DE-ISLAMIZATION IN JAVA DURING THE DUTCH
COLONIAL PERIOD FROM 1800 TO 1942
BY
FEBRI PRIYOYUDANTO
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of requirement for the
degree of Master of Human Sciences in
History and Civilization
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
DECEMBER 2016
ii
ABSTRACT
A very long period of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia still has a very significant
impact on Indonesia, including Java as a part of Nusantara. Javanese people as the
largest population in Indonesia were greatly affected of a de-Islamization process
during the Dutch colonial period. This process not only made Javanese people
estranged from Islamic values, but also, the culture of Hindu-Buddhism is still seen as
a major variable in Javanese culture. Although, the Dutch colonists persuade
systematic de-Islamization efforts, Javanese Muslims provided the resistance in many
ways to prevent it. This thesis intends to elaborate and analyze the de-Islamization
efforts in Java during the Dutch colonial period. The thesis will focus on the Javanese
ethnic group on Java Island, Indonesia. This thesis will be useful in understanding the
patterns and strategy for de-Islamization which were created by the Dutch during the
colonial period. The method of data collection used in this thesis is documentary
research. The information was gathered from books, journals, and websites pertaining
to the Dutch colonial history of Java will be utilized. In order to enhance
comprehension of this thesis, the author will survey Javanese culture, educational and
cultural de-Islamization, Islamic revivalism and resistance political de-Islamization in
Java during the Dutch colonial period.
iii
البحث ملخصABSTRACT IN ARABIC
إن الحكم الاستعماري الهولندي في إندونيسيا الذي استمر في مدة طويلة له
تأثير كبير جدا, بما في ذلك جزيرة جاوى كجزء من أرخبيل نوسانتارا.
إزالة وشعر المجتمع الجاوي بقوة كأكبر قبيلة عريقة في إندونيسيا تأثير
( خلال الفترة de-Islamizationكرامة الإسلام المعروف بمصطلح )
الاستعمارية الهولندية. وما كانت عملية هذه الإزالة نحو المجتمع الجاوي
قاصرة على جعل هؤلاء يشعرون بالغربة من القيم الإسلامية ولكن أضف
متغير الرئيسي إلى ذلك أنها تجعل تأثير الهندوس والبوذية لايزال يرُى أنه ال
في الثقافة الجاوية. ومع ذلك, فإن المجتمع المسلم الجاوي قاموا ببذل الجهود
لمقاومة عملية إزالة كرامة الإسلام التي قام بها الهولنديون بشكل منهجي.
وتحاول هذه الرسالة القيام بوصف عملية إزالة كرامة الإسلام المنهجية
جزيرة جاوى في فترة الاستعمار وتحليلها تحليلا شاملا الواقعة في
الهولندي. ومن المتوقع أن تساهم هذه الرسالة في فهم واستكشاف نمط
واتراتيجية إزالة كرامة الإسلام التي خلقها الحكومة الهولندية خلال الحقبة
الاستعمارية. وتستخدم طرق جمع البيانات في هذه الرسالة دراسة وثائق
ائل الصادرة من الحكومة الهولندية والكتب المصادر التارخية مثل الرس
والمجلات بالإضافة إلى بعض المواقع على شبكة الإنترنت. وسعيا وراء
إثراء البحث العلمي في هذه الرسالة, حاول كاتب هذه الرسالة القيام
بالوصف الشامل عن الثقافة الجاوية وإزالة كرامة الإسلام من الثقافة
لمجتمع الإسلامي الجاوي في المعارضة والتربية فضلا عن نهضة ا
السياسية للجهود الرامية إلى نزع القيم الإسلامية التي قام بها الحكومة
الهولندية.
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion; it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and
Civilization.
……………………………………..
Wan Suhana Wan Sulong
Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.
……………………………………..
Examiner
This dissertation was submitted to the Department of History and Civilization and is
accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human
Sciences in History and Civilization.
……………………………………..
Head, Department of History and
Civilization
This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.
……………………………………..
Rahmah Bt. Ahmad H. Osman
Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and Human
Sciences
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Febri Priyoyudanto
Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….
vi
COPYRIGHT
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
DE-ISLAMIZATION IN JAVA DURING THE DUTCH
COLONIAL PERIOD FROM 1800 TO 1942
I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the
student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2016 Febri Priyoyudanto and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights
reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder
except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print
or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM
Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Febri Priyoyudanto
……..…………………….. ………………………..
Signature Date
vii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents and my entire family
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise be to Allah (SWT) who gave me ability to finish this research. I would like to
deliver my deepest gratitude to my supervisor
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Abstract in Arabic ........................................................................................................ iii
Approval Page .............................................................................................................. iv Declaration ................................................................................................................... v Copyright ..................................................................................................................... vi Dedication .................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... viii
Glossary ....................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................ 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem............................................................................ 4 1.3 Objective of the Study ................................................................................ 6 1.4 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 6
1.5 Literature Review ....................................................................................... 7 1.6 Methods and Procedure .............................................................................. 30
1.7 Proposed Chapter Outline ........................................................................... 31
CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL SURVEY ON JAVA ............................................ 34 2.1 Demography and Ethnography ................................................................... 34
2.2 Javanese Language and Culture.................................................................. 35 2.2.1 Javanese Language ............................................................................ 35
2.2.2 Javanese Script .................................................................................. 36 2.2.3 Javanese Style of Speech .................................................................. 37 2.2.4 The Regional Diversity of Javanese Culture ..................................... 37
2.3 Javanese Rural Culture ............................................................................... 38 2.3.1 Javanese Peasant in Agriculture ........................................................ 41
2.3.2 Rural Administration and Association .............................................. 42 2.3.3 Rural Folk Art ................................................................................... 43
2.4 Javanese Urban Culture .............................................................................. 45
2.4.1 Priyayi ............................................................................................... 46 2.4.2 Priyayi Recreation and Javanese Urban Artistic Expression ............ 48
2.5 Javanese Symbolic System and Values ...................................................... 50
CHAPTER THREE: EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL DE-
ISLAMIZATION ....................................................................................................... 53 3.1 Educational De-Islamization in Java .......................................................... 53
3.1.1 The Education under Liberal Policy ................................................. 56
3.1.2 The Education under Policy of Ethical Politic .................................. 58 3.1.3 The Impact and Influence of Educational De-Islamization on
Indigenous Javanese Muslims .......................................................... 62
3.2 Cultural De-Islamization in Java ................................................................ 69 3.2.1 The Christianization of Javanese Culture ......................................... 72
3.3 The Revival of Agama Jawi (Kejawen) and the Birth of Abangan ............ 82 3.3.1 The History and Development of Agama Jawi ................................. 83
x
CHAPTER FOUR: POLITICAL DE-ISLAMIZATION IN JAVA..................... 91 4.1 The Destruction of the Javanese Sultanate and Political De-
Islamization in the 19th Century ................................................................. 91 4.2 Islamic Revivalism in Java as Reaction to De-Islamization ....................... 103
4.2.1 Sarekat Islam (1912) ......................................................................... 107 4.2.2 Muhammadiyah (1912) ..................................................................... 112 4.2.3 Jong Islamieten Bond (JIB, 1925)..................................................... 115
4.2.4 Nahdhatul Ulama (NU, 1926) ........................................................... 118 4.3 Political De-Islamization in Java by the 20th Century ................................ 123
4.3.1 Boedi Oetomo as a Balance of Power ............................................... 123 4.3.2 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah (SDIY) ................................................... 128
4.3.3 SI Putih and SI Merah ....................................................................... 131
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 137
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 141
xi
GLOSSARY
Abangan: The disobedient Muslims and were influenced by Hindu-
Buddhism.
Afdeling: A part of residency, the administrator was a residen assistance.
Bestuur: A colonial state.
Cultuur-stelsel: Cultivation system.
Devide et impera: Divide and rule
Keraton: Palace
Kiyai: Leader of Pesantren.
Kromo: High Javanese language.
Kweekschool: Teachers’ school.
Negarigung: Center of authority.
Ngoko: Low Javanese language.
Pangreh Praja: The indigenous administrative personnel.
Priayi: A respectable social class, class of civil servant.
Residen: A Dutchman district head of negarigung territory.
Rust en orde: Security and order.
Santri: A Pesantren’s student
Vergadering: A meeting or gathering.
Volksraad: Parliament.
Vorstenlanden: A sultanate’s territory.
Wargo Rumekso: A cadre.
Zelf-Bestuur: Self-Government.
Zending: Christian Missionaries.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Java is an island in Indonesia with a 2012 population of 136 million. The capital of
Indonesia is Jakarta. Java is the most densely populated island in the world, and is
inhabited by 60% of Indonesia's population. 90 percent of the Javanese people are
Muslims. The other 10 percent are non-Muslim, primarily Roman Catholic, Protestant,
or Kejawen (the traditional Javanese religion).
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Java was the center of a Hindu-Buddhist
kingdom, the Majapahit Empire. At that time, it was the greatest of the Hindu empires,
dominating most of the Nusantara Archipelago and several outlying areas.1 In the 15th
century, the Majapahit Empire collapsed, and Islam began to spread rapidly in Java.
During this period, the hegemony of Hindu-Buddhism in Java was replaced by Islam,
which was spread by the popular ulamas, Wali Songo (The Nine Waliyullah).2 Many
Javanese people converted to Islam, transitioning to monotheism (tauhid) and
equality, which they did not find in their old religion.
Several Islamic sultanates emerged in Java after the fall of the Majapahit
Empire (1293-1500), including the Demak (1478-1588), Pajang (1575-1582), and
Mataram (1588-1755). These powers facilitated the spread of Islam, both on Java and
beyond. Islam became a part of daily life for the Javanese people. Even though the
traditions and cultural heritages of Hindu-Buddhism, such as wayang kulit (shadow
1 M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200 (Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmilan, 2001), 21-2. 2 Ibid., 42-3.
2
play) and gamelan (traditional percussion instruments), were not forbidden3, Javanese
culture began to incorporate Islamic values. Small children began to recite the Qur'an
at the age of five or six years old. If one of them could not read the Qur'an, they would
be embarrassed to play with their peers.4 It is embarrassing for one of that age.
In 1511, the Portuguese destroyed the Sultanate of Malacca, beginning their
colonization of the Nusantara.5 Around 1595, the Dutch came to the Nusantara
archipelago for the first time, settling in Maluku (Moluccas)6. In 1619, they conquered
Batavia and established a trade headquarters of the Verenidge Oost-Indiche Company,
or VOC.7 Batavia became the center of operations for the VOC, and was used as a
base to conquer the rest of Nusantara. Eventually, Java and the outlying islands fell
under Dutch control.
The Dutch did not just conquer Indonesia. They also Christianized and de-
Islamized the Javanese people. By the 19th century, Christianization and de-
Islamization8 was strategically implemented in Java through education, culture, and
politics.
The main purpose of de-Islamization in Java was to maintain the hegemony
and domination of the Dutch in Java. Educational de-Islamization in Java was
implemented in the second half of the 19th century through the establishment of the
Dutch secular schools for the Javanese priyayi (bureaucrats) and wealthy families.
Javanese priyayi and wealthy families were chosen because they showed the attitude
3 Ibid., 61. 4 Arif Wibowo, “Islamisasi dan Deislamisasi Kebudayaan Jawa” Islamia Vol. VII No. 2, April 2th
2012, 31. 5 Ricklefs, 8. 6 Ibid., 30-1. 7 R. Moh. Ali, Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah Indonesia, (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2005), 194. 8 If we refer to the Cambridge Dictionary, the "de" in de-Islamization comes from the root, "de"
meaning "remove or reduce". Islamization means the process of a society’s conversion to the religion
of Islam. Thus, de-Islamization means the process of destroying Islamic values in society. It may refer
to culture (tradition), politics, or education.
3
of loyalty to the Dutch government, and also they found it easier to accept the process
of dutchification which was difficult for the santris (the Islamic Indonesians). The
Dutch implemented cultural de-Islamization by sending Christian missionaries
(zending). The Dutch government regulation article 119 in 1855 contained the Dutch
government tended supporting the Zendings. Almost all Dutch policy regarding the
Zendings was very beneficial to the Christians and destructive to Islam. The Dutch
government also legalized the activities of Netherland Missionaris Organization
(NZG, Nederlandsche Zendeling Genootschap) and Instituut voor de Javaansche Taal
(Javanese Language Institute). Both organizations aimed to rebuild, revive, restore,
and redefine a new Javanese cultural identity without any spirit of Islam.
Consequently, Javanese people became unfamiliar with their own culture.
Meanwhile, the political de-Islamization in Java was implemented by dividing
the Mataram Sultanate into the small sultanates (Surakarta-Mangkunegaran and
Yogyakarta-Pakualaman). The Dutch also enforced the Sultan to submit the procedure
of court system to the Dutch.9 The Dutch also applied cultuur-stelsel (1830-1919,
cultivation system). It was regulated in Staatsblad 1834 number 22. The result of
cultuur stelsel was famine, poverty, and economic downfall. Cultuur stelsel aimed to
undermine the Javanese Muslim economy. To fulfill the empty market, the Dutch
government authorized the Vreemde Oosterligen (Far-East people especially Chinese
in Java) to monopolize the market.10 Moreover, in the early 20th century, to counter
the Islamic Revivalism by emerging Islamic organizations in Java, the Dutch applied a
counter-balance strategy. To counterbalance movement of the Jamiat Kheir
organization, the Dutch used priyayi hands (indirect rule system) through Boedi
9 Ugrasena Pranidhana. Angger Pradata Akir: Peraturan Hukum di Kerajaan Jawa Sesudah Mataram,
Makara, Sosial Humaniora Vol.7 No.2 Desember 2003. 10 Ahmad Mansur Suryanegara, Api Sejarah: Mahakarya Ulama dan Santri dalam Menegakkan Negara
Kesatuan Republik Indonesia Vol. I. (Bandung: Salamadani, 2012), 361.
4
Oetomo organization (priyayi organization).11 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah (SDIY)
organization was deliberately established to counterbalance Sarekat Dagang Islam
(SDI) organization. In fact, in the case of Sarekat Islam (SI) organization, the Dutch
government had to undermine the power of the SI by cooperating with the communist
propagandist Sneevliet. With an “infiltration” strategy, SI could be divided into SI
putih (Muslim) and SI merah (communists).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The Dutch colonial period in Java, which lasted from 1800 to 1942, was marked by
intense de-Islamization. This study examines the Dutch implementation of de-
Islamization policies in Java in the mid-19th century. Also, it looks at the Javanese
reaction to these policies in the 20th century. Furthermore, it analyzes the long-term
impacts of the Dutch de-Islamization strategy on the people of Java after 1942.
This research focuses solely on de-Islamization in Java during the Dutch
colonial period. De-Islamization also took place in nearby regions, such as Sumatera,
Kalimantan, and East Indonesia. However, these areas are outside of the scope of this
study, and hence, will be excluded.
Dutch colonization in Nusantara began at the end of the 16th century, with the
arrival of the Verenidge Oost-Indiche Company. The VOC was the official Dutch
trading business in the area, but focused primarily on trade monopoly. They avoided
conflict with the local people over religious and cultural issues, which might endanger
their trade interests.
However, by the end of the 18th century, the VOC in Nusantara was bankrupt,
leaving behind a debt of 140 million gulden. At this time, the Dutch royal government
11 Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Sang Pemula, (Jakarta: Hasta Mitra, 1985), 108.
5
took over the VOC, along with its debt, property, and assets. 12 This formal takeover
of the Dutch East Indies began the 1800-1942 time period of de-Islamization in Java,
which will be the focus of this study. 13
The long-term impacts of the Dutch de-Islamization strategy on the people of
Java are secularization and Dutchification. The early generations of Dutch Indies
intellectuals had been intensely secularized as a result of the liberal and association
policies of the Dutch ethical regime. As a result of the secularization process, most of
these individuals began to separate themselves from the world of Islamic thought.
Even for obedient priyayi children, the influence of the systematic secularization
process of Western education was very difficult to avoid. The secularization effect
produced secular intellectuals in the Dutch Indies.
Meanwhile, the de-Islamization of Javanese culture efforts led to the reviving
agama Jawi (the traditional Javanese religion), the theology conflict between Javanese
putihan and Javanese abangan14 of their different religious styles, and a big deal
dichotomy between Islam and Javanese culture. In the case of political de-
Islamization, it not only undermined the Islamic organizations in Java, but, it led to
the emergence of conflict between Javanese putihan (Islamic santri) and Javanese
abangan (syncretic Muslim).
Among the Indonesian non-Javanese, the Javanese culture is popularly known
as an un-Islamic culture, syncretic, and Hinduistic. Hindu and Buddha are still
commonly viewed as a major variable in Javanese culture. In fact, Javanese culture is
12 A.B. Adam, The Vernacular Press and the Emergence of Modern Indonesian Consciousness (1855-
1913). (Itacha: Cornell University (SEAP), 1995), 4. 13 Ricklefs, 32. 14 The term abangan comes from the Javanese ngoko (low-level Javanese language) which means red.
This etymology comes from the folktale that abangan people were the followers of Sheikh Lemah
abangan (Sheikh Siti jenar) who was killed by Sunan Kalidjaga because of his doctrine Manunggaling
Kawula Gusti (wihdatul wujud). However, this claim cannot be proved, because as a wali, he would be
classified with the putihan (White Group). (M.C. Ricklefs, Polarising of Javanese Society: Islamic and
other Visions c. 1830-1930. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2007, 84).
6
considered as a social disorder problem, because it contains the occult and
superstition. However, Javanese syncretism with Hindu-Buddhist pattern is simply
exclusive of Javanese court (keraton) culture. It is not a common culture of the
Javanese society. This thesis intends to explore the process of Islamization and de-
Islamization of Javanese society and culture in the complete proportion.
The study attempts to answer the following questions:
1. How did the Dutch implement de-Islamization policies in Java during the
colonial period?
2. How did the Javanese people react against the Dutch de-Islamization
policies?
3. What were the impacts of the de-Islamization strategy on Javanese
People?
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This study will:
1. Examine Dutch de-Islamization efforts in Java during the Dutch Colonial
Period.
2. Explore the Javanese people's reactions and resistance to these de-
Islamization efforts.
3. Assess the long-term impacts of Dutch de-Islamization policies in Java.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
During the 14th and 15th centuries, the people of Java were primarily Islamic.
However, during the Dutch Colonial Period, many Javanese converted to Roman
7
Catholicism, Protestantism, or Kejawen. This study explains that Dutch de-
Islamization process and its effect on modern Java.
It is valuable for Muslims in Java to understand how Dutch colonial de-
Islamization policies affected Javanese society. The Dutch destroyed the Javanese
Sultanate by dividing it into smaller sultanates. But their de-Islamization efforts also
extended into Javanese education, social politics, and "culture acculturation". 15
Furthermore, the 20th century reappearance of the traditional Kejawen religion also
eroded the Islamic presence on Java.
Indonesian Muslims, living outside of Java, will also benefit from this study.
De-Islamization efforts are of concern to the Indonesian Islamic community - the
largest Muslim community in the world. This study helps modern Indonesian Muslims
understand their colonial history, and its lasting effects on their society, because the
study tries to elaborate Dutch’s de-Islamization efforts through secularizing education,
Christianizing Javanese culture, and undermining Islamic organizations with counter-
balance and infiltration strategy.
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
Many studies had been done on colonialism and de-Islamization. On one hand,
colonialism is often discussed in historical terms, as it relates to politics, economics,
sociology, and anthropology, and even classical literature. On the other hand,
literature on de-Islamization in Java is more dynamic. It also relates to Islam and its
future in Java.
15 Cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from
another culture.
8
In this thesis, discussion of the literature on colonialism and de-Islamization in
Java is divided into two parts. The first section, Orientalist Sources, discusses
Indonesia's colonial history in general, from an outside perspective. The second
section, Local Sources, provides specific information about the Javanese experience of
colonialism.
Karel A. Steenbrink (2006)'s Dutch Colonialism and Indonesian Islam,
Contacts and Conflicts 1596-195016 contains a general description of Dutch
colonialism in Indonesia. The book provides crucial data for this thesis, such as major
conflicts between Dutch colonists and Indonesian Muslims. But it doesn't only
describe battles between the Dutch and Indonesian Islam. This book also gives
detailed information about Dutch colonial efforts to de-Islamize the Indonesian
people, and especially the Javanese. Dutch Colonialism also explains the strategies of
Dutch colonial advisors, such as Christian S. Hurgronje (1857-1936), Karel Frederik
Holle (1829-1896), and Godard Arend Johannes Hazeu (1870-1929). In particular, it
discusses their policy to undermine Indonesian Islam through political, cultural, and
educational de-Islamization. In chapter 6, Steenbrink also discusses the efforts of
Indonesian Muslims to counter Dutch's Christianization and de-Islamization policies.
Unfortunately, Steenbrink does not focus enough on Java, specifically, in
Dutch Colonialism. His description of de-Islamization in Java only details social and
political issues. Educational and cultural de-Islamization programs in Java are not
discussed. Moreover, although Dutch Colonialism meticulously analyzes the history
and political implications of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia, however, it does not give
a careful analysis of the impact of colonialism on the local Indonesian culture and
16 Karel A. Steenbrink. Dutch Colonialism and Indonesian Islam, Contacts and Conflicts 1596-1950
(Amsterdam: Rodopi B.V., 2006).
9
religion. Steenbrink would do well to further explore the conflict between Islam and
Christianity in the Dutch Indies.
Karel A. Steenbrink (2007)'s, Catholics in Indonesia: 1808-194217 is separated
into two parts. The first provides a well-written and insightful historical analysis. The
second offers a selection of well-chosen documents that help the reader better
understand the minds of the missionaries. It contrasts their noble ideals with their not-
so-noble actions. The work Catholics in Indonesia focuses on the experiences of
European priests. But as this story of missionary endeavor unfolds, the reader is
provided with fascinating portraits of Indonesians - both those who converted to
Catholicism and those who resisted conversion. The interaction between local rulers in
eastern Indonesia and the 19th century Catholic priests is fascinating reading.
Steenbrink provides much insight into local rulers' reasons for converting, or for
rejecting conversion.
As in many missionary endeavors, most of the spectacular success stories
revolve around missionaries with large, charismatic personalities. In Chapter 10 of
Catholics in Indonesia, Steenbrink tries to explain the Christianization of Java and
various efforts by the missionaries to de-Islamize the Javanese people. In addition, he
also explains how Catholic leaders combined the Catholic religion and Javanese
Culture. This process resulted in the many varieties of religious practice among
Javanese Catholics. Nevertheless, he does not discuss in detail the role of Islam in the
development of local culture in Indonesia before the spread of Catholicism. He only
explores the conflict events and Islamic reaction to the spread of Catholicism in
Indonesia. There is only minimal information about educational and political de-
Islamization in Java.
17 Karel A. Steenbrink, Catholics in Indonesia: 1808-1942 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007).
10
Pesantren, Madrasah, Sekolah, Pendidikan Islam dalam Kurun Modern
(Pesantren, Madrasa, School, Islamic Education in Modern Period), also by
Steenbrink (1994),18is the result of his field research on the history of Islamic
education in Indonesia. This book describes the changes in form and content of
Islamic education. But modernization of Indonesian Islamic education did not come
smoothly. There was considerable disagreement among the leaders of this movement.
However, this book's primary focus is the development of pesantren in Indonesia,
rather than sekolah or madrasah. This is acknowledged by the author, who explains
that the people in the pesantren were more cooperative with his research than the
people in schools or madrassas.
Clifford Geertz was regarded as a qualified author about Indonesia in the
1950s. In Religion of Java (1960),19 Geertz tried to describe the Javanese people
through a social and anthropological approach. He divided Javanese Muslims into this
trichotomy; Abangans (an animistic, peasant element of the population), Priyayi
(syncretic Islam bureaucrats), Santri (the Islamic Indonesians).20
In Religion of Java, moreover, Geertz describes the culture and traditions that
refer to each group of this trichotomy. Not only that, he also exaggerates the amount
of conflict that occurred among these three groups such as the clash of culture. This
trichotomy theory has triggered a controversy among Javanese Muslim historians. But
nevertheless, the book does provide useful information about the Javanese culture,
which still exists until the present day, and this information is very useful for this
thesis. However, Religion of Java is controversial. Many Javanese reject Geertz's
18 Karel A. Steenbrink, Pesantren, Madrasah, Sekolah: Pendidikan Islam dalam Kurun Modern
(Jakarta: LP3ES, 1994) 19 Clifford Geertz, Religion of Java (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1960). 20 Ibid., 6.
11
trichotomy theory.21 They argue that Geertz oversimplified Javanese society, and that
his trichotomy is ambiguous and incorrect.
Mark Woodward (2011) discusses Islam from different angles in his Java,
Indonesia, and Islam.22 He rejects Geertz’s theory of "Islam Jawa" (Javanese Islam as
a syncretic phenomenon). Furthermore, he does not consider Islam Java a continuance
of the Hindu-Buddhist tradition. Woodward’s main thesis is a religious conception. In
Java, Indonesia, and Islam, he describes an Islamic transformation of Javanese culture
- before the rise of Javanese Islam. Islam penetrated very quickly and deeply into the
structure of Javanese culture.23 In this case, the Keraton (palace) has a major role in
formulating Javanese Islam. Woodward meticulously details how a poetic, creative
interpretation attracted many Javanese people to Islam.
Woodward uses an anthropological approach in this study. The theoretical
problems in this study include the religious texts, folk religion, social organization,
social discourse, and religiosity. However, although Woodward refused Geertz's views
about Islam syncretism in Java, Woodward did not reject Geertz's trichotomy of
Javanese society (santri, abangan, priyayi). Instead, he provided his own analysis of
the cultural content of the three groups. According to Woodward, Geertz’s analysis
lacked a meticulous study of Islamic traditional texts, particularly the Hadith.
Th. Van den End (2007)'s Sejarah Gereja di Indonesia 1500-1860 (History of
Church in Indonesia 1500-1860)24 is an objective discussion of the history of
Indonesian churches. The author describes the development of churches in Indonesia
21 There are several Indonesian books which try to criticize Geertz’s theory; Bambang Pranowo,
Memahami Islam Jawa (Tangerang: Pustaka Alfabet dan INSEF, 2009). Zaini Muchtarom, Islam di
Jawa dalam Perspektif Santri dan Abangan, (Jakarta: Salemba Diniyah, 2002). 22 Mark Woodward, Java Indonesia, and Islam (London: Springer, 2011). 23 Ibid., 4. 24 Th. Van den End, Ragi Cerita I: Sejarah Gereja di Indonesia 1500-1860an (Jakarta: BPK Gunung
Mulia, 2007).
12
from 1500 through 1860. He also provides a study of Christian theology. This book
provides primary source documents, such as correspondence of NZG (Nederlands
Zendeling Genotschaap) with the Dutch government in Indonesia and in the
Netherlands. Thus, this book can be used as a primary source in this thesis.
Sejarah Gereja also describes the Western church leaders who took an active
role in the process of Christianization in Indonesia under the Portuguese, the VOC,
and the Dutch. However, the book was written by a Dutch Protestant. He pays great
attention to the church's success in baptizing the indigenous people of Indonesia, and
the variety of zending (missionaries) organizations. In addition, he excludes some
parts of Indonesian history, such as the role of Islam in developing a civilization and
culture in Nusantara. Moreover, the book uses ambiguous historical periodization,25
which is typical of Dutch historians, when writing the history of Indonesia.
In Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia: The Umma below the Winds,26
Michael Francis Laffan (2003) argues that Indonesian nationalism rested on Islamic
ecumenism, and was heightened by colonial rule and the pilgrimage. The author also
discusses the relationship between Indonesian Muslims and the Middle East,
especially Hejaz and Egypt. In this book, Laffan uses the term Jawa for Indonesian
Muslims, a term also used by Arabs at that time to refer to Nusantaran Muslims.
Laffan concludes in Islamic Nationhood that Islamic Nationalism in Indonesia
was heavily influenced from the Middle East through the Hajj and the students. He
also added that Abduh and Rashid Rida’s thought had influenced many ulama of
25 In the book Merekonstruksikan Sejarah Indonesia (Reconstruction of Indonesian History), by Jean
Gelman Taylor, periodization of Indonesian History is easily divided into three parts by the Dutch
Historians; (1) Pre-colonial period, (2) Colonial Period, (3) Post-colonial period. The long period of
Hindu-Buddhism and Islam are only included in the pre-colonial period. 26 Michael Francis Laffan, Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia: The Umma below the Winds
(London: Routledge Curzon, 2003).
13
Nusantara, such as Sheikh Ahmad Khatib and Ahmad Dahlan.27 Islamic Nationhood
provides detailed information for this thesis about the development of Islamic
nationalism, and colonial influence in Indonesia. Laffan primarily discusses Middle
Eastern ties to Islamic nationalism in Indonesia. However, he does not explain in
detail the Islamic movement in Indonesia.
M.C. Ricklefs (2007)'s Polarizing Javanese Society: Islamic and other Vision
(c. 1830-1930)28 discusses the history of the Islamic Javanese society, and especially
its social problems, as derived from religion.29 This book is selective in distinguishing
between historical fact and legend. Javanese culture is crowded with stories and
legends. Ricklefs uses an historical critical approach in expressing his opinions. In
Polarizing, he primarily explores the religious cultural identity of the Javanese
society. When Java was fundamentally changed by colonial penetration, many
changes were made to Javanese culture.
Ricklefs prefer to use the term “The Javanese Mystical Synthesis”, which
conveys a neutral meaning. He avoids the term "Religion of Java", as Geertz did, or
the term "Javanism" that was often used by Dutch Christian missionaries.30 Ricklefs
also asserts that their Islamic identity is the most important element for the Javanese
people, for both the common people and the aristocratic class. Polarizing provides
important information for this thesis by describing the Javanese society socially and
culturally. However, the book does not give detailed explanations. It is rather difficult
for uncritical readers to understand. Moreover, this book emphasizes contextualization
in assessing historical events.
27 Ibid., 111-13. 28 M.C. Ricklefs, Polarizing Javanese Society: Islamic and other Vision (c. 1830-1930) (Singapore:
NUS Press, 2007). 29 Ibid., xv. 30 Ibid., 5-7.
