Cybersony Chronicles of OB BBA BHM CE 3rd semester

Cybersony Chronicles of O. B. BBA BHM

Matter for Majors.. {B.Tech Civil 3rd sem} + {B.Com, BHM, DTHM, BBA 1st sem}

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} Roles and Responsibilities of a Professional Manager } As a manager, you probably fulfill many different roles every day. For instance, as well as leading your team, you might find yourself resolving a conflict, negotiating new contracts, representing your department at a board meeting, or approving a request for a new computer system. Put simply, you're constantly switching roles as tasks, situations, and expectations change. Management expert and professor Henry Mintzberg recognized this, and he argued that there are ten primary roles or behaviors that can be used to categorize a manager's different functions. The ten roles are:

1. Figurehead. 2. Leader. 3. Liaison. 4. Monitor. 5. Disseminator. 6. Spokesperson. 7. Entrepreneur. 8. Disturbance Handler. 9. Resource Allocator. 10. Negotiator.

The 10 roles are then divided up into three categories, as follows:

Category Roles Interpersonal Figurehead

Leader Liaison

Informational Monitor Disseminator Spokesperson

Decisional Entrepreneur Disturbance Handler Resource Allocator Negotiator

Let's look at each of the ten roles in greater detail. Interpersonal Category The roles in this category involve providing information and ideas.

1. Figurehead As a manager, you have social, ceremonial and legal responsibilities. You're expected to be a source of inspiration. People look up to you as a person with authority, and as a figurehead.

2. Leader This is where you provide leadership for your team, your department or perhaps your entire organization; and it's where you manage the performance and responsibilities of everyone in the group.

3. Liaison Managers must communicate with internal and external contacts. You need to be able to network effectively on behalf of your organization.

Informational Category The roles in this category involve processing information.

4. Monitor In this role, you regularly seek out information related to your organization and industry, looking for relevant changes in the environment. You also monitor your team, in terms of both their productivity, and their well-being.

5. Disseminator This is where you communicate potentially useful information to your colleagues and your team. 6. Spokesperson Managers represent and speak for their organization. In this role you're responsible for transmitting

information about your organization and its goals to the people outside it. Decisional Category



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The roles in this category involve using information. 7. Entrepreneur As a manager, you create and control change within the organization. This means solving problems, generating

new ideas, and implementing them. 8. Disturbance Handler When an organization or team hits an unexpected roadblock, it's the manager who must take charge.

You also need to help mediate disputes within it. 9. Resource Allocator You'll also need to determine where organizational resources are best applied. This involves allocating

funding, as well as assigning staff and other organizational resources. 10. Negotiator You may be needed to take part in, and direct, important negotiations within your team, department, or

organization. Applying the Model Figurehead Figureheads represent their teams. If you need to improve or build confidence in this area, start with your image, behavior, and reputation . Cultivate humility and empathy , learn how to set a good example at work , and think about how to be a good role model . Leader This is the role you probably spend most of your time fulfilling. To improve here, start by taking our quiz, How Good Are Your Leadership Skills? This will give you a thorough understanding of your current abilities. Next, learn how to be an authentic leader , so your team will respect you. Also, focus on improving your emotional intelligence this is an important skill for being an effective leader. Liaison To improve your liaison skills, work on your professional networking techniques. You may also like to take our Bite-Sized Training course on Networking Skills. Monitor To improve here, learn how to gather information effectively and overcome information overload . Also, use effective reading strategies , so that you can process material quickly and thoroughly, and learn how to keep up-to-date with industry news . Disseminator To be a good disseminator you need to know how to share information and outside views effectively, which means that good communication skills are vital. Learn how to share organizational information with Team Briefings . Next, focus on improving your writing skills . You might also want to take our communication skills quiz , to find out where else you can improve. Spokesperson To be effective in this role, make sure that you know how to represent your organization at a conference . You may also want to read our articles on delivering great presentations and working with the media (if applicable to your role). Entrepreneur To improve here, build on your change management skills, and learn what not to do when implementing change in your organization. You'll also need to work on your problem solving and creativity skills , so that you can come up with new ideas, and implement them successfully. Disturbance Handler In this role, you need to excel at conflict resolution and know how to handle team conflict . It's also helpful to be able to manage emotion in your team . Resource Allocator To improve as a resource allocator, learn how to manage a budget , cut costs , and prioritize , so that you can make the best use of your resources. You can also use VRIO Analysis to learn how to get the best results from the resources available to you.



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Negotiator Improve your negotiation skills by learning about Win-Win Negotiation and Distributive Bargaining . You might also want to read our article on role-playing this technique can help you prepare for difficult negotiations.

} LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT {

Top Level of Management It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions. The role of the top management can be summarized as follows -

a. Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise. b. It issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules etc. c. It prepares strategic plans & policies for the enterprise. d. It appoints the executive for middle level i.e. departmental managers. e. It controls & coordinates the activities of all the departments. f. It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world. g. It provides guidance and direction. h. The top management is also responsible towards the shareholders for the performance of the enterprise.

Middle Level of Management The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization, there is only one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and junior middle level management. Their role can be emphasized as -

a. They execute the plans of the organization in accordance with the policies and directives of the top management. b. They make plans for the sub-units of the organization. c. They participate in employment & training of lower level management. d. They interpret and explain policies from top level management to lower level. e. They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or department. f. It also sends important reports and other important data to top level management. g. They evaluate performance of junior managers. h. They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better performance.



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Lower Level of Management Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It consists of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis, Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely with personal oversight and direction of operative employees. In other words, they are concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities include -

a. Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers. b. They guide and instruct workers for day to day activities. c. They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production. d. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation in the organization. e. They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc to the higher level and higher level

goals and objectives to the workers. f. They help to solve the grievances of the workers. g. They supervise & guide the sub-ordinates. h. They are responsible for providing training to the workers. i. They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools etc for getting the things done. j. They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers. k. They ensure discipline in the enterprise. l. They motivate workers. m. They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct contact with the workers



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-: Leadership Styles :- A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Different types of leadership styles exist in work environments. Advantages and disadvantages exist within each leadership style. The culture and goals of an organization determine which leadership style fits the firm best. Some companies offer several leadership styles within the organization, dependent upon the necessary tasks to complete and departmental needs.

1. Autocratic Leadership Style:- The authoritarian leadership style or autocratic leader keeps strict, close control over followers by keeping close regulation of policies and procedures given to followers. To keep main emphasis on the distinction of the authoritarian leader and their followers, these types of leaders make sure to only create a distinct professional relationship. Direct supervision is what they believe to be key in maintaining a successful environment and follower ship. In fear of followers being unproductive, authoritarian leaders keep close supervision and feel this is necessary in order for anything to be done. Authoritarian leadership styles often follow the vision of those that are in control, and may not necessarily be compatible with those that are being led. Examples of authoritarian communicative behavior: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a workstation.

2. Democratic_Leadership Style:- The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This style of leadership encompasses discussion, debate and sharing of ideas and encouragement of people to feel good about their involvement. The boundaries of democratic participation tend to be circumscribed by the organization or the group needs and the instrumental value of people's attributes (skills, attitudes, etc.). The democratic style encompasses the notion that everyone, by virtue of their human status, should play a part in the group's decisions. However, the democratic style of leadership still requires guidance and control by a specific leader. 3. Paternalistic_Leadership style:- The way a Paternalistic leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking care of their subordinates as a parent would. In this style of leadership the leader supplies complete concern for his followers or workers. In return he receives the complete trust and loyalty of his people. Workers under this style of leader are expected to become totally committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and work independently. These workers are able to go to each other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what they say is going to truly help them. The leader encourages organization because they allow the workers to complete tasks so that they can stay on top of their work. Having this style of leadership can also help implement a reward system. This system will allow their workers to work even better because there is something for them at the end of the tunnel.

4. Free-Rein or Laissez-Faire Leadership Style The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker. This was first described by Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1938, along with the autocratic leadership and the democratic leadership styles. The laissez-faire style is sometimes described as a "hands off" leadership style because the leader delegates the tasks to their followers while providing little or no direction to the followers.

If the leader withdraws too

much from their followers it can sometimes result in a lack of productivity, cohesiveness, and satisfaction. This is an effective style to use when:

Followers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated. Followers have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used.



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EMPLOYEE MORALE Description of the emotions, attitude, satisfaction, and overall outlook of employees during their time in a workplace environment. Part of effective productivity is thought to be directly related to the morale of the employees. Employees that are happy and positive at work are said to have positive or high employee morale. Companies that maintain employees who are dissatisfied and negative about their work environment are said to have negative or low employee morale. A measure seeking positive, confident, satisfied employees. Involves the overall viewpoint of employees while at work in the work environment. Includes employee emotions, attitude, and satisfaction. The morale of the employees directly effects productivity. Dissatisfied and negative employees portray negative, low employee morale about their work environment. Positive or highly confident employees that are happy and positive at work are said to have high morale. Employee morale, in human resources, is defined as 1. A state of individual psychological well-being based upon a sense of confidence and usefulness and purpose and 2. The spirit of a group that makes the members wants the group to succeed (synonyms: esprit de corps, team spirit) How to increase Employee morale:-

1. Recognize employees. 2. Be a respectful manager. 3. Have one-on-one meetings with employees. 4. Invest in your employees. 5. Get to know your employees.

Morale are of two types:-

1. On behalf of NUMBERS a. Individual moral b. Group Morale 2. On behalf of LEVELS a. High Morale b. Low morale.

Factors affecting Morale:-

1. The Firm\Organization. 2. The nature of work. 3. The level of satisfaction. 4. The level of supervision. 5. Concept of self. 6. Employees age 7. Education levels. 8. Occupational levels. 9. Off the job activities.

Mental condition of employees which determine their willingness to

Co-operate



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GROUP A collection of individuals who have regular contact and frequent interaction, mutual influence, common feeling of camaraderie, and who work together to achieve a common set of goals.

Interpersonal relationship

An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintance between two or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring. This association may be based on inference, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the context of social, cultural and other influences. The context can vary from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations with associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship. They may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and are the basis of social groups and society as a whole. Interpersonal behaviour is how people interact with one another. Specifically it is studied as the way people behave when this behaviour would affect a relationship. Making jokes, body language, giving presents and going to parties are all aspects 0of interpersonal behaviour.

GROUP DYNAMICS The social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group dynamics. Agents can also be given group tasks, which in turn may be influenced by their own group dynamics. Pigeons flocks use hierarchical group dynamics to decide where to fly orbiter. Those synchronized dips and waves seem to hold secrets about perception and group dynamics.

HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE GROUPS 1. Forming. This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The major goals of the group

have not been established. The nature of the task or leadership of the group has not been determined (Luthans, 2005). Thus, forming is an orientation period when members get to know one another and share expectations about the group. Members learn the purpose of the group as well as the rules to be followed. The forming stage should not be rushed because trust and openness must be developed. These feelings strengthen in later stages of development. Individuals are often confused during this stage because roles are not clear and there may not be a strong leader.

2. Storming. In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement and conflict. Members often challenge group goals and struggle for power. Individuals often vie for the leadership position during this stage of development. Members often voice concern and criticism in this phase. If members are not able to resolve the conflict, then the group will often disband or continue in existence but will remain ineffective and never advance to the other stages.

3. Norming. This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and shared expectations. Hopefully, at this stage the group members will begin to develop a feeling of group cohesion and identity. Cooperative effort should begin to yield results. Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides how it will evaluate progress.

4. Performing. Performing, occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of cohesiveness. During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and conflict is resolved through group discussion. Members of the group make decisions through a rational process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.

5. Adjourning. Not all groups experience this stage of development because it is characterized by the disbandment

of the group. Some groups are relatively permanent (Luthans, 2005). Reasons that groups disband vary, with common reasons being the accomplishment of the task or individuals deciding to go their own ways.



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Identify and analyse the problem

Collecting information and analysing the problem.

Drawing Alternatives.

Choosing a best fit Alternative.

Implement the decision.

Evaluation and Control

TYPES OF GROUPS Formal groups:- a formal group is one that has structure, officers, regular meetings, etc. there are usually by-laws and a charter. Formal groups are further divided into three main categories:-

A. Command groups: As per the name suggests, command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that department.

B. Task force Groups: Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are

brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational contest.

C. Committees: a person or group of persons elected or appointed to perform some service or function, as to

investigate, report on, or act upon a particular matter.

Informal groups:- are those which are formed by individuals along the lines of friendships, common interests or hobbies, and do not have the formal structural elements. *cliques = colleagues. *sub-cliques = some members of clique and other specialized peoples.

Group Decision Making Process



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Understanding Work Teams A team comprises a group of people or other animals linked in a common purpose. Human teams are especially

appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks. A team becomes more than just a collection of people when a strong sense of mutual commitment creates synergy,

thus generating performance greater than the sum of the performance of its individual members. Thus teams of game players can form (and re-form) to practice their craft/sport. Transport logistics executives can

select teams of horses, dogs or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods. All teams are groups, but all teams cannot be Groups. All groups can be team, but all teams cannot be groups. Group Long span\Continuous. Team frequently short span \ depends on task.

Difference between Groups and Teams:- Work Groups Teams

Individual accountability Individual and mutual accountability

Come together to share information and perspectives

Frequently come together for discussion, decision making, problem solving, and planning.

Focus on individual goals Focus on team goals

Produce individual work products

Produce collective work products

Define individual roles, responsibilities, and tasks

Define individual roles, responsibilities, and tasks to help team do its work; often share and rotate them

Concern with one's own outcome and challenges

Concern with outcomes of everyone and challenges the team faces

Purpose, goals, approach to work shaped by manager

Purpose, goals, approach to work shaped by team leader with team members



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Types of Teams A) Problem-Solving Teams They are typically composed of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. Organizations are relaying more and more on problem-solving teams to help solve organizational problems.

In problem-solving teams, members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work process and methods can be improved. Rarely, however, are these teams given the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions, B) Self-Managed Teams:- They are generally composed of 10 to 15 people who take on the responsibilities of their former supervisors. Typically, these responsibilities include: a) Collective control over the pace of work, b) Determination of work

assignments, c) Organization of breaks, and d) Collective choice of inspection procedures used. Fully self-managed teams select their own members, and the members evaluate each others performance. As a result, supervisory positions take on decreased importance and may even be eliminated. C) Cross - Functional Teams: - Cross-functional teams are made of employees at about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.

Power & Politics In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of people. The term authority is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings. Managers Power:-

i. Give rewards. j. Promise rewards. k. Threaten to withdraw current rewards. l. Withdraw current rewards. m. Threaten to punish n. Punish

Sources of Power Power comes from two sources:-

1. Interpersonal sources: a. REWARD b. COERCIVE c. LIGITIMATE d. EXPERT e. REFERENT

2. Structural sources:

a. KNOWLEDGE b. RESOURCES c. DECISION MAKING.



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POLITICS The way by which people gain and use power falls under the category of Politics. Political behavior in organization includes the following:-

Withholding key information from decision makers. Whistle blowing. Spreading rumors Leaking confidential information Ingenious compromises. Exchanging favors for mutual benefits.

Causes of Political Behavior:-

Limited resources:- means, every organization have some kind of scarcity of resources, and the person having control of such resources yields power, and the process of trying to gain control and exploit the resources results into politics to act.

Lust for power. Saturation in career: - To rise in once career, everyone needs competence. And hence he resort to political

behavior to move up in the organizational hierarchy. Organization culture:- Organizational Change: - When there is a change in organizational structure or we restructure#, people in

powerful positions play political games in order to remain in comfort zone. Ambiguous goals: - when the goals are unclear, the members are unaware of their roles then everybody plays

through power and politics.

Organizational Conflict Organizational conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between people working together. Conflict takes many forms in organizations. There is the inevitable clash between formal authority and power and those individuals and groups affected. There are disputes over how revenues should be divided, how the work should be done, and how long and hard people should work. There are jurisdictional disagreements among individuals, departments, and between unions and management. There are subtler forms of conflict involving rivalries, jealousies, personality clashes, role definitions, and struggles for power and favor. There is also conflict within individuals between competing needs and demands to which individuals respond in different ways. The appearances of difference, difference of opinions, of interests Conflict results when there is a gap between difference of attitudes, interests, transactions, needs etc. Conflict is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scare resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICTS Conflict is classified into the following four types:

Interpersonal conflict refers to a conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to how people are different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible choices and



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opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in personal growth or developing your relationships with others. In addition, coming up with adjustments is necessary for managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict gets too destructive, calling in a mediator would help so as to have it resolved.

Intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the persons mind. Hence, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving the individuals thoughts, values, principles and emotions. Interpersonal conflict may come in different scales, from the simpler mundane ones like deciding whether or not to go organic for lunch to ones that can affect major decisions such as choosing a career path. Furthermore, this type of conflict can be quite difficult to handle if you find it hard to decipher your inner struggles. It leads to restlessness and uneasiness, or can even cause depression. In such occasions, it would be best to seek a way to let go of the anxiety through communicating with other people. Eventually, when you find yourself out of the situation, you can become more empowered as a person. Thus, the experience evoked a positive change which will help you in your own personal growth.

Intragroup conflict is a type of conflict that happens among individuals within a team. The incompatibilities and misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. It is arises from interpersonal disagreements (e.g. team members have different personalities which may lead to tension) or differences in views and ideas (e.g. in a presentation, members of the team might find the notions presented by the one presiding to be erroneous due to their differences in opinion). Within a team, conflict can be helpful in coming up with decisions which will eventually allow them to reach their objectives as a team. However, if the degree of conflict disrupts harmony among the members, then some serious guidance from a different party will be needed for it to be settled.

Intergroup conflict takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an organization. For instance, the sales department of an organization can come in conflict with the customer support department. This is due to the varied sets of goals and interests of these different groups. In addition, competition also contributes for intergroup conflict to arise. There are other factors which fuel this type of conflict. Some of these factors may include a rivalry in resources or the boundaries set by a group to others which establishes their own identity as a team.

Conflict may seem to be a problem to some, but this isnt how conflict should be perceived. On the other hand, it is an opportunity for growth and can be an effective means of opening up among groups or individuals. Examples:- Boycott To combine against a landlord, tradesman, employer or other persons to withheld social or business relations from him, and to deter others from holding such relations to subject to a boycott. Lockout The closing of a place of employment or the suspension of work or the refusal by an employer to continue to employ any number of persons employed by him in consequence of a dispute, done with a view to compelling those persons, or to aiding another employer in compelling persons employed by him, to accept terms or conditions of or affecting employment. Strike The cessation of work by a body of persons employed acting in combination or a concerted refusal or a refusal under common understanding, of any number of persons employed to continue to work for an employer in consequence of a dispute, done as a means of compelling their employer or employer of any other persons or body of persons, or any person or body of persons employed to accept terms or conditions of or affecting employment.



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NEGOTIATION Discussion aimed at reaching an agreement. To deal or bargain with another or others, as in the preparation of a treaty or contract or in preliminaries to a

business deal. Methods of handling Conflicts:-

o Third party arbitration o

Mediation o

Experts advice

Stages of Negotiation In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all parties involved can come together. The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

1. Preparation 2. Discussion 3. Clarification of goals 4. Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome 5. Agreement 6. Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing. This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the rules of your organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for the negotiation. Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.

2. Discussion During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e. their understanding of the situation. Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying. Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and listening too little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to be clarified. It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the negotiation process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause problems and barriers to reaching a beneficial outcome.

4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome



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This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view has been taken into consideration. A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal. Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point. Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides viewpoints and interests have been considered. It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an acceptable solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know what has been decided.

6. Implementing a Course of Action From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision. See our pages: Strategic Thinking and Action Planning for more information.

Work Stress Occupational stress is stress involving work. According to the current World Health Organization's (WHO) definition, occupational or work-related stress "is the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope.

Job stress results from various interactions of the worker and the environment of the work they perform their duties. Location, gender, environment, and many other factors contribute to the buildup of stress. Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. Differences in individual characteristics such as personality and coping skills can be very important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress. In other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint underlies prevention strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job conditions. Working conditions Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy. Large surveys of working conditions, including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in member states of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Workload In an occupational setting, dealing with workload can be stressful and serve as a stressor for employees. There are three aspects of workload that can be stressful.

Quantitative workload or overload: Having more work to do than can be accomplished comfortably. Qualitative workload: Having work that is too difficult. Underload: Having work that fails to use a worker's skills and abilities.



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Workload has been linked to a number of strains, including anxiety, physiological reactions such as cortisol, fatigue, backache, headache, and gastrointestinal problems. Workload as a work demand is a major component of the demand-control model of stress. This model suggests that jobs with high demands can be stressful, especially when the individual has low control over the job. In other words control serves as a buffer or protective factor when demands or workload is high. This model was expanded into the demand-control-support model that suggests that the combination of high control and high social support at work buffers the effects of high demands. As a work demand, workload is also relevant to the job demands-resources model of stress that suggests that jobs are stressful when demands (e.g., workload) exceed the individual's resources to deal with them. Long hours A substantial percentage of Americans work very long hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures represent a considerable increase over the previous three decades, especially for women. According to the Department of Labor, there have been a rise in increasing amount of hours in the work place by employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among working couples, particularly couples with young children. Status A person's status in the workplace can also affect levels of stress. While workplace stress has the potential to affect employees of all categories; those who have very little influence to those who make major decisions for the company. However, less powerful employees (that is, those who have less control over their jobs) are more likely to suffer stress than powerful workers. Managers as well as other kinds of workers are vulnerable to work overload. Economic factors Economic factors that employees are facing in the 21st century have been linked to increased stress levels. Researchers and social commentators have pointed out that the computer and communications revolutions have made companies more efficient and productive than ever before. This boon in productivity however, has caused higher expectations and greater competition, putting more stress on the employee (Primm, 2005). The following economic factors may lead to workplace stress:

Pressure from investors, who can quickly withdraw their money from company stocks. The lack of trade and professional unions in the workplace. Inter-company rivalries caused by the efforts of companies to compete globally The willingness of companies to swiftly lay off workers to cope with changing business environments.

Bullying Bullying in the workplace can also contribute to stress. This can be broken down into five different categories:

Threat to profession status Threat to personal status Isolation Excess work Destabilization i.e. lack of credit for work, meaningless tasks etc.

This in effect can create a hostile work environment for the employees that, which in turn, can affect their work ethic and contribution to the organization. Narcissism and psychopathy Main articles: Narcissism in the workplace and Psychopathy in the workplace Thomas suggests that there tends to be a higher level of stress with people who work or interact with a narcissist, which in turn increases absenteeism and staff turnover.

[37] Boddy finds the same dynamic where there is corporate psychopath

in the organisation.



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Workplace conflict Interpersonal conflict among people at work has been shown to be one of the most frequently noted stressors for employees.

Conflict has been noted to be an indicator of the broader concept of workplace harassment.

It relates to other

stressors that might co-occur, such as role conflict, role ambiguity, and workload. It also relates to strains such as anxiety, depression, physical symptoms, and low levels of job satisfaction. Sexual harassment Women are more likely than men to experience sexual harassment, especially for those working in traditionally masculine occupations. In addition, a study indicated that sexual harassment negatively affects workers' psychological well-being.

Another study found that level of harassment at workplaces lead to differences in performance of work

related tasks. High levels of harassment were related to the worst outcomes, and no harassment was related to least negative outcomes. In other words, women who had experienced a higher level of harassment were more likely to perform poorly at workplaces.

Prevention A combination of organizational change and stress management is often the most useful approach for preventing stress at work.

Both organizations and employees can employ strategies at organizational and individual levels. Generally,

organizational level strategies include job procedure modification and employee assistance programs (EPA). Individual level strategies include taking vacation. Getting a realistic job preview to understand the normal workload and schedules of the job will also help people to identify whether or not the job fit them. How to Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress

Ensure that the workload is in line with workers' capabilities and resources. Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and opportunities for workers to use their skills. Clearly define workers' roles and responsibilities. To reduce workplace stress, managers may monitor the workload given out to the employees. Also while they are

being trained they should let employees understand and be notified of stress awareness. Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions affecting their jobs. Improve communications-reduce uncertainty about career development and future employment prospects. Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers. Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job. Combat workplace discrimination (based on race, gender, national origin, religion or language). Bringing in an objective outsider such as a consultant to suggest a fresh approach to persistent problems. Introducing a participative leadership style to involve as many subordinates as possible to resolve stress-

producing problems. Encourage work-life balance through family-friendly benefits and policies

Signs and symptoms of excessive job and workplace stress Feeling anxious, irritable, or depressed

Apathy, loss of interest in work Problems sleeping Fatigue Trouble concentrating

Muscle tension or headaches Stomach problems Social withdrawal Loss of sex drive Using alcohol or drugs to cope



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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its environment. An organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on their objectives. The structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates and performs. Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and individual. Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways. First, it provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines rest. Second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the organizations actions.

Job design (also referred to as work design or task design) is the specification of contents, methods and relationship of jobs in order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the social and personal requirements of the job holder. Its principles are geared towards how the nature of a person's job affects their attitudes and behavior at work, particularly relating to characteristics such as skill variety and autonomy.

The aim of a job design is to improve job satisfaction, to improve through-put, to improve quality and to reduce employee problems (e.g., grievances, absenteeism).

An arrangement in the workplace that has the objective of overcoming employee alienation and job dissatisfaction that comes about from mechanical and repetitive tasks in the workplace. Work design is used by organizations to boost productivity by offering employees non- monetary rewards such as satisfaction from a greater sense of personal achievement. Also called job design. Techniques:- Job rotation Job rotation is a job design method which is able to enhance motivation, develop workers' outlook, increase productivity, improve the organization's performance on various levels by its multi-skilled workers, and provides new opportunities to



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improve the attitude, thought, capabilities and skills of workers. Job rotation is also process by which employees laterally mobilize and serve their tasks in different organizational levels; when an individual experiences different posts and responsibilities in an organization, ability increases to evaluate his capabilities in the organization. Job enlargement Hulin and Blood (1968) define Job enlargement as the process of allowing individual workers to determine their own pace (within limits), to serve as their own inspectors by giving them responsibility for quality control, to repair their own mistakes, to be responsible for their own machine set-up and repair, and to attain choice of method. Frederick Herzberg referred to the addition of interrelated tasks as 'horizontal job loading'. Job enrichment Job enrichment increases the employees autonomy over the planning and execution of their own work. Job enrichment has the same motivational advantages of job enlargement, however it has the added benefit of granting workers autonomy. Frederick Herzberg viewed job enrichment as 'vertical job loading' because it also includes tasks formerly performed by someone at a higher level where planning and control are involved.

ORGANIZATION CULTURE Culture is how organizations DO THINGS.

Organizational culture is the behavior of humans within an organization and the meaning that people attach to those behaviors. Culture includes the organization's vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, beliefs, and habits. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving, and even thinking and feeling. Organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. Ravasi and Schultz stated that organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions that guide interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. Although a company may have its "own unique culture", in larger organizations there are sometimes conflicting cultures that co-exist owing to the characteristics of different management teams. Organizational culture may affect employees' identification with an organization. Factors and elements Gerry Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence organizational culture:

The paradigm: What the organization is about, what it does, its mission, its values. Control systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on. Role cultures would have vast rulebooks.

There would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture. Organizational structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through the business. Power structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based? Symbols: These include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power such as parking

spaces and executive washrooms. Rituals and routines: Management meetings, board reports and so on may become more habitual than

necessary. Stories and myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is valued within the

organization.



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Organizational change and development

Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and/or efficiency and/or to enable the organization to achieve its strategic goals. OD theorists and practitioners define it in various ways. Its multiplicity of definition reflects the complexity of the discipline and is responsible for its lack of understanding. For example, Vasudevan has referred to OD being about promoting organizational readiness to meet change, and it has been said that OD is a systemic learning and development strategy intended to change the basics of beliefs, attitudes and relevance of values, and structure of the current organization to better absorb disruptive technologies, shrinking or exploding market opportunities and ensuing challenges and chaos. It is worth understanding what OD is not. It is not training, personal development, team development or team building, human resource development (HRD), learning and development (L&D) or a part of HR although it is often mistakenly understood as some or all of these. OD interventions are about change so involve people - but OD also develops processes, systems and structures. The primary purpose of OD is to develop the organization, not to train or develop the staff. Objective of OD The objective of OD is:

1. To increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees. 2. To increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment. 3. To confront problems instead of neglecting them. 4. To effectively manage conflict. 5. To increase cooperation and collaboration among the employees. 6. To increase the organization's problem solving. 7. To put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of the organization on a continuous basis.

The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help him are:

1. A real need in the client system to change 2. Genuine support from management 3. Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior 4. A sound background in the behavioral sciences 5. A working knowledge of systems theory 6. A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better ways to do things.

A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.



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}rganizati}n Failure Great organizations dont just emulate success, they learn from failure. Associations and consortia that aspire to greatness should look at the failures of others for guidance. Today, there is no shortage of failures from which to learn. In November of 2009, Paul Light, a professor of public service at New York University, predicted that, at a minimum, more than 100,000 non-profit organizations would be wiped out in the next two years. Given this dire forecast, its more important than ever for organizations to be aware of the common pitfalls that can cause failure. Here are some of the things that have caused organizations to fail and the lessons we can learn. Associations that fail tend to do one or more of the following:

Lose mission focus Stray into the wrong business Fail to communicate benefits Take members for granted Price services inappropriately Give potential members a free ride Ignore the competition Resist change Fall into merger mania Accept irrelevance

Reasons of failure:-

1. Manmade hazards 2. Natural hazards



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Date post:	09-Oct-2015
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Cybersony Chronicles of OB BBA BHM CE 3rd semester

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