Planning the curriculum : To be able to plan the curriculum, you should know about two more terms viz

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Module 5: Curriculum development process

[Source: adaptation of www.freeclipart.com]In Module 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and history events influence curriculum. In Modules 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning followed by curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. In this chapter we examine in general the curriculum development process by referring to three well-known curriculum development model; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model and the Saylor & Alexander model. In the second part of the chapter, we focus on the first phase of the process namely, curriculum planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy.

[Source: www.iconandclipart.com]

Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a number of questions are raised. How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the principles in developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the curriculum is successful?

Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation. What is a model? A model consist of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development, but in this chapter, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler Model, the Taba Model and the Saylor & Alexander Model. Each of these models is named after their originator.

5.2.1 The Tyler Model

One of the best known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in which he asked 4 questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

In essence, Tylers questions represent the four-step sequence of (1) identifying purposes or objectives, (2) selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students, (3) organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences, and (4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved. By purposes, Tyler was referring to objectives and when developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the subject area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (eg. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1 presents Tylers model of curriculum development.

After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and human development.

Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (eg. history, economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in module 6].

Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

There is no denying that Tylers thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).

Curriculum Planning

Curriculum Design Curriculum Evaluation Figure 5.1 Tylers Curriculum Development Model

[Source: adapted from Allan C. Ornstein & Francis P. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p.198.]5.2.2 The Taba Model

Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2). She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision making, The greater portion of curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education.

Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme. Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.

Teacher Input

Teacher Input

Teacher Input Figure 5.2 Tabas Curriculum Development Model

Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development process:

1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically. 2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined. i.e. the relevancy and significance of content.4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the content.6. Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

Taba model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.

However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and employers.5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre (p.24). Bases (external variables)

Feedback Figure 5.3 Saylor and Alexanders Curriculum Development Modela) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate 4 major goals or domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others.

b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss curriculum implementation in more detail in Module 7].d) Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model.

In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with it.

The cartoon at the beginning of this chapter shows the kinds of decisions that curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world. Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary school or after completing secondary school?

In Chapter 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Chapter 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which provide guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be taught. In Chapter 4, we examined what society demands of its education system providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the goals of education may be derived.

Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level. 5.4.1 Educational philosophy

The initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational vision or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic vision is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather remaining an ideal that is unachievable.

The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the different communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, socio-cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to the priorities. For example does the country want more graduates or should the emphasis be on basic education.

In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions etc. could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost opportunities for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of students have to be assessed.

In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices, customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes. CASE STUDY : The Vision of South Africas Curriculum Framework 2005[Source: CURRICULUM 2005 Lifelong Learning for the 21st Century: A User's Guide. http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles]

Curriculum Phase

Instructional Phase

Figure 5.4 Levels of Curriculum Planning5.4.2 Education Goals

Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence, cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts. Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, ending on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education on society..

5.4.3 Curriculum Goals

A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it as a result of exposure to segments or all of a programme in a particular educational institution. Goals provide direction for the curriculum.

For example: Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as good citizens in their own school and community.

Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of students

5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in their own school and community setting; the following curriculum objectives can be derived:

The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school

More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activityNote how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.

5.4.5 Instructional Goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, Students will show an understanding about the tropical rainforest. It indicates the performance expected; i.e. understand, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So it is not easily measured. Instructional goals points the way to instructional objectives.

5.4.6 Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional objectives, specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives performance objectives, and competencies. An example of an instructional objective is: At the end of the lesson students should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest. It is important that you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a period of instruction. It determines the selection of content (textbook, the internet, reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures, practical sessions, group discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted, learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how you intend to evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been achieved. Let us examine in detail about instructional objectives.

Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of assessing performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a course simply referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover. There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning and the learner now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner.

In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the subject area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does, and the intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of how the learner will be changed as a result of learning that content. The statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as "intended learning objectives" or "intended learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for short. Teaching then becomes a series of strategies which are devised in order to help students achieve these objectives / outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of each chapter in this course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives].

In stating a instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used to indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is not enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand unless you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some example of learning outcomes:

On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you should be able to: Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, canopy

Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest

The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and for each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are:

The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills and abilities

The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes

The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills

The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which a subject might require to perform. Cognitive Levels DescriptionExamples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes

KnowledgeRemembering previously learned material. The skill may involve recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, select, state, outline, recite

ComprehensionThe ability to grasp meaning of material. This skill may be shown by translating material from one form to another, by interpreting material (explaining or summarising), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects).Change, decode, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalise, infer, give example, illustrate, paraphrase, predict, rewrite, restate, summarise, solve

ApplicationThe ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories.Apply, compute, demonstrate, develop, employ, manipulate, modify, organise, produce, relate, transfer, discover

SynthesisThe ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information)Categorise, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, devise, formulate, invent, generate, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, revise, rewrite, set up.

EvaluationThe ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organisation) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them.Appraise, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, justify, resolve, support, validate, write a review.

[Source: Benjamin Bloom (1956) Handbook of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives] Table 5.1 The Cognitive Taxonomy5.6.1 Cognitive Domain

Blooms taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a persons observable and unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his associated classified cognitive learnings in 6 major categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 5.1). Cognitive Levels DescriptionExamples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes

ReceivingWillingness to receive or to attend to particular information or activity (textbook, classroom activity). Receiving involves the willingness to receive or accept and focussing attentionAttend, be aware, listen, reply, show, alert, use, watch, select, tolerate, follow, ask.

RespondingRefers to active participation by the student. The student is actively attending by responding in the class and is involved in the teaching-learning setting. He or she gains satisfaction from engaging in activities.Agree, answer, communicate, comply, consent, contribute, cooperate, help, inquire, obey, participate, question, request, report, respond, seek, volunteer

ValuingThe students sees worth or value in what is being learned or the activity being done. The student does not merely obey or complies but does so because he or she is intrinsically motivated. Accept, adopt, approve, complete, commit, desire, display, exhibit, express, initiate, invite, prefer, share, study, work.

OrganisationThe student brings together many different values and attempt to resolve the conflicts between the value. Through this process he or she builds a value system. He or she sees how new values are related to existing values and tries to establish a balance.Adapt, alter, arrange, classify, compare, defend, establish, generalise, integrate, modify, order, rank, synthesise.

CharacterisationThe student internalises the values. In other words, he or she adopts the values as his or her own. The values internalised determines the behaviour of the student. The behaviour is consistent and predictable.Act, behave, conform, devote, display, endure, exemplify, function, maintain, practice, perform, uphold, use, influence.

[Source: Benjamin Bloom and D. Krathwohl (1964) Handbook of Taxonomy

of Educational Objectives]

Table 5.2 The Affective Taxonomy5.6.2 Affective Domain

After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others, including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner in which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something. 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills require practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.Cognitive Levels DescriptionExamples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes

ImitationThe student indicates a readiness to learn a certain complex skill. Imitation includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained. It includes trial and error until an appropriate response is achieved.Assemble, carryout, copy, construct, repeat, duplicate, practice, reproduce, start, try, volunteer, sketch, follow.

ManipulationThe student continues to practice the skill until it becomes habitual and can be performed with some confidence. The response is more complex but he or she is still not sure of himself or herself.[all the verbs for Imitation plus the following]: acquire, conduct, do, execute, operate, perform, produce, progress, use, operate.

PrecisionThe student attains the skill and proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth and accurate performance. The response is complex and performed without hesitation.[all the verbs for Imitation and Manipulation plus the following]: achieve, automatise, exceed, excel, master, reach, refine, surpass, accomplish.

ArticulationThe student is involved at an even higher level of precision. The skill is well developed. The student can adapt the skill according to different requirements.Adapt, change, alter, reorganise, rearrange, revise.

NaturalisationThe skill is automatic and the student is able to experiment and create new ways of using the skill. Arrange, compose, refine, create, design, originate, transcend.

[Source: R. Dave. Psychomotor Domain, 1974]

Table 5.3 The Psychomotor Taxonomy

The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain.

READINGS

Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean? McGill Journal of Education. Vol. 34. (3). p. 227. [available at ProQuest].

Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in Education. vol. 90(6). pp. 39-43. [available at ProQuest] Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. (1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.

Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter.SELF-TEST 5.2

Explain why Tabas model is called the grass-roots model

Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers in the development of a curriculum? Why?

To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in your country?

Organisation of Content

Selection of

Learning Activities

Selection of

Content

Organisation of Learning

Activities

Formulation of Objectives

Evaluation

Diagnosis of

Needs

ACTIVITY 5.1

What is the message of the cartoon?

How far is this characteristic of your education system?

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module you will be able to:

Describe Tylers model of curriculum development

Explain the features of Tabas curriculum development model

Describe the Saylor and Alexander model

Compare the Tyler, Taba and the Saylor & Alexander models

Differentiate between the levels of educational goals

Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains

Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.

Instructional

Goals

5.3 Goals of Education

5.2 Models of Curriculum Development

5.1 The Curriculum Development Process

Instructional

Objectives

5.4.5 Instructional goals

5.4.6 Instructional objectives

5.5 Instructional objectives or

learning outcomes

5.6 Classifying instructional

objectives or learning

outcomes

5.6.1 Cognitive domain

5.6.2 Affective domain

5.6.3 Psychomotor domain

Discussion Questions

Readings

ACTIVITY 5.4

Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum

Curriculum Goal or Aim

Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute towards the creation of a society that practices science and technology culture, responsible towards the environment and appreciative of nature and Gods creations.

Sample Curriculum Objectives

The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to:

Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences,

Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem solving and decision making

Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance,

Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-inquiry approach

Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research

Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4

A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things

B) Know that light can be dispersed

Sample Instructional Objectives

A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans

A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals

B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours

B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow

How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different from the stated curriculum objectives?

Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and attitudes/values to be acquired by students?

How is Instructional Goal A implemented in the classroom?

[Source: Curriculum Specifications for Smart Schools, Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, July, 1997]

Curriculum

Objectives

Curriculum

Goals

Educational Philosophy

National Policies &

Priorities

Research and Best

Practices

Educational

Goals

5.0 Introduction

ACTIVITY 5.2

Read the Case Study and answer the following questions:

Why do you think that in the vision it is emphasised that South Africa should be free of violence, discrimination and prejudice?

What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa?

How are these educational goals similar or different from those of your country?

Curriculum

evaluation

Curriculum

implementation

Curriculum

designing

Goals, objectives and domains

SELF-CHECK 5.3

What is meant by domains in the Saylor and Alexander model?

What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?

What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander model?

Selection of Learning

Experiences

Organisation of Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Psychology

Learner

Subject

matter

Screens

Instructional Objectives

SOURCES

Objectives

Philosophy

Society

Drug prevention, road safety education

5.4. Levels of Goals

ACTIVITY 5.3

In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list of six goals for the nations schools which stated that by the year 2000:

all children in America will start school ready to learn

the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%

American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated competency in challenging subject mater (English, mathematics, science , history and geography)

U.S students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement

Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the right and responsibilities of citizenship

Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and

will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning

[Source: National Goals for Education, 1990. Washington D.C].

What seems to be the emphasis in these goals? What is lacking?

Compare these goals with the goals of your education system.

OVERVIEW

National unity, racial tolerance, citizenship education

The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.

The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development.

The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to work cooperatively.

5.0 Introduction

5.1 The curriculum

development process

5.2 Models of curriculum

development

5.2.1 Tylers model

5.2.2 Tabas model

5.2.3 Alexander & Taylors

model

5.3 Goals of Education

5.4 Levels of goals

5.4.1 Educational philosophy

5.4.2 Education goals

5.4.3 Curriculum goals

5.4.4 Curriculum objectives

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or

subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum development would you adopt

to guide you? Why?

2. Have a look at any course or programme.

Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and instructional

objectives to be achieved?

b) Would you say that students would be clear about what they are expected

to do in the course, or do the objectives simply delineate the content areas

that the course will cover?

c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the teaching-

learning methods employed in the subject?

d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than class tests and

examinations?

e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in the subject?

f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective objectives for the

subject?

SELF-TEST 5.1

What is the role of objectives in Tylers model?

Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and psychology?

Give 3 specific examples of learning experiences according to the Tyler Model,

What are elements? Give specific examples

What is the purpose of evaluation?

Science and technology,

Environmental education

Globalisation, knowledge economy

Language & quantitative literacy

Ethics, moral education, religious education

How can we help children make sense of these?

ACTIVITY 5.5

Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished

enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve

makes evaluation easier because it is measurable

makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives

makes accountability easier

Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

restricts creativity

lead to trivial or unimportant competencies

is dehumanising

downplays affective outcomes

How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students?

Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?

State ONE other reason each supporting the proponents and opponents of behavioural objectives.

[Source: adapted from Peter Oliva (1982). Developing the curriculum.

Boston: Little Brown

& Co. p. 352]

5.5. Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes

5.6. Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes

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