CULTURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CAUSES OF LIGHTNING BY … · Form one (first grade secondary school...

Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2

99

CULTURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CAUSES OF

LIGHTNING BY PUPILS FROM COMMUNITIES

IN KENYA. *Mark I. O. Okere

* Fred N. Keraro,

*Zephania Anditi

Abstract The construction of new knowledge in science is strongly

influenced by prior knowledge that is conceptions gained prior to the

new learning. But knowledge construction takes place in a cultural

context created by for example, social and economic class, religion,

geographical location, ethnicity and language. The cultural context

could be influencing pupils’ learning of science in Kenya. This study

investigated the extent to which primary and secondary school pupils

believe in cultural interpretations of the causes of lightning. Cross-

sectional survey research design was used. The target population was

Form one pupils in nine districts selected from Nyanza, Rift Valley,

Central, Eastern and Coast Provinces in Kenya. The nine districts were

selected purposively to represent 9 different ethnic communities from

the five provinces. A total of 806 secondary school pupils participated.

The pupils were drawn from 30 secondary schools .A questionnaire was

used to gather information from pupils. Data were analised using both

qualitative and quantitative techniques. The findings from this study

inform curriculum developers of some of the cultural beliefs that are

likely to influence the learning of the phenomenon of lightning. It is

recommended that teachers discuss cultural interpretations of scientific

concepts before introducing them in their lessons.

Keywords: Science, Culture, Beliefs, Lightning.

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Mark I. O. Okere*, Fred N. Keraro, and Zephania Anditi, Egerton University,

Department of Curriculum, Instruction and Educational Management


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Introduction

The individual in a traditional culture should be made to see the

merits and demerits of science, the similarities and the differences

between his worlds view vis-a-avis science such that he can use

the knowledge gained to make wise decisions in his daily life

(Ogawa, 1986). Ausubel, Novak and Hensian (1978) have argued

that the construction of new knowledge in science is strongly

influenced by prior knowledge that is conceptions gained prior to

the new learning. Knowledge construction takes place in a

cultural context created by, for example, social and economic

class, religion, geographical location, ethnicity and language.

.In addition to race and language, other significant factors

influence the construction of meaning and therefore are part of

cultural identity. These include economic and education levels,

occupation, geographic location, gender religion and philosophy

(Geertz, 1973).

In cultural anthropology, teaching science is viewed as cultural

transmission (Spindler, 1987) and learning science as culture

acquisition (Wolcott, 1991), where culture means “an ordered

system of meaning and symbols, in terms of which social

interaction takes place “(Geertz, 1973 p.5). In past studies,

different attributes of culture have been selected to focus on a

particular interest in multicultural or cross-cultural science

education (Baker&Taylor, 1995; Barba, 1993). For instance,

Maddock(1981,p.20) listed “beliefs, attitudes, technologies,

languages, leadership authority structures”,Ogawa(1986)

addressed culture’s view of humans and nature and it’s view of

thinking;Aikenhead(1996) conceptualized culture according to the

norms, values, beliefs, expectations and conventional actions of a

group. In our study we conceptualized culture to subsume beliefs,

expectations and conventional actions of a group. The


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phenomenon of lightning is subsumed under beliefs. This

definition is adopted because in Kenya there are various ethnic

groups with different beliefs about causes of lightning. Furnham

(1992) identified several powerful subgroups that influence the

learning of science including the family, peers, the school, the

mass media and the physical, social and economic environment.

There is widespread acceptance in the international science

education research community that students at all levels of

schooling all over the world have a diversity of ideas prior to

formal learning (Driver, 1989; Zietsman& Naidoo, 1979).

According to Pfundt and Duit (1994) the conceptions about

physical phenomena are formed early in life as children try to

make sense of the physical world. The persistence of these

conceptions have been observed even after the formal study of

science (Champagne, Klopper &Anderson, 1980; Caramazza,

McCloskey&Green,1981;Clement,1982;Osborne&Wittrock,1983,

1985;Halloun&Hestenes,1985).The highly robust nature of these

preconceptions appears to indicate that they are deeply rooted in

students’ cognitive structures and makes plausible the idea that

they are based upon “alternative frameworks” (Lynch,1995).

Conceptions of lightning

Neo (2008) studied the effect of a cross – cultural instructional

approach on learners’ conceptions of lightning and attitudes

towards science. The study explored Basotho conceptions of

lightning and thunder in terms of nature of lightning, protection

against lightning, animalistic/humanistic behaviour of lightning

and nature of wounds inflicted by lightning. Fictitious stories

were developed around the above themes and learners asked to

respond to them by agreeing or disagreeing with statements in the

stories. Ample space was also provided for the learners to express

their own views and explanations of the incidences in the stories.


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A quasi-Solomon-3-Group design was adopted where two of the

three groups were exposed to the cross-cultural instructional

approach. The approach entails using a combination of knowledge

about lightning prevailing in the learners’ socio-cultural

environment with school science. The learners were introduced to

the science of lightning as presented in the Lesotho Junior

Science Curriculum. The findings were that; before being exposed

to the cross-cultural instructional materials, learners had both

scientific and traditional conceptions of lightning and thunder, but

after the intervention, some learners from both the experimental

and control groups accepted both the scientific and traditional

explanations about how lightning occurs, an instance of

simultaneous collateral learning (Jegede, 1995). Nkopane (2006)

also studied learners’ conceptions of lightning. The learners were

from five of some of the tribes that live in Johannesburg, South

Africa. The research attempted to elicit, describe and assess the

learners’ process of learning Western conceptions of lightning. A

total of 33 participants responded to a questionnaire and 16 were

interviewed about the causes of lightning. The learners responded

by saying that they believe that lightning is a result of witchcraft,

it demonstrates the anger of ancestors or it is used by god to

demonstrate its existence. The findings suggested that the

learners’ African conception is a hindrance to the learning of

science because learners’ cultural identity is often very different

from the culture of conventional science.

According to Ogawa (1989 cited by Snively and Corsiglia, 2001)

most of the African conceptions of lightning originate from

indigenous communities, and are transferred from generation to

generation merely by invisible or non-formal settings .du

Toit(1997,p.12) said “ To understand the place of science in any

society one has to look holistically at the general make up, world-


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view, belief systems, relationships and contexts in which such

society stands. Understanding science in Africa is impossible

without coming to grips with what can symbolically be called the

soul of Africa. Neither can it be understood without taking the

physical context of poverty and illiteracy into account”.

Purpose and objectives of the study

The purpose of the study was to investigate the extent to which

Form one (first grade secondary school cycle in Kenya) school

pupils believe in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.

. The study was guided by the following objectives:

(i) To find out if secondary school pupils believe in cultural

interpretations of the causes of lightning.

(ii) .To compare pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of

lightning from various ethnic communities.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

1: Do secondary school pupils believe in cultural

interpretations of causes of lightning?

2: Do pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of

lightning depend on ethnicity?

Methodology

The cross-sectional survey research design was used in this study

to gather pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of

lightning. The population in this study included pupils, Form One

pupils (average age of 14 years) in the nine districts that

participated in the study. The accessible population comprised

pupils in the 30 secondary schools from which the sample was

drawn.

Five provinces were selected randomly for investigation. These

are, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Eastern and Coast, in Kenya.

The districts were selected purposively. This was to ensure that

the majority of the pupils from each district represented a specific


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ethnic community. Purposive sampling was also used in selecting

schools. The aim was to sample schools from rural settings where

beliefs in cultural interpretations of scientific phenomena are

common. All the secondary schools sampled were provincial

boarding, single sex. The aim was to have approximately equal

numbers of boys and girls in the sample.

Only one form one stream was used in each secondary school.

The streams were selected using simple random sampling

technique. A total of 806 secondary participated in the study.

The questionnaire used contained 6 items which gave

suggestions concerning cultural interpretations of the physical

phenomena of heat, lightning, rainbow and evaporation. The

pupils were asked to indicate whether or not they agreed with the

cultural interpretations by ticking YES or NO in the two boxes

which were provided. They were further asked to explain why

they agreed or disagreed with suggestions given. Responses to

only one of the items are reported in this paper. These are beliefs

in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning. The

questionnaire was administered to the pupils over a period of 30

minutes. The period was found adequate for the pupils to answer

the items. The administration of the questionnaire was conducted

by the researchers with the assistance of the class teachers.

Results.

Causes of Lightning

Pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of lightning were

investigated using the following question:

Question: Thunder

Below are some of the causes of lightning suggested by different

communities in Kenya.

(i) Red cock that accompanies rain

(ii) Wearing of red garments when it is raining.


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(iii) Settling of boundary disputes

(iv) The devil is fighting God

(v) Presence of a lizard

Do you agree with any of the above suggestions?

YES NO

If none of the above, state the belief of the cause of lightning in

your community.

________________________________________________

Causes of Lightning

Numbers and percentages of communities’ beliefs:

Table 1:Bomet -Kipsigis Cultural Beliefs

Explanation N Agree Disagree

Gods fighting each other 1 0 1

Settling land disputes 35 30 5

Leaning on the wall when it is raining 1 0 2

Red cock that accompanies rain 23 12 11

Devil is fighting God 2 0 2

God is angry with people 14 6 8

Wearing red garments when it is raining 7 4 3

Making noise when it is raining 2 2 0

Walking in rain 5 1 4

Holding sharp objects 8 2 6

Satan is fighting with his wife 1 0 1

Presence of a lizard 4 4 0

Ancestors are annoyed with the living 2 2 0

Holding a shiny reflector 3 0 3

A person’s misdeeds 4 2 2

Caused by witchcraft 1 0 1

Sheltering under a tree 8 6 2

Walking bare feet in water 3 2 1

Throwing objects on the power lines, it can

cause a short circuit leading to fire

1 0 1

TOTAL 127 74 53

% 100 58.3 41.7


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Table 2: Nandi – Nandi Cultural Beliefs


Wearing red garments 36 19 17


Settling boundary disputes 13 11 2


Walking in water 3 1 2

God is angry with people’s bad deeds 3 1 2



Leaning on the wall 4 3 1

Walking on water barefoot 5 4 1

Holding a sharp metal 2 1 1

Ancestors are angry with the living 1 1 0

A person may send it to you 1 1 0

Peeping through the window 1 1 0

Sitting on stones of a fire place 1 1 0

TOTAL 101 64 37

% 100 63.4 36.6

Table 3: Nyeri –Kikuyu Cultural Beliefs


It occurs to strike evil people 1 0 1

Wearing of red garments 18 5 13


Leaning on walls 2 2 0

God fighting his wife 1 0 1


When ancestor are angry 1 0 1

Women in heaven quarreling their husbands 3 0 3

It is God’s anger 2 0 2

Standing near a tree 3 2 1



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Switching on lights when raining 1 0 1

TOTAL 38 9 29

% 100 23.7 76.3

Table 4: Kisii –Abagusi Cultural Beliefs

Explanation N N N %

Walking bare foot in water 3 3 0 0.0

Fetching water from the roofs 2 1 1 50.0

Holding sharp objects pointing to the

sky

12 7 5 41.7

Wearing red garment 33 22 11 33.3

Settling boundary dispute 2 2 0 0.0

Walking in the rain 14 12 2 14.3

Sheltering under a tree 11 9 2 18.2

Touching metal 1 1 0 0.0

Presence of a lizard 3 1 2 66.7

Switching radio or TV on when it is

raining

2 2 0 0.0

Sitting near a tall building 1 1 0 0.0

Red cock that accompanies rain 10 7 3 30.0

God is fighting his wife 2 0 2 100.0

Gods are angry with people 2 0 2 100.0

Leaning against the wall 2 0 2 100.0

Swearing for false witness 1 1 0 0.0

Devil is fighting God 1 1 0 0.0

Witchcraft 1 0 1 100.0

Reading a book when it is raining 1 0 1 100.0

TOTAL 104 70 34 32.7

% 100 67.3

Table 5: Rachuonyo – Luo Cultural Beliefs



Drinking rain water 3 3 0

Walking in rain bare foot 4 4 0

Playing in rain water 12 9 3

Leaning on walls 3 3 0


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God is showing his anger 3 1 2

Carrying sharp objects when walking in

rain

5 3 2

Lightning is due to witchcraft 2 1 1

TOTAL 114 77 37

% 100 67.5 32.5

Table 6: Embu – Embu Cultural Beliefs



Devil spreading his blankets 1 0 1


Wearing of red garments 28 13 15

Caused by God 2 2 0

Moon and star fighting over king’s daughter 1 0 1

God is punishing people in hell 1 0 1


God is angry with people’s bad deeds 1 0 1

A sign of rainfall 9 9 0

Walking bare foot 1 1 0

Carrying sharp objects 1 1 0

God is fighting angels 1 0 1

Lighting come from heaven 7 6 1

It comes from the forest 2 0 2


TOTAL 71 39 32

% 100 54.9 45.1


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Table 7: Meru South – Chuka Cultural Beliefs


It is caused by rain 21 17 4

It occurs near the forest 1 1 0



Indicates planting period 1 1 0

Sitting under a tree 4 3 1

It is caused by thunder 3 2 1


It can be caused by sun when it is very hot 1 0 1

It is caused by god 3 2 1

It is an argument between grandmother and her

husband

1 0 1

God is sharpening his knife producing sparks 1 0 1

Winds from different directions hit each other 1 1 0

God is fighting his wife 2 1 1

God is angry because of our sins 4 0 4

Sun and clouds are fighting 1 0 1

To stop fight between moon and sun 1 1 1

Angels fighting and throwing things 1 0 1

God is taking photographs 1 0 1

TOTAL 127 41 41

% 100 50.0 50.0

Table 8: Kilifi - Giriama Cultural Beliefs



Wearing red garments when it is raining 14 4 10



Sitting under a tree 2 1 1

It is caused by coming of rains 9 5 4

It is caused by tall buildings 1 1 0

Lightning is caused by thunder 3 3 0

Sign of danger 1 1 0

Rolling of stones above the clouds 1 0 1

Walking on rain water 1 1 0

Leaning on a wall 1 1 0

Holding sharp objects upwards 1 1 0


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Ancestors are annoyed with the living 2 1 1

Caused by God 5 2 3

It is a sign of God’s anger 3 0 3

TOTAL 63 33 30

% 100 52.4 47.6

Table 9: Kwale – Digo Cultural Beliefs



Hiding under trees 4 4 0


God’s anger because of peoples sins 6 2 4

Water tides 1 0 1

Angels fighting 1 0 1

Brought by a lot of rain 4 1 3

Lightning fire when it is raining 1 0 1


Caused by tall trees 1 0 1

Sitting under a tall building 2 1 1


Working in the farm when it is raining 1 0 1


God is quarrelling his wife 1 0 1

Switching on radio when it is raining 1 1 0

God brings lightning 2 0 2

TOTAL 61 28 33

45.9% 54.1%

Sample Responses

(a) Scientific Responses

(i) Lightning is caused when positively charged clouds

come into contact with negatively charged clouds

sparking static electricity which is observed.

(b) Partially Scientific Responses

(i) Lightning is caused when two different clouds with

different charges come into contact and due to the

high friction, it causes lightning.


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(c) Cultural Responses

(i) Lightning appears when devil is fighting God.

(ii) Red garments attract lightning

(iii) Lightning strikes to settle land boundary disputes.

(iv) Lightning appears when God is angry because of

peoples’ sins.

(v) Lightning is a sign that ancestors are annoyed with

the living.

(vi) Non-Scientific Responses

(i) The red garments are not appropriate wearing them

when there is lightning because red garments attract

lightning more easily.

It is noted from tables 1 – 9 that in 8 out of the 9 ethnic

communities investigated, red colour is believed to be the main

cause of lightning. Belief in red cock as the cause of lightning is

also quite high among the Abagusi, Luo, Kipsigis, Nandi and

Giriama ethnic communities. A high number of pupils in Bomet

district (35 out of 127) gave the cause of lightning as settling of

boundary disputes. These results suggest that some of the cultural

beliefs about cause of lightning are common among various

ethnic communities, but others are confined to specific

communities. In 7 out of the 9 ethnic communities, the percentage

of pupils that agreed with the cultural interpretations of causes of

lightning was at least 50. This implies that schooling does not

eradicate pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of

lightning. This is because Form one pupils have completed 8

years of Primary Education, and when the research was being

conducted they were in the middle of their first year in secondary

school.

Discussion

Lewis (2003) argued that students rely on intuitive

conceptions to explain events not specifically studied in class.

Intuitive conceptions refer to ideas developed as the result

of interacting with the natural world. He gave an example of

pupils who explained that wool has the ability of being able


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to warm things up so that a cold object wrapped in wool

would spontaneously become warmer. In our study, we realized

that some of the pupils were using intuitive conceptions to

explain why they believed in cultural interpretations of causes of

lightning.. For example, some of them said that they had

witnessed an event where a person who sheltered under a tree was

struck by lightning

Anamuah-Mensah (1998) explored the extent of native

science beliefs among students in secondary schools and

tertiary institutions. The study revealed that native science

beliefs seem to be held firmly by quite a substantial

proportion of students. Results from our study supported

Anamuah-Mensah’s findings. For example, in seven out of the

nine districts at least 50 percent of the pupils believed in the

cultural interpretations of causes of lightning. This implies that

education does not eradicate pupils’ beliefs in cultural

interpretations.

Ogunniyi (1984) observed that gender, tribe or level of

education of the people does not have any significant

influence on their world view. This does not agree with our

results, because in some of the ethnic communities we

studied, some of the cultural beliefs were common among various

ethnic communities but others were confined within specific

communities. Ogunniyi also suggested that the scientific and

African world views are not necessarily mutually exclusive

of each other, for example, it is possible to hold a scientific

as well as a traditional view of the world, perhaps in the

same way scientists in the West hold the scientific and the

Christian world view. This suggestion agrees with our findings.

In our study we noted that some pupils held both scientific

meanings of causes of lightning and the cultural

interpretations, for example, some said, lightning takes place

when positively charged clouds collide with negatively charged

clouds. But they also believed that lightning is attracted by red


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garments. Neo (2008) studied conceptions of lightning held by

Lesotho Junior Science Curriculum pupils and found that the

pupils had both scientific and traditional conceptions of lightning

and thunder.

Nkopane (2006) studied Grade 8 learners’ alternative conceptions

of lightning in Johannesburg South Africa, and found that learners

believed that lightning is a result of: witchcraft, it demonstrates

the anger of ancestors, or it is used by god to demonstrate its

existence. These findings are in agreement with some of the

reasons given by pupils from some of the communities about the

causes of lightning. For example, pupils form two of the districts

said that light is a result of witchcraft, pupils from four of the

districts said that light demonstrates the anger of ancestors and

pupils from seven of the districts said that lightning is used by

god to demonstrate its existence. du Toit (1997) pointed out that

for one to understand the place of science in any society one has

to look holistically at the general make up, world-view, and belief

systems in which such society stands. This suggestion is in

agreement with our findings because the reasons given by pupils

about the causes of lightning varied from one community to

another.

Conclusions

(i) The first objective of the study was to find out if

secondary school pupils

believe in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.

Empirical data have shown that a high percentage of

pupils from the communities studied believe in the

cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.

(ii) Objective two was to find out if pupils’ beliefs in

cultural interpretations of causes of lightning depend

on ethnicity. Empirical data have shown that there

is a relationship between pupils’ beliefs in cultural

interpretations of causes of lightning and ethnicity.

Some of the beliefs are common among various


114

ethnic communities while some of the beliefs are

confined within specific communities. This implies

that community is the major contributing factor to

pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of cause of

lightning.

(iii) Some of the findings from this study agree with the

findings from other previous researches done in

Africa on pupil’ beliefs in causes of lightning

,however, the study has revealed some beliefs about

causes of lightning that have not been discovered by

other studies. .

Recommendations (i) Cultural beliefs in interpretations of scientific phenomena

should be considered when science curricula are being

developed. Teachers should be made aware of such

beliefs so that they may use them as advance organizers

before introducing the topics whose conceptualizations are

likely to be affected by the cultural interpretations.

(ii) There should be a two-pronged attack on reducing the

influence of cultural beliefs in science learning. First, the

pupils should be made aware of such beliefs and their

limitations. Second, adult literacy curricular should

incorporate cultural beliefs of scientific phenomena. This

will make the public aware of the limitations of such

beliefs.

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******

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