Definition of Political Violence and Terrorism

Miroslav Mareš

Summer School „International Security in the Modern World“ Masaryk university, Brno

2012Picture: Antifa Street Propaganda in Brno 2011, Miroslav Mares ©

Basic conceptualization of radicalism, exremism and terrorism (Bötticher, Mares 2011)

Not all radicals are extremists or terrorists.

All extremists are radical.

Are all terrorists extremist or radical?

Radicalism

Extremism

Terrorism

Definition of Radicalism Radix – in Latin meaning „root“ Oxford Advanced Learner´s Dictionary of Current English:

„belief in radical ideas and principles. Radical – concerning the most basic and important parts of something, thorough and complete; new, different and likely to have a great effect; in favour of thorough and complete political and social change“.

Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics (Iain McLean, Alistair McMillan): „Radical means pertaining to a root- and-branch reform. However, the etymology also leads to a famous satirical comparison between the French Radicals (radis in French) – red outside and white within“.

Traditional Radicalism (18- 19th centuries) Radical Philosophy: liberal critiques of politics and

society. Jeremy Bentham: each individual was the best judge of deciding what his happiness entailed, and government was obligated to allow individual routes to happiness.

Radical Parties: demands: favour of extending the franchise, popular participation in politics, civil liberties, and greater social welfare.

Contemporary Radicalism Radicalism stands in

opposition to main established political forces and it tries to change important attributes of the political system.

Radicalism can be (not necessary!) a base of violent or terrorist activities.

Pictures: Miroslav Mares ©

Radicalisation (or extremisation)? ESYM: „Radicalisation can be

seen as „the acceptance of the use ov violent or undemocratic means to reach specific goals“

„Radicalisation seems best understood not as the collection of particular positions or opinions on matters, but rather as a social process, dependent on individuals and the specific background situations of all involved“

Picture: Miroslav Mares ©

Extremism and radicalism Sometimes the term extremism

is used as a synonym to the term radicalism.

Theory of Extremism: Extremism is against constitutional democratic state, radicalism criticizes the established forces, but it finds itself at the end of democratic continuum. Extremism wants dictatorship, while radicalism wants democracy.

Radicalism has often a positive image in public, extremism mostly negative image in the public.

Pictures: Miroslav Mares ©

Possible concepts of political extremism

Extraordinary, excessive and intolerant political opinion, belief or activity;

Anti-systemic political activity; Violent political activity; Activity aimed against the democratic

constitutional state Activity aimed against fundamental

democratic core.

Forms of political extremism

Right-wing extremism

Rejection of the value of human equality and institutionalization of non-equality.

Left-wing extremism Total equality against individual freedom, utopian perception of human beings

Religious extremism Sovereignty of religion against democratic and humanistic principles

Ethnic and/or regionalist extremism

Sovereignty of marginalized ethnic nation/region against democratic and humanistic principles

Eco-extremism Subjective interests of nature (or its significant parts) against democratic interests of mankind.

Forms of radicalism/extremism Individuals Subcultures Social Movements Legal interest groups Political parties Militant groups Regimes International organizations

Pictures: Miroslav Mares ©

Causes of radicalism Non-represented

interests Insolvable conflicts Fundamental

cleavages „Anomies“ in society Radical historical

traditions and political culture

Pictures: Miroslav Mares ©

Forms of the threat of extremism (Backes; Jesse 2005)

Elections Organization Ideology Political Actionism

(legality – militancy) Extremist Attitudes Infiltration Pictures: Miroslav Mares ©

Contextual conditions of extremism (Backes, Jesse 2005) Political Culture Anti-Extremism Instruments of

defense Institutional

weaknesses External Security

Methods of radicalism/extremism Non-violent methods:-non-violent demonstrations-strikes-blockades-boycotts -civic disobedience

Violent methods:- violent demonstrations- violent insurgency- terrorism- guerilla- violent coup d´ Etat -violent revolution;-War etc.

Definition of violence (World Health

Organisation 2002): „The intentional use of physical force, threatened or actual, against oneself, antother person, or against a group or community, that either results or has a hight resulting of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maidevelopment or deprivation“

Forms of political violence (Galtung 1969: 173, including graphic)

Basic problems with definition of terrorism „One man's terrorist is another man's

freedom fighter“ Miltary objectives/peace-war State/nonstate/repression Crime? Only group-phenomenon or also individual

perpetrators? Only political motivation?

Core features of terrorism by A. P. Schmid (2011)1. The demonstrative use of violence against human beings;2. The (conditional) threat of more (violence);3. The deliberate production of terror or fear in a target group;4. The targeting civilians, non-combatants an innocents;5. The purpose of intimidation, coercion and/or propaganda;6. The fact that it is a method, tactic or strategy of waging conflict;7. The importance of communicating the act(s) of violence to larger

audiences;8. The illegal, criminal and immoral nature of the act(s) of violence;9. The predominantly political character of the act;10. It use as a tool of psychological warfare to mobilize or immobilize

sectors of the public (Schmid 2011: 74)

Definition of terrorism by countries and international organisations (Schmid 2011: 75)

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Definition of terrorism by academics (Schmid 2011: 76)

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UN SC Definition of Terrorism UN Security council resolution 1566

(2004): „…criminal acts, including against

civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism“.

Terrorist Offence in EU Law (Council Framework Decision 2002/475) I. Each Member State shall take the necessary measures to

ensure that the intentional acts referred to below in points (a) to (i), as defined as offences under national law, which, given their nature or context, may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of :

seriously intimidating a population, or unduly compelling a Government or international organisation

to perform or abstain from performing any act, or seriously destabilising or destroying the fundamental political,

constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or an international organisation, shall be deemed to be terrorist offences:

Terrorist Offence in EU Law (Council Framework Decision 2002/475) II.(a) attacks upon a person’s life which may cause death;(b) attacks upon the physical integrity of a person;(c) kidnapping or hostage taking;(d) causing extensive destruction to a Government or public

facility, a transport system, an infrastructure facility, including an information system, a fixed platform located on the continental shelf, a public place or private property likely to endanger human life or result in major economic loss;

(e) seizure of aircraft, ships or other means of public or goods transport;

Terrorist Offence in EU Law (Council Framework Decision 2002/475) III.(f) manufacture, possession, acquisition, transport, supply or

use of weapons, explosives or of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons, as well as research into, and developmentof, biological and chemical weapons;

(g) release of dangerous substances, or causing fires, floods or explosions the effect of which is to endanger human life;

(h) interfering with or disrupting the supply of water, power or any other fundamental natural resource the effectof which is to endanger human life;

(i) threatening to commit any of the acts listed in (a) to (h).

European Survey of Youth Mobilisation (ESYM): An Introduction

(http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/intrel/projects/esym/)

The aim of this project was to examine the similarities and differences in patterns of youth mobilization, recruitment and action across various European extra-parliamentary and extra-liberal movements. 

Through collaborations with local researchers the ESYM were compared structured interviews with young people in each of the participating countries with interviews conducted with the British Council identified Intercultural Navigators, and with roundtable discussions with leading regional academics and researchers exploring similar phenomena.

The project was commisioned by the British Council Active Citizens Programme, Principal Investigator was Jeffrey Murer from Schools of International Relations & Psychology, University of St Andrews;

Masaryk University was one of Nordic & Central European Research Collaborators  (contact person Miroslav Mares)

European Survey of Youth Mobilisation (ESYM): Major Areas of Study(http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/intrel/projects/esym/)

What were the reasons that individuals decided that abusive violence against detainees was necessary?

How were specific methods of abuse developed, learned, shared and selected for use against detainees?

How do individuals, no longer operating within the combat and other contexts in which the abuse occurred, now make sense of the abuse they observed or participated in?

What do the ESYM results suggest? (ESYM 2011: 25) I. „It is useful to make a distinction between radicalism and violence,

and between illegal activities and potentially violent ones. Many activists are willing to consider some unlawful activities but this does not mean their intention is violent.

It is important not just to look at individual incidents of violence but the larger social context in which violence takes place.

Young people will seek out means to address a sense of social isolation. To whom they turn and to whom they listen largely rests on who takes young people seriously. Ignoring young people, or treating them as nuisances will have profound long-term effects on their attachment to their local communities. Conversely if young people are engaged and valued, on their own terms and not merely requiring the exclusive reproduction of mainstream norms, they will work to build a better neighbourhood, and contribute to strengthening the local social fabric.

What do the ESYM results suggest? (ESYM 2011: 25) II. We are reminded that voters and communities look to see if they are

represented in public institutions and if the institutions are working on their behalf. Once satisfied of this there is likely to be engagement in mainstream activities. Disregarding young people’s social and political desires is, however, a sure way to create frustration and alienation, permitting an increase in violence.

Young people who adopt radical positions can be agents for positive change. They are the people with talents, commitment and credibility in their community. Forming new partnerships with them, based on trust and respect can increase the success of mainstream initiatives.

It is well worth engaging young people through the type of interdisciplinary cooperation experienced in the ESYM project. The combination of academics, with those from government, those with community connections, and those with personal experience in groups all help to better facilitate relationships in communities, direct dialogue and increased understanding.

What do the ESYM results suggest? (ESYM 2011: 25) III. Every neighbourhood has its own needs, and there is no single solution to

all social problems. Rather than “continually reinventing the wheel” cooperation and communication across Europe, relating successful programmes and approaches that contribute to the amelioration of social exclusion and violence can help initiate such programmes elsewhere sooner. In times of austerity and deep cuts, piloting programmes that have been tried elsewhere, can avoid the problems and stumbling blocks experienced in earlier initiatives, making the most of scarce resources, while also making the greatest impact on young people’s lives.

Often social intervention programmes to reduce violence focus solely on male participation. Yet if, as ESYM found, the women that young men encounter similarly advocate violence, or define their expectations of masculinity in general, or more importantly, of group identity in particular as being associated with violence, then social intervention programmes must address and engage both young men and young women“.

Literature Backes, U., Jesse, E. (2005): Vergleichende Extremismusforschung. Baden Baden: Nomos Verlag. Bötticher Astrid - Mareš, Miroslav (2012): Extremismus. Theorien – Konzepte – Formen. München Oldenbourg

Verlag. British Council and St. Andrews University (2011): The European Study of Youth Mobilisation

Report. St. Andrews: British Council. European Union: Council of the European Union, Council Framework Decision 2002/475 on Combating

Terrorism , 13 June 2002, 2002/475/JHA, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f5342994.html [accessed 16 July 2012]

Galtung, Johan (1969): Violence, Peace and Peace Research. Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 6., No. 3, pp. 167-191.

Mareš, M. (2003): Pravicový extremismus a radikalismus v ČR. Brno: Centrum strategických studií. Mareš, M. (2005): Terorismus v ČR. Brno: Centrum strategických studií. NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions – AAP-6 (2007),

http://www.nato.int/docu/stanag/aap006/aap6.htm Mc Lean, I., Mc Millan, A. (ed.) (2003): Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Schmid, A. P. (2011): The Definition of Terrorism. In Schmid, Alex P. (ed.): The Routledge Handbook

of Terrorism Research. London, New York: Routledge, pp. 39-98. UN Security Council Resolution 1566 (2004),

http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/542/82/PDF/N0454282.pdf?OpenElement Wehmeier, S. (ed.): Oxford Advanced Learner´s Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. World Health Organisation (2002(: World report on violence and health. WHO: Geneva 2002.