Desain Kerja

Chapter 23

Mata kuliah : J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi EntrepreneurialDosen Pembuat : D3122 - Rudy AryantoTahun : 2009

Learning Objectives– Define job design– Discuss how job design can help improve work-family

balance– Describe alternative job design approaches that

organizations use to improve job performance– Discuss the various factors and relationships

that link job design and job performance– Compare job enrichment and job enlargement design

strategies– Identify specific individual differences that account for

different perceptions of job content

Allowing for Work/Life Balance

• U.S. companies are experimenting with work design and benefits – Encouraging employees to balance

their work and personal lives

Job Design• Jobs are the building blocks of all organization

structures

• Job design– The process by which managers

decide individual jobs and authority– A major cause of effective job performance

Job Redesign

• The process by which managers reconsider– What employees are

expected to do– How they are expected

to do it

• This is a dynamic, ongoing process

Job Design• Issues associated with job design and Quality of

Work Life– Economic– Political– Monetary– Social– Psychological– Physical

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL• Quality of work life is a philosophy

of management that– Enhances the dignity of all workers– Changes an organization’s culture– Improves the physical and emotional

well-being of employees

• It is based on– Human relations movement of the 1950s– Job enrichment efforts of the 60s and 70s

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL• Indicators of quality of work life include

– Accident rates– Sick leave usage– Employee turnover– Number of grievances filed

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL• Not yet known are trade-offs between

– Gains in human terms– Improved production, quality, and efficiency through

revitalization

• Conflicting beliefs– Delay QWL efforts in order to make the U.S. economy

more competitive– Competition presents opportunities to combine QWL

with reindustrialization

Job Design

• Attempts to…– Identify the most important needs of employees and

the organization– Remove obstacles in the workplace that frustrate

those needs

Work/Family Balance & Job Design

• Organizations are:– Directing more attention and resources toward helping

employees balance work and family demands– Accommodating diverse employee needs by offering

flexible work arrangements

Work/Family Balance & Job Design• Benefits to companies that offer flexible work

programs– Higher recruitment and retention rates– Improved morale– Lower absenteeism and tardiness– Higher levels of employee productivity

Work/Family Balance & Job Design• Driving this work/life tension

– More women and single parents in workforce– Increase in dual-career couples– Aging population

• Flexible work arrangements– Job sharing– Flextime– Telecommuting

Important Concepts of Job Design

Technological Factors

Social setting differences

Task factors Job analysis Job designJob performance

Perceived job content

Human Factors

Individual differences

Conceptual Model of Job Design and Job Performance

Job Performance Outcomes• Objective outcomes can be measured in

quantitative terms– Quantity– Quality– Absenteeism– Tardiness– Turnover

• For each job, implicit or explicit standards exist

Job Performance Outcomes• Personal behavior outcomes are the ways one

reacts to the work itself– Attending work regularly or being absent– Staying with the job or quitting– Physiological and/or health-related problems– Physical or mental impairment– Accidents or occupation-related disease

Job Performance Outcomes• Intrinsic outcomes

– The objects or events that follow from the workers’ own effort

• Extrinsic outcomes– The objects or events that follow the workers’ efforts in

conjunction with other factors or persons not directly involved in the job

• Job satisfaction depends on – Levels of intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes– How the job-holder views those outcomes

Job Analysis• The purpose of job analysis

– To provide an objective description of the job itself

• Job analysis gathers and identifies information about job…– Content– Requirements– Context

Functional Job Analysis has produced the most extensive list of occupational titles available today

Job Analysis: Job Content• Job Content refers to the activities required of the job• Functional job analysis (FJA) describes job content in

terms of...1.What the worker does in relation to data, people, and

jobs2.What methods and techniques the worker uses3.What machines, tools, and equipment the worker uses4.What materials, products, subject matter, or services the

worker produces

Job Analysis: Job Requirements• Job requirements

– The education, experience, licenses, and other personal characteristics an individual needs to perform the job

• Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)– Takes into account human characteristics, as well as

task and technological factors, of jobs and job classes

Job Analysis: Job Requirements• The PAQ identifies and analyzes these job aspects

– Information sources critical to job performance– Information processing– Decision making– Physical activity and dexterity– Interpersonal relationships– Reactions to working conditions

Job Analysis: Job Context• Job context

– Describes the environment within which the job is to be performed

• It refers to such factors as – Physical demands and working conditions of the job– Degree of accountability and responsibility– Extent of supervision required or exercised– Consequences of error

Job Analysis: Different Settings• Jobs in the Factory

– Analyzed using Scientific management

• F. W. Taylor’s principles– Replace rule-of-thumb with scientific methods– Scientifically select, train, and develop workmen– Heartily cooperative with the workers– Divide work equally between management and

workmen

Job Analysis: Different Settings• Jobs in the Office

– Fastest growing segment is secretarial, clerical, and information workers

– Due to technological breakthroughs– Human factors must be given special attention– Tendency to overemphasize technological aspects

The Results of Job Analysis

• Job designs specify three characteristics of jobs– Range– Depth– Relationships

The Results of Job Analysis• Job range

– The number of tasks a person is expected to perform– The more tasks required, the greater the job range

• Job depth– Degree of influence or discretion that an individual has

to choose job activities and job outcomes

Job Depth and Range

High

Low

Low HighJob Range

Job

dep

th

• College professors• Hospital anesthesiologists• Business packaging machine mechanics

• College instructors• Hospital bookkeepers• Business assembly-line workers

• College presidents• Hospital chiefs of surgery• Business research scientists

• College dept. chairpersons• Hospital nurses• Business maintenance repair workers

The Results of Job Analysis• Job Relationships

– Determined by managers’ decisions regarding departmentalization bases and spans of control

– The wider the span of control, the larger the group– The larger the group, the harder it is to establish

friendship and interest relationships

Departmentalization• The basis for departmentalization impacts job

relationships– Functional basis places jobs with similar depth and

range in the same groups– Product, territory, and customer bases place jobs with

dissimilar depth and range in the same group

Perceived Job Content• Specific job activities and general job

characteristics, as perceived by individuals performing the job– Two people doing the same job may have the same or

different perceptions of job content

• To increase job performance by changing perceived job content, change…– Job design– Individual perceptions– Social settings

Perceived Job ContentVariety

Autonomy

Task Identity

Feedback

Dealing with Others

Friendship Opportunities

Individual Differences• Perception of task variety is affected by individual

differences in need strength– Employees with weak higher order needs are less

concerned with performing a variety of tasks than are employees with strong growth needs

– Even individuals with strong growth needs cannot respond continuously to the opportunity to perform more and more tasks

– Performance will turn down as individuals reach the limits imposed by their abilities and time

Social Setting Differences• Social settings affect perceptions of

job content– Leadership style– What others say about the job

• Perception about job content results from the interaction of many factors in the work situation

Job Rotation and Enlargement• Job Rotation

– Moving managers/non-managers from one job to another

– The individual completes more job activities because each job includes different tasks

– Involves increasing the range of jobs and the perception of variety in job content

Job Rotation and Enlargement

• Job Enlargement– Increases the number of tasks for which an

individual is responsible– Increases job range, but not depth

Job Enrichment• Job enrichment

– Increasing the discretion individuals can use to select activities and outcomes

– Increases job depth and fulfills growth and autonomy needs

• Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation– The impetus for designing job depth

Job Enrichment• Provide employees with greater opportunities to

exercise discretion through…– Direct feedback– New learning– Scheduling– Uniqueness– Control over resources– Personal accountability

Job Characteristics Model

Skill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance

Skill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance

AutonomyAutonomy

FeedbackFeedback

ExperiencedMeaningfulnessof Work

ExperiencedResponsibility forOutcomes of Work

Knowledge ofActual Results ofWork Activities

•High internal work motivation•High-quality work performance•High satisfactionwith work•Low absenteeismand turnover

•High internal work motivation•High-quality work performance•High satisfactionwith work•Low absenteeismand turnover

Job Characteristics

Personal & WorkOutcomes

Employee’s GrowthNeed StrengthEmployee’s GrowthNeed Strength

CriticalPsychological States

Increasing Core Dimensions of Jobs• To increase core dimensions

– Combine task elements– Assign whole pieces of work– Allow discretion in selection of work methods– Permit self-paced control– Open feedback channels

• These actions increase task variety, identity, and significance

Job Design Problems• Potential job design problems

– Time-consuming and costly

– Unless lower-level needs are satisfied, people will not respond to opportunities to satisfy upper-level needs

– Job redesign may raise employees’ expectations beyond what is possible

– Change may be resisted by labor unions

– May not produce tangible improvements for some time after the effort begins

Teams and Job Design• The use of work teams has become common in

organizations– Work teams don’t always achieve high levels of

productivity, cooperation, success

• Researchers claim that good work team job design can lead to…– Higher levels of team productivity– Employee satisfaction– Effectiveness

Teams and Job Design• Key team characteristics to address

– Self-management– Participation– Task variety– Task significance– Task identity

TQM and Job Design

• Total quality management combines technical and human knowledge– Jobs designed with TQM in mind empower

individuals to make important decisions about product and service quality

Sociotechnical Theory• Focuses on interactions between

– Technical demands of the job– Social demands of the job holder

• Compatible with TQM theory– Relates to demands of modern technology and self-

motivated job behavior– In today’s global environment, sociotechnical system

design has been incorporated in the TQM approach