Under ‘International Financial

Reporting Standards’ (IFRS) beneficial

options arise for effective hedges.! Common avoidable mistake is to

book profits on the hedge while

leaving the physical leg open to risk.! Hedging provides differentiation to

companies in a highly competitive

environment! Hedging also significantly lowers

distress costs in adverse

circumstances confronting a

company.! A properly designed hedging strategy

enables corporations to reduce risk.

FACTORS AFFECTING PRICE

VARIATIONS

FACTS ON HEDGING

3

Hedging does not eliminate risk; it

merely helps to transform risk.! To gain most from hedging it is

essential to identify and understand

the objectives behind hedging and

get a clear picture of the risk profile.

1. Income tax exemptions for

hedging. The Finance Act, 2013, has

provided for coverage of commodity

derivatives transactions undertaken

in recognized commodity exchanges

under the ambit of Section 43(5) of

the Income Tax Act, 1961, on the lines

of the benefit available to transactions

undertaken in recognized stock

exchanges.

This effectively means that business

profits/ losses can be offset by losses/

profits undertaken in commodity

derivatives transactions. This

enhances the attractiveness of risk

management on recognized

commodity derivative exchanges and

incentivizes hedging. Hedgers are no

longer forced to undertake physical

delivery of commodities in order to

prove that their transactions are in

the nature of hedging and not

‘speculation’.

2. Limit on open position as against

hedging. This enables hedgers to

take positions to the extent of their

exposure on the physical market and

are allowed to take position over and

above prescribed position limits on

approval by the exchange.

3. Early pay-in benefit. If a hedger

makes an early pay-in, he is exempted

from paying all applicable margins.

REGULATORY BOOSTS FOR HEDGERS

Crude oil prices8000

40004500500055006000650070007500

J a n ‐ 1 3

F e b ‐ 1 3

M a r ‐ 1 3

A p r ‐ 1 3

M a y ‐ 1 3

J u n ‐ 1 3

J u l ‐ 1 3

A u g ‐ 1 3

S e p ‐ 1 3

O c t ‐ 1 3

N o v ‐ 1 3

D e c ‐ 1 3

J a n ‐ 1 4

F e b ‐ 1 4

M a r ‐ 1 4

A p r ‐ 1 4

M a y ‐ 1 4

J u n ‐ 1 4

J u l ‐ 1 4

A u g ‐ 1 4

S e p ‐ 1 4

CME Parity ` /Barrel MCX ` /Barrel

OPEC % share of global supply

Source: Bloomberg Source: BloombergthAs of 30 Sept’14

NON-OPEC

OPEC

35.50

64.50

Geopolitical tensions in Egypt and US

involvement in Syria caused prices to rise

Iraq crisis

Worldwide economic problems prevailed

that led to low demand



4


APPRECIATING THE BENEFITS OF HEDGING

Situations prevailing in the crude oil industry are given below, which will demonstrate how MCX platform may be used by

participants to manage price risk by entering into Crude Oil Futures contracts. We will look at the effect of price movement in

either direction.

SCENARIO 1

SCENARIO 2

THE SITUATION

Petstat Oil is involved in the production and sale of crude oil to refiners. Price volatility is of big concern to the company. The management has decided that price risk

should be managed by taking up position on MCX.

EXPLANATION

The Petstat Oil risk management team, short sells 12000 lots (1 lot = 100 bbl) of 20th November contract on 1st September and squares the contracts on

30th September, making a profit of ` 250 per bbl. The value of crude oil for sale is 450 cr. (3750*12000*100) and cash inflow from MCX due to fall in prices is

` 30 crore (250*12000*100). Thus, the net value realized from the sale of crude oil is ` 480 crore (450 crore + 30 crore), making the net selling price ` 4000 per bbl

(480 core /1200000 bbl.), which is the budgeted price.

`

EXPLANATION

The Petstat Oil risk management team, short sells 12000 lots (1 lot = 100 bbl) of 20th November contract on 1st September and squares the contracts on 30th

September, making a loss of ` 250 per bbl. The value of crude oil for sale is ` 510 core (4250*12000*100) and cash outflow from MCX due to rise in prices is

` 30cr. (250*12000*100). Thus, the net value realized from the sale of crude oil is ` 480 crore(510 crore − 30 crore), making the net selling price ` 4000 per bbl

(480 crore /1200000 bbl), which is the budgeted price.

Note: scenario of rising and falling prices, by which Petstat Oil has been able to sell its produce at the budgeted price itself.

The objective is to lock in prices, to obtain protection from unwanted price volatility, which affects the balance sheet of the company. This has been achieved through hedging on MCX in both the

Ÿ The company has monthly production of 12 lakh barrels. The company has put forward the following:

Ÿ The crude oil produced will be sold at the end of the month

Ÿ The sale price of crude oil will be as per prevailing price at the time of final sales

Ÿ It is difficult to predict the sale price one month ahead

Ÿ The company’s objective is to lock prices

GOING SHORT: Scenarios where prices either rise or fall

IF PRICES WERE TO FALL

IF PRICES WERE TO RISE

DATE

DATE

st1 September

st1 September

th30 September

th30 September

SELL Crude oil Futures Contractequal to monthly production

SELL Crude oil Futures Contractequal to monthly production

BUY Crude oil Futures Contract

BUY Crude oil Futures Contract

Crude oil sold at ruling price

Crude oil sold at ruling price

Crude oil being producedfor over a month

Crude oil being producedfor over a month

MCX PLATFORM

MCX PLATFORM

PHYSICAL MARKET

PHYSICAL MARKET

Futures

Futures

1–09–201X

1–09–201X

30-09-201X

30-09-201X

4025

4025

3775

4275

250 (Profit)

250 (loss)

3750

4250

-

-

-

-

-

-

30-09-201X

30-09-201X

Spot

Spot

SELL

SELL

BUY

BUY

SELL

SELL

( ` /10 grams)

( ` /10 grams)

DATE

DATE

st1 September

st1 September

th30 September

th30 September

4000

4000

4025

4025

3775

4275

3750

4250

CRUDE OIL SPOTPRICE ( ` /BBL)

CRUDE OIL SPOTPRICE ( ` /BBL)

CRUDE OILFUTURES PRICE


Net Selling Price: ` 4000 (3750+250)

Net Selling Price: ` 4000 (4250 – 250)

Hedging against domestic sales

(expiry Nov. 20, 201X) ( ` /bbl)

(expiry Nov. 20, 201X) ( ` /bbl)



5


Note: For easy explanation figures have been rounded up.

Note: The figures have been rounded up.

Note: The figures have been rounded up. (Conversion: 1 barrel = 158.98 litres)

(Conversion: 1 barrel = 158.98 litres) | Note: For easy explanation figures have been rounded up.

THE SITUATION

Swadesh Airlines uses aviation turbine fuel (ATF) to run its fleet, and it buys large quantities of ATF for its monthly consumption owing to which it is exposed to high

risk due to highly unpredictable crude oil prices, which is mainly a reflection of international factors.

The company has found a very strong correlation between ATF and light sweet crude. It hedges in MCX crude oil contract so as to cover rise in crude oil derivative

prices and effectively manage its commodity risk.

SCENARIO 1

SCENARIO 2

EXPLANATION

The company’s risk management team, buys 629 lots (1 lot = 100 bbl) of 20th Sept. contract on 1st August and squares the contracts on 31st August,

making a profit of ` 160 per bbl. The cash inflow from MCX due to rise in prices is 1 crore (160*629*100) (rounded up). The value of ATF purchased on 8/31/201X

is ` 70.60 cr. (100,00,000 litres * 70.60 /litre). Thus, the net purchase value of ATF is ` 69.60 cr. (70.60 cr. – 1cr), making the net purchase price ` 69.60

per litre (69.60cr. / 100,00,000 litres), which is the budgeted price.

`

EXPLANATION

The company’s risk management team, buys 629 lots (1 lot = 100 bbl) of 20th Sept. contract on 1st August and squares the contracts on 31st August, making a loss

of ` 160 per bbl. The cash outflow from MCX due to fall in prices is 1crore (160*629*100) (rounded up). The value of ATF purchased on 8/31/201X is ` 68.60 cr.

(100,00,000 litres * 68.60 /litre). Thus, the net purchase value of ATF is ` 69.60 cr. (68.60 cr. + 1cr), making the net purchase price ` 69.60 per litre (69.60cr. /

100,00,000 litres), which is the budgeted price.

`

The company hedges monthly usage of ATF of 100,00,000 litres (approximately to 62900 barrels of crude oil) (Conversion: 1 barrel = 158.98 litres)

Note: The objective is to lock in price of the fuel to avoid erosion of margins by obtaining protection from unwanted price volatility, which affects the balance sheet of the company. This allows thecompany to control costs through hedging.

GOING LONG: Scenarios where prices either rise or fall

IF PRICES WERE TO RISE

IF PRICES WERE TO FALL

DATE

st1 August

st

31 August

BUY Crude oil Futures Contract(1 contract = 100 bbl)

SELL Crude oil Futures Contract ATF procurement is made at ruling price

Spot price of ATF is ` 69.60 /Litre

MCX PLATFORM PHYSICAL MARKET

DATE

st1 August

st31 August

BUY Crude oil Futures Contract(1 contract = 100 bbl)

SELL Crude oil Futures Contract ATF procurement is made at ruling price

Spot price of ATF is ` 69.60 /Litre

MCX PLATFORM PHYSICAL MARKET

DATE

st1 August

st31 August

69.60 5840

600070.60

ATF PHYSICALMARKET PRICE


Net purchase price of ATF is 69.60 /Litre (70.60 – 1) `

Hedging monthly consumption

(expiry Sept. 20, 201X) ( ` /bbl)( ` /Litre)

DATE

st1 August

st31 August

69.60 5840

568068.60

ATF PHYSICALMARKET PRICE


(expiry Sept. 20, 201X) ( ` /bbl)( ` /Litre)

DATE SPOT MARKET FUTURES MARKET

8/1/201X Spot price of ATF is 69.60/Litre Buy MCX Crude oil Sept. 201X contract at 5840/bbl

8/31/201X ATF bought at pri ce of ` 70.60/Litre Sell MCX Crude oil Sept. 201X contract at ` 6000/bbl

Result Profit of 160/bbl (6000 – 5840) approximately ` 1 per litre

` `

DATE SPOT MARKET FUTURES MARKET

8/1/201X Spot price of ATF is 69.60/Litre Buy MCX Crude oil Sept. 201X contract at 5840/bbl

8/31/201X ATF bought at pri ce of ` 68.60/Litre Sell MCX Crude oil Sept. 201X contract at ` 5680/bblResult Loss of 160/bbl (5840 -5680) approximately ` 1 per litre

` `



6


BENEFITS OF HEDGING ON MCX! India’s no. 1 commodity exchange to

trade Crude Oil futures! Highly liquid contracts! Highly efficient and transparent

market! Low impact costs (trading costs)

because of tight bid–ask spreads! Flexibility to choose from different

contract sizes! The market is operational during the

morning and evening sessions,

enabling participants to take part

in price discovery, when global

markets are active.

During the period up to 1970 (and even

beyond), the "market" for crude oil was

largely characterized by within-company

exchanges. Most oil companies were

"vertically integrated," that is, the company

operated all the way down the value chain;

crude oil would go from the field to the

refiner to the marketer (and then to the

retailer, like a gas station) while staying

within company borders. There were a small

number of market transactions at what was

referred to as "posted prices." Posted prices

are essentially fixed offer prices posted by

companies in advance of transactions.

Posted prices were originally painted on

wooden signs and hung on posts (hence the

name), each remaining in effect until it was

replaced by a new one. Now, posted prices

are electronic bulletins issued by major oil

producers. Source: DSJS Jones, Dept of Energy and Mineral engineering,Wikipedia

Crude oil witnessed annualized price volatility of 21% in 2013.

This means a firm in the crude oil business, with an annual turnover of ` 100 crore, was exposed to

a price risk of ` 21 crore in 2013.

India, the fourth largest energy consumer in the world with an annual crude market size of

1284.21 million barrels, worth about ` 7.7 lakh crore, is exposed to price risk of ` 1.6 lakh crore

(that is, 21% of the holding value) because of price volatility.

HOW MUCH VOLATILITY RISK ARE YOU EXPOSED TO?

ARE YOU PREPARED FOR VOLATILITY RISK?

(Adoption of a risk management practice, such as hedging on the MCX

can help shield against the perils of price volatility)

Average daily volatility (Crude oil MCX near-month continuous prices)

YEAR

ANNUALIZED VOLATILITY

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014#

47% 22% 29% 20% 21% 17%

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

J a n u a r y - 0 9

M a y - 0 9

S e p t e m b e r - 0 9

J a n u a r y - 1 0

M a y - 1 0

S e p t e m b e r - 1 0

J a n u a r y - 1 1

M a y - 1 1

S e p t e m b e r - 1 1

J a n u a r y - 1 2

M a y - 1 2

S e p t e m b e r - 1 2

J a n u a r y - 1 3

M a y - 1 3

S e p t e m b e r - 1 3

J a n u a r y - 1 4

M a y - 1 4

S e p t e m b e r - 1 4

Gujarat13%

Rajasthan24%

Offshore48%

Assam/Nagaland12%

AndhraPradesh

1%

Other1%

35.50

64.50

Indiacrude oil production

by region, 2013

Sources: U.S. Energy Administration, India

Ministry of Petroleum and natural Gas

# Till Sept'14

Totalenergy consumption

in India, 2012

Hydro-electric

3%

OtherRenewables

1%

Coal44%

Biomass& Waste

22%

Nuclear1%

Petroleum & OtherLiquids

22%

Natural Gas7%

35.50

64.50

Source: U.S. Energy Administration, International

Energy Agency. BP Statistical Review



SALIENT FEATURES OF CRUDE OIL FUTURES CONTRACT

Symbol CRUDEOIL

Contracts Available

Contract Start Day and As per the Contract Launch Calendar

Last Trading Day

Trading Period Monday to Friday: 10.00 a.m. to 11.30/ 11.55 p.m.

Trading Unit 100 Barrels

Quotation/ Base Value ` Per barrel

Price Quote Ex – Mumbai excluding all taxes, levies and other expenses

Maximum Order Size 10,000 barrels

Tick Size ` 1

Daily Price Limit The base price limit will be 4%. Whenever the base daily price limit is breached, the relaxation

will be allowed upto 6% without any cooling off period in the trade. In case the daily price limitof 6% is also breached, then after a cooling off period of 15 minutes, the daily price limit will be

relaxed upto 9%.

In case price movement in international markets is more than the maximum daily price limit

(currently 9%), the same may be further relaxed in steps of 3%.and inform the Commission

immediately.

Initial Margin Minimum 5% or based on SPAN whichever is higher

Additional and/ or Special Margin In case of additional volatility, an additional margin (on both buy & sell side) and/ or special

margin (on either buy or sell side) at such percentage, as deemed fit, will be imposed in respect

of all outstanding positions.

Maximum Allowable Open Position For individual clients: 4,80,000 barrels or 5% of the market wide open position, whichever is

higher.

For a member collectively for all clients: 48,00,000 barrels or 20% of the market wide open

position, whichever is higher.

Delivery Unit 50,000 barrels with +/- 2% tolerance limit

Delivery Center Port installation at Mumbai/ JNPT port

Quality Specifications Light Sweet Crude Oil confirming to the following quality specification is deliverable:

Sulfur 0.42% by weight or less, API Gravity: Between 37 degree – 42 degree

All volumes are defined at 60 degree FahrenheitDue Date Rate Due date rate is calculated on the last trading day of the contract on the basis of the market price

of crude, ex-Mumbai, excluding all taxes, levies and freight, as available for this variety from

various market sources and converted at the Rupee – US Dollar rate prevailing on expiry.

Delivery Logic Both Option

Note: Please refer to the exchange circulars for latest contract specifications

Monthly


7




©MCX 2014. All rights reserved.

Content by: MCX Research & Planning

Designed by: Graphics Team, MCX

Please send your feedback to: [email protected]

Corporate address: Exchange Square, Chakala, Andheri (East), Mumbai - 400 093, India, Tel. No. 91-22-6731 8888,

CIN: L51909MH2002PLC135594, [email protected], www.mcxindia.com

Crude oil production (in million tonnes)

2930313233343536373839

2005 ‐06 2006‐07 2007‐08 20 08‐09 2009‐10 2010‐11 2011‐12 2012‐13*

*Provisional *Provisional

Indian crude oil production

World crude oil production

Indian crude oil consumption

World crude oil consumption

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

0

50

100

150

200

250

2 0 0 5

- 0 6

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

2 0 0 7

- 0 8

2 0 0 8

- 0 9

2 0 0 9

- 1 0

2 0 1 0

- 1 1

2 0 1 1

- 1 2

2 0 1 2

- 1 3 *

C r u d e O i l c

o n s u m p t i o n

Crude oil consumption (in million tonnes) % Growth in consumption

% G

r o w t h i n

c o n s u m p t i o n

1000020000

30000

40000

50000

60000

T h o u s a n d b a r r e l s d a i l y

Mexico

Kuwait

Iraq

Iran

United Arab Emirates

Canada

ChinaUS

Russian Federation

Saudi Arabia2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

T h o u s a

n d b a r r e l s d a i l y

‐

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000 Germany

Canada

South Korea

Brazil

Saudi Arabia

Russian Federation

IndiaJapan

China

US

Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

Source: BP Source: BP

Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

HEDGING EXPERIENCES

“In line with the Company’s risk management policy, the various financial risks mainly relating to changes in the exchange rates, interest rates and

commodity prices are hedged by using a combination of forward contracts, swaps and other derivative contracts, besides the natural hedges.”

(LARSEN AND TOUBRO LIMITED, Annual Report 2013).

“The group uses derivative financial instruments to manage certain exposures to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates, interest rates and

commodity prices as well as for trading purposes. Such derivative financial instruments are initially recognized at fair value on the date on which aderivative contract is entered into and are subsequently remeasured at fair value. “ (DERIVATIVE FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS AND HEDGING ACTIVITIES, BP Annual Report 2013)

“The Company, in the normal course of business, is exposed to market risks from changes in interest rates, foreign exchange rates and commodity

prices. To manage the exposures to these risks, the Company generally identifies its net exposures and takes advantage of natural offsets.

Additionally, the Company enters into various derivative transactions pursuant to the Company's risk management policies in response to

counterparty exposure and to hedge specific risks. The types of derivatives used by the Company are primarily interest rate swaps, forward exchange

contracts, currency swaps and commodity futures contracts. The changes in fair value of these hedging instruments are offset in part or in whole by

corresponding changes in the fair value or cash flows of the underlying exposures being hedged.”

(MITSUBISHI CORPORATION, Annual Report 2013)

“Financial and Derivative Instruments: All derivative contracts entered into by the Company are for hedging its foreign currency, interest rate and

commodity exposures relating to underlying transactions and firm commitments and not for any speculative or trading purposes.”

(IOCL Annual Report 2013-14)

“BPCL was successful in protecting the refineries’ operating cost by covering refinery margins through the instruments of hedging in the

international market. BPCL continued adopting new instruments of hedging to enhance its capability of risk management.”

(BPCL Annual Report 2013-14)

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Crude Oil Hedging Broucher

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