DESIGN AND CHARACTERISATION OF WIDEBAND ANTENNAS...

DESIGN AND CHARACTERISATION OF WIDEBAND ANTENNAS FOR

MICROWAVE IMAGING APPLICATIONS

ROSHAYATI YAHYA @ ATAN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Electrical Engineering)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

NOVEMBER 2016

iii

Specially dedicated to my children Nuralya Raihanah and Alif Raihan,

my husband Mohd Fariz, my mother Aminah Abdullah, my dearest siblings,

and in the memories of my father, Yahya @ Atan bin Mohamed

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I would like to thank Allah, who has blessed me towards the

completion of my thesis. I would like to thank my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Muhammad Ramlee bin Kamarudin, and my co-supervisor Dr. Norhudah binti Seman,

for their invaluable role, guidance, continuous motivations and courage throughout my

study's journey. I would like to thank Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

for sponsoring my study.

I would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge technicians, Mr.

Mohamed Abu Bakar, Mr. Norhafizul Ismail, and Mr. Sharul Shaari for their technical

assistance. Thank you also for WCC staffs for their support and courage. Also, I am

grateful to have supportive friends, Nur Shazwani Mohd Noor, Alyaa Syaza Azini, Siti

Fairuz Roslan, Siti Nurhafizah Saadon, Khairul Huda Yusuf, and Wizatul Izyan Wahid,

Noor Farha Ngabas, Nurhafizah Mohd Hanafi, and Vickneswary Jayapal.

My greatest gratitude to my family especially to my mother Aminah Abdullah,

my late father Yahya @ Atan bin Mohamed, my dearest siblings Rosli, Rosnawati,

Rosman, Rosniwati, and Rosmizan, and my husband Mohd Fariz for their support and

understanding that kept me going all the way through my PhD's study. I'm highly

indebted to them.

Lastly, thanks to all my friends and people who have helped and supported me

in different ways. Their contributions are greatly appreciated.

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ABSTRACT

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) are well

known equipments used to generate images to aid in diagnostic procedure. However,

the imaging equipments have some limitations whereby the equipments are very

expensive and therefore, they are not always accessible in many medical centres.

Besides, the equipments are bulky and less mobility. Moreover, existing CT cannot be

used frequently on the human body because the scanner exposes patients to more

radiations of ionised frequency. The limitations of the equipment create a need to

design an alternative imaging method which is relatively low cost, small in size, has

high mobility, and non-ionise frequency. This research is to design an antenna for

microwave imaging, namely corrugated u-slot antenna at 1.17-5.13 GHz with the

reference of S11 less than -10 dB. Two corrugated u-slot antennas; namely antenna 1

and antenna 2 are placed on a mirror side of skull phantom to examine their ability to

detect an object inside the skull. VeroClear-RGD810 skull phantom containing water is

used, and the obtained results are verified using ZCorp zp-150 skull phantom which has

approximately similar permittivity. Both the antennas are tested to detect the object

which is located at 40 mm and 80 mm from the respective examined antenna. An

Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) technique is used to analyse the time domain

reflection pulse according to the dielectric properties difference, as the electromagnetic

wave propagates through the skull. The results show that the antenna 1 is able to detect

the object faster than the antenna 2 for both skulls, due to inconsistent thickness of the

phantoms. Furthermore, the antennas are fabricated in adjacent to measure

decomposition and superposition specific absorption rate (SAR) in Specific

Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) head phantom at 1800 MHz and 2600 MHz. The

maximum allowable SAR in head is 2 W/kg at 10 g contiguous tissue which is referred

to International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)

guideline. Based on the measured results, superposition SAR of the antenna can reach

up to ±12% of the maximum decomposition SAR. This research forms a significant

contribution to medical engineering field in designing a corrugated u-slot antenna that

serves to detect an abnormality inside human head at 1.17-5.13 GHz. The designed

antenna satisfies the SAR standard, which is required in microwave imaging

applications.

vi

ABSTRAK

Pengimejan Salunan Magnet (MRI) dan Tomografi Berkomputer (CT)

merupakan peralatan terkenal yang digunakan untuk menjana imej bagi membantu

dalam tatacara diagnosis. Walau bagaimanapun, peralatan pengimejan tersebut

mempunyai beberapa kekurangan yang mana peralatan tersebut adalah sangat mahal

dan justeru, ia tidak selalu dapat diakses di kebanyakan pusat perubatan. Selain itu,

peralatan tersebut adalah besar dan kurang kemudahgerakan. Tambahan pula, CT yang

sedia ada tidak boleh digunakan secara kerap kepada tubuh badan manusia kerana

imbasan mendedahkan pesakit kepada lebih banyak radiasi daripada frekuensi terion.

Had peralatan ini mewujudkan keperluan untuk merekabentuk satu kaedah pengimejan

alternatif dengan kos yang agak rendah, bersaiz kecil, kebolehgerakan yang tinggi, dan

frekuensi yang tak-terion. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk merekabentuk antena bagi

pengimejan gelombang mikro, iaitu antena alur-u beralun pada 1.17-5.13 GHz dengan

rujukan S11 kurang daripada -10 dB. Dua antena alur-u beralun; iaitu antena 1 dan

antena 2 diletakkan secara bertentangan di sisi fantom untuk memeriksa keupayaan

mereka bagi mengesan objek dalam tengkorak. Fantom tengkorak VeroClear-RGD810

yang mengandungi air digunakan, dan keputusan yang diperoleh disahkan

menggunakan fantom tengkorak ZCorp zp-150 yang mempunyai kebertelusan yang

hampir sama. Kedua-dua antena diuji bagi mengesan objek yang terletak pada 40 mm

dan 80 mm dari antena yang diperiksa. Teknik Jelmaan Fourier Pantas Songsang

(IFFT) digunakan untuk menganalisis denyut pantulan domain masa berdasarkan

perbezaan sifat dielektrik, apabila gelombang elektromagnet merambat melalui

tengkorak. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa antena 1 dapat mengesan objek lebih cepat

daripada antena 2 bagi kedua-dua tengkorak, disebabkan ketebalan fantom yang tidak

konsisten. Kemudian, antena-antena ini difabrikasi bersebelahan bagi mengukur kadar

penyerapan tertentu (SAR) uraian dan tindihan dalam fantom kepala Patung

Antropomorfik Khusus (SAM) pada 1800 MHz dan 2600 MHz. SAR maksimum yang

dibenarkan dalam kepala adalah 2 W/kg pada 10 g tisu berdampingan dirujuk

berdasarkan garis panduan Suruhanjaya Antarabangsa Perlindungan Sinaran Tak-

Mengion (ICNIRP). Berdasarkan keputusan yang diukur, SAR tindihan bagi antena

boleh mencapai sehingga ±12% daripada SAR uraian maksimum. Kajian ini

membentuk satu sumbangan yang bermakna terhadap bidang kejuruteraan perubatan

dalam merekabentuk antena alur-u beralun yang berfungsi untuk mengesan

keabnormalan dalam kepala manusia pada 1.17-5.13 GHz. Antena yang direkabentuk

memenuhi piawai SAR, yang diperlukan dalam aplikasi pengimejan gelombang mikro.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi

LIST OF APPENDICES xxii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement and Motivation 3

1.3 Objectives of the Research 4

1.4 Scope of the Research 4

1.5 Contribution to the Knowledge 5

1.6 Thesis Outline 6

2 RESEARCH BACKGROUND 8

2.1 Introduction 8

2.2 Microwave Imaging 9

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2.2.1 Radar-Based Microwave Imaging 9

2.2.2 Detection Concept 11

2.3 Human Head 14

2.3.1 Dielectric Properties of Human Head 14

2.3.2 Human Head Phantom 15

2.4 Microwave Imaging Antennas for Tumour

Detection 18

2.4.1 Review on Flexible Antenna Design 32

2.5 The Detection of Buried Object 37

2.6 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) 42

2.6.1 Standard SAR limit 43

2.6.2 Review on SAR 44

2.7 Summary 50

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 52

3.1 Introduction 52

3.2 Research Methodology 53

3.3 Antennas Design Specifications 59

3.4 Substrate and Radiating Elements 60

3.5 Simulation and Programming Tools 62

3.5.1 Simulation Tools 62

3.5.2 Programming Tool 64

3.6 Fabrication Process 64

3.7 Dielectric Measurement 68

3.8 Reflection Coefficient Magnitude Measurement 70

3.9 Radiation Pattern and Gain Measurement 71

3.10 Simulation and Measurement Setup for Buried

Object Detection 73

3.11 Simulation and Measurement Setup for SAR

Investigation 80

3.12 Summary 88

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4 DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILE MICROWAVE

IMAGING ANTENNAS AND VARIOUS

PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATIONS 90

4.1 Introduction 90

4.2 Antenna Designs and Development 91

4.2.1 Koch-slotted Antenna 91

4.2.2 Corrugated U-slot Antenna 103

4.3 Investigation on the Bending Effect to the

Performance of Antenna 115

4.4 Investigation on the Influenced of Water to the

Performance of Antennas 125

4.5 Comparison with Other Antenna Designs 127

4.6 Summary 128

5 THE DETECTION OF A BURIED OBJECT INSIDE

THE LOSSY MEDIUM 129

5.1 Introduction 129

5.2 Formulation on Elapsed Time Taken for Detecting

Object 130

5.3 The Detection of Folded Aluminium Foil in Oil

Filled Container 132

5.4 The Detection of an Object Inside the Skull

Phantom 135

5.4.1 Results and Discussions on the Object

Detection inside Veroclear Skull Phantom 138

5.4.2 Results and Discussions on the Object

Detection inside Zp-150 Skull Phantom 143

5.5 Summary 149

6 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIFIC ABSORPTION

RATE (SAR) IN HUMAN HEAD 151

6.1 Introduction 151

6.2 Simulated SAR in Voxel Head Phantom 152

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6.3 Measured SAR Distribution in SAM Head

Phantom Using Decomposition Method 155

6.4 SAR Distribution in SAM Head Phantom Using

Superposition Method 161

6.5 Comparison to Other Research 169

6.6 Summary 171

7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS 174

7.1 Conclusion 174

7.2 Future Works 175

REFERENCES 178

Appendices A-E 196-206

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Dielectric properties of tissues in human head at 3.5 GHz

based on [31] 15

2.2 Summary on the MI antennas for tumour detection 27

2.3 Summary on flexible antenna 35

2.4 SAR reference standards and limits [101] 43

2.5 Summary on SAR 48

3.1 Antenna design specifications 60

3.2 Substrate and radiating element technical specifications 61

4.1 Antenna design of koch-slotted antenna 92

4.2 Antenna parameters and optimized dimensions 97

4.3 Numerical and experimental gain and efficiency of koch-

slotted antenna 102

4.4 Parameters and optimized dimensions of slotted antenna 105

4.5 The dimensions of the corrugation in Figure 4.10 108

4.6 The simulated and measured bending effect on antenna

main lobe 125

4.7 Comparison of the proposed antenna to other antennas 127

5.1 εr of medium at 3.5 GHz 131

5.2 The simulation, measurement, and calculation results of

the detection folded aluminium foil inside an oil filled

container 135

5.3 Detail dimension of skull phantom 137

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5.4 Travelling time taken from transmitters to the object

(veroclear)

143

5.5 Travelling time taken from transmitters to the object (zp-

150) 148

6.1 Measured SAR in SAM head model at 1800 MHz 157

6.2 Measured SAR in SAM head model at 2600 MHz 159

6.3 The simulated and measured gain of the multi-antenna 164

6.4 Average superposition SAR level at 1800 and 2600 MHz 167

6.5

Comparison of this research work to others on SAR level

in human head phantom 169

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 The radar-based concept of MI 10

2.2 General view of microwave imaging system [15] 11

2.3 Plane wave reflection from an arbitrary medium [16] 12

2.4 Fourier transforms pair [17] 13

2.5 Human head layers cross sectional view [26] 14

2.6 Computer aided design of the human head phantom [36] 16

2.7 Four-shell domain of human head structure [37] 17

2.8 The tissue mimicking head phantom [38] 17

2.9 An array antenna that built up in helmet shape [46] 18

2.10 Compact antenna for microwave imaging and

hyperthermia treatment of brain tumour [49] 19

2.11 Multi-band slot-loaded patch antenna [50] 20

2.12 Three dimensional folded wideband antenna [55] 20

2.13 Miniaturized tapered slot antenna [59] 21

2.14 Configurations of MI system and the S11 for brain tumour

detection [60] 22

2.15 Metal plate of ground plane antenna [65] 22

2.16 Prototype and schematic of the stacked patch antenna

[66] 23

2.17 An arrangement of the antenna with differential feeding

network [69] 24

2.18 Tapered slot antenna geometry [72] 24

2.19 The geometry of the elliptical antenna [74] 25

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2.20 Prototype of the BAVA and BAVA-D antennas [76] 26

2.21 Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET) polymer antenna [78] 33

2.22 Rectangular patch antenna [80] 34

2.23 Monopole zip antenna [81] 34

2.24 UWB textile antenna prototype [82] 35

2.25 The results of image reconstruction based electrical

properties of the breast tissue using (a) FDTD method and

the Gauss-Newton algorithm and (b) Method of moment

and the Simplex algorithm [95] 38

2.26 Experimental setup of microwave imaging system [96] 39

2.27 An UWB antenna illuminating a container of vegetable

oil consisting 6 mm diameter plastic straw with water

[97] 40

2.28 Configuration of the experimental setup [98] 40

2.29 Measured reflection coefficient of single probe antenna

[98] 41

2.30 Effect of removing the copper target [98] 42

2.31 System setup for multi-antenna SAR investigation [108] 45

2.32 Co-located and separated antenna configurations [109] 46

2.33 SAR of antenna measurement with Dasy-4 system [113] 47

3.1 General research work methodologies 54

3.2 Flow chart of antenna design and investigations 56

3.3 Flow chart for the process of the object detection 57

3.4 Flow chart of SAR investigations research 58

3.5 View of Voxel family data in CST simulator 63

3.6 Silver plated nylon conductive thread [115] 65

3.7 Silhouette cutting machine and tools 65

3.8 Fabrication process using Silhouette Cameo cutter

machine 67

3.9 Dielectric measurement tool [117]: (a) Dielectric probe

configurations (b) Measurement setup 68

3.10 The descriptions of an open-ended coaxial probe outer

diameter 69

3.11 Coaxial probe measurement method (a) jean (b) liquid 70

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3.12 The Vector Network Analyzer E5071C 71

3.13 Calibration setup of radiation pattern and gain

measurement 72

3.14 Radiation pattern and gain measurement configuration of

the proposed antenna 73

3.15 Illustration on the concept of the detection of buried

object 74

3.16 Measurement setup for detecting a folded aluminium foil

buried in the oil filled container (First measurement) 75

3.17 The closed view of locating the folded aluminium foil

into the oil 76

3.18 (a) The prototype of two identical antennas combined

using rubber band and (b) veroclear bar 77

3.19 (a) Measurement setup arrangement (b) Front view of the

measurement setup and (c) Top view of locating object

inside the skull phantom (Second measurement) 78

3.20 Measurement setup using zp-150 skull phantom (Third

measurement) 79

3.21 Single antenna attached on the human head model (CST

Voxel Family) 81

3.22 An illustration of the rectangular waveguide excitation

port in CST simulator 82

3.23 The configuration of two antennas on the Voxel human

head model 82

3.24 Measurement setup of the transmitted power of the

antenna 84

3.25 Maximum allowable SAR scanning area 85

3.26 SAR measurement setup of Comosar Satimo 86

3.27 SAR measurement configurations and setup in SAM head

model 87

4.1 Cross section of a Coplanar Waveguide (CPW) structure 94

4.2 The cpw-fed of square slot and koch-slotted antenna

design 96

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4.3 S11 of different ground implementation of antennas that

presented in Figure 4.2 (a) and (b) 97

4.4 The prototype and S11 results of koch-slotted antenna 100

4.5 Radiation patterns at (a) 2 GHz (b) 4 GHz and (c) 6 GHz 101

4.6 Surface current of koch-slotted antenna 103

4.7 U-slot wideband antenna 104

4.8 The S11 comparison of different value of p2 106

4.9 The implementation of steps and arc shape on the ground 107

4.10 The parametric dimension of corrugated u-slot antenna 108

4.11 The optimization on the depth of the corrugate dimension 109

4.12 S11 of the implementation of corrugations on the antenna

ground 111

4.13 The prototype and the S11 of the corrugated u-slot antenna 112

4.14 Simulated and measured radiation pattern of the

corrugated u-slot antenna at 1.8 and 2.6 GHz. 113

4.15 Simulated and measured gain of the proposed antenna 114

4.16 Surface current distribution of corrugated u-slot antenna 115

4.17 Illustrations of the antenna under various bending

conditions 116

4.18 Simulated result of L-convex bending condition at

various radiuses 117

4.19 Simulated result of L-concave bending condition at


4.20 Simulated result of W-convex bending condition at


4.21 Simulated result of W-concave bending condition at


4.22 Measurement of the antenna under various bending

conditions 121

4.23 Simulated and measured result of various bending

conditions 122

4.24 Measurement of various bending results with respected to

the reference antenna 123

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4.25 Comparison of simulated and measured koch-slotted

antenna under bending conditions. (a) L-convex, (b) L-

concave, (c) W-convex, and (d) W-concave. 124

4.26 The process of wetted, washed, and re-dried on the koch-

slotted antenna 125

4.27 Measured S11 of antenna under wetted, washed, and re-

dried with respect to the reference flat antenna 126

5.1 The time domain reflections of oil filled container based

on the measurement data 133

5.2 Simulation and measurement actual response of the

detected aluminium foil inside the oil filled container 134

5.3 The illustration of skull structure for the used in

calculation 136

5.4 Measured time domain reflections of an object which

separately located 40 mm and 80 mm from Ant 1 in

veroclear skull phantom 139

5.5 Reflection pulse of the detected object inside veroclear

skull phantom which located at 40 and 80 mm from Ant 1 140


separately located 40 mm and 80 mm from Ant 2 in

veroclear skull phantom 141

5.7 Reflection pulse of the detected object inside veroclear

skull phantom which located at 40 and 80 mm from Ant 2 142


separately located 40 mm and 80 mm from Ant 1 in zp-

150 skull phantom 144

5.9 Reflection pulse of the detected object inside zp-150 skull

phantom which located at 40 and 80 mm from Ant 1 145


separately located 40 mm and 80 mm from Ant 2 in zp-

150 skull phantom 146

5.11 Reflection pulse of the detected object inside zp-150 skull

phantom which located at 40 and 80 mm from Ant 2. 147

xviii

6.1 Simulated scattering parameters of two antennas in air

and on the human head 152

6.2 SAR in human head with the implementation of single

and two antennas. 154

6.3 Maximum SAR distribution using decomposition method

at 1800 MHz with 24 dBm excitation power 156

6.4 Maximum SAR distribution using decomposition method

at 2600 MHz with 24 dBm excitation power 158

6.5 The prototype and scattering parameters of the multi-

antenna 162

6.6 Simulated and measured radiation pattern of the multi-

antenna at (a) 1800 MHz and (b) 2600 MHz. 163

6.7 SAR of the multi-antenna at 1800 MHz and 20 dBm input

power 165

6.8 SAR distribution of the multi-antenna at 2600 MHz and

20 dBm input power 166

xix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACA - Australian Communications Authority

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

BAVA - Balanced Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna

BAVA -D - Balanced Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna with Director

BW - Bandwidth

CNC - Computerized Numerical Control

CPW - Coplanar Waveguide

CSF - Cerebrospinal Fluid

CST - Computer Simulation Technology

CT - Computed Tomography

CW - Continuous Wave

DP - Dielectric Properties

EEG - Electroencephalography

EM - Electromagnetic

FCC - Federal Communications Commission

FDTD - Finite-Difference Time Domain

FT - Fourier Transform

FFT - Fast Fourier Transform

FPIFA - Fractal Planar Inverted-F Antenna

ICNIRP - International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation

Protection

IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IFFT - Inverse Fast Fourier Transform

ISM - Industrial, Scientific, and Material

MI - Microwave Imaging

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MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output

MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging

NCI - National Cancer Institute

VNA - Vector Network Analyzer

PCPWM - Plain CPW Monopole

PD - Power Divider

PET - Polyethylene Terephtalate

PPIFA - Planar Inverted-F Antenna

PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride

R2R - Roll-to-roll

RL - Return Loss

SAM - Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin

SAR - Specific Absorption Rate

SIRIM - Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia

US - United State

UWB - Ultrawideband

TASPS - Time Averaged Simultaneous Peak SAR

xxi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

ε - Permittivity

εr - Relative permittivity / Dielectric Constant

εreff - Effective dielectric constant

ε' - Real permittivity

ε" - Imaginary permittivity

ε0 - Permittivity of freespace

μ0 - Permeability of freespace

σ - Conductivity

Ei - Incident wave

Et - Transmitted wave

Er - Reflected wave

f0 - Frequency limit

fr - Resonance frequency

fl - Lower frequency

fh - Higher frequency

lp - length of radiating patch

t - Time

wp - Width of radiating patch

h - Substrate thickness

∆L - Extension of length

xxii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A List of publications 196

B Measured permittivity of jean substrate 198

C Calculation of the elapsed time for detecting folded

aluminium foil in oil filled container

200

D Calculation of the elapsed time for detecting object

inside human skull phantom

201

E Matlab programming 203

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

According to the National Cancer Institute report, 4.4% over 100000 persons'

death due to brain cancer in 2012 [1]. This number is predicted to rise by 33.3% in 2015

based on statistical trends since 1990. Even though diagnostic devices such as Magnetic

Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) scans are commonly used

for diagnostic procedures, the equipments still not widely available at all medical

centres. This is due to their biggest drawback, which is very high cost. Hence, the

diagnostic and detection process could be delayed due to high diagnostic cost. Therefore,

an alternative lower cost device that can be implemented for diagnostic purpose is

required.

An alternative lower cost method that can create a picture of body can be

achieved by using microwave imaging (MI). MI is a technique that has an ability to

detect the presence of abnormality or object embedded in the scanning area, based on the

contrast in dielectric properties (DP) of object as compared to its surrounding. The

contrast of DP will result to the scattering signals which further indicate the occurrence

of an object and its locality. Since the detection of an object can be achieved by the

study of the scattered signals, commonly used equipment in the communication field,

2

such as vector network analyzer (VNA) can be used for the characterization and

analysis of these signals. Thus, this makes the MI method relatively low cost as

compared to CT and MRI.

There are many advantages of MI in detecting tumoureither in breast or in brain.

MI that uses non-ionizing radiation does not cause any adverse health effects towards

human tissues. Since MI detects the tumour based on the dielectric contrast, there is a

high possibility of early stage cancer detection and diagnostic. Moreover, in breast

cancer detection, MI gives more comfort to the patient as compared to the breast

compression during mammography process.

There are growing numbers of MI detector antenna designed by researchers

which can provide comfort to the user. Although, there is no restriction for the design

frequency for MI antenna, however, narrow bandwidth (BW) produces low image

quality as compared to wide BW antenna as stated in [2]–[4]. Thus, the greater the

antenna BW, the better will be the quality of resulted image, which is also known as

resolution of image.

Since the implementation of MI antenna is related to the human body, it is very

important to consider specific absorption rate (SAR) into account. Antenna being

designed for tumour detection purpose must comply with the established SAR standard

in order to protect human cell from adverse health effects. Thus, the following section

highlights the motivation towards this research study.

3

1.2 Problem Statement and Motivation

The effective imaging devices of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and

Computed Tomography (CT) provide the diagnostic for the detection of tumour such as

in breast and brain. However, the cost of these devices is very expensive and leads to

high diagnostic expenditure. Furthermore, these devices are bulky and huge in size,

allowing less mobility and require large installation area. Moreover, the existing CT

cannot be used frequently on human because the scanner exposes patients to radiations

of ionised frequency. Hence, in order to improve the drawback of the available imaging

devices due to high expenditure and bulky size, MI technique has been introduced.

Therefore, in this research work, antennas proposed for MI applications are studied.

In the practice of MI, many antennas are designed at narrowband frequency. The

drawback of narrowband frequency in imaging is that it will lead to low quality of

image. Therefore, wideband antenna is required to promise higher quality of the

scanned image. Most of the wideband antennas proposed for MI are designed on hard

structure of printed microstrip board. In addition, a wideband imaging system that was

proposed for detecting brain tumour reported in [5] is too bulky. Meanwhile, the patient

needs to hold static during the diagnostic process. Thus, the process will discomfort the

patient. Hence, flexible material is seen to be the best option for the on-head bending

capability and for the ease of user. As the research on the detection of tumour in human

head using MI is still in small numbers, it is significant to investigate the existence of

abnormality in the human head using radar-based concept.

Moreover, the implementation of antenna on the human head produces energy

which can possibly harm the brain cells. The specific absorption rate (SAR) in human

head is different at various frequencies and transmitted powers due to dissimilar energy

absorbed to the head. In addition, the published investigations on SAR are mostly based

on simulated investigations, which is not able to represent the real SAR. Furthermore,

the simulated investigations are performed on the implementation of single antenna on

the head. Thus, it is very significant to measure and monitor SAR in human head at

different frequency and powers using single and multi-antenna on the head.

4

1.3 Objectives of the Research

According to the problem statement and motivation to the research study in

Section 1.2, there are three main objectives aimed to be achieved at the end of this

study. The objectives of this research are:

1) To design and investigate the characteristic of textile antenna at 1-6 GHz for

microwave imaging applications.

2) To measure the capability of the designed antenna in detecting buried object

inside the skull phantom.

3) To measure and analyze the specific absorption rate (SAR) produced by the

designed antenna in the Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) head

phantom using decomposition and superposition method.

1.4 Scope of the Research

In this research study, several works are conducted in order to achieve the aimed

objectives. The scope of this research work is summarized in this section.

First, the antenna for microwave imaging application is designed for wideband

frequency between1-6 GHz. A flexible substrate and radiating elements are selected due

to the flexibility in detection purpose. The coplanar waveguide (CPW) fed with slotted

ground is chosen to facilitate the fabrication process.

Secondly, this research is focused to detect an object located inside water filled

skull phantom. In order to prove the existence of the object, it is adequate by showing

the related peak or pulse which is in time domain representation.

5

Finally, SAR measurements in SAM head phantom are conducted using multi-

antenna at two positions of vertical and horizontal configurations. The measurement is

performed at the frequencies of 1800 MHz and 2600 MHz at various input powers from

16-24 dBm.

1.5 Contribution to the Knowledge

The contributions of this research work are listed below.

1) A flexible textile antenna (corrugated u-slot antenna) that satisfies SAR has

been designed at 1-6 GHz for microwave imaging applications. This antenna

has high potential to serve in medical engineering field for detecting

abnormality inside human head. Since the antenna shows good performance

under various bending radiuses, the antenna can also be used on other curvy

parts of human body for scanning and diagnostic purposes.

2) This antenna that can operate under wet condition makes the antenna can be

attached into body-worn devices to operate at different weather conditions;

sunny and rainy days.

3) The contribution of this study is when the designed antenna able to detect

abnormality inside the skull and other curvy parts of human body based on

inverse scattering technique that commonly used in radar-based imaging.

4) SAR in SAM head phantom has been practically measured using decomposition

and superposition methods with respect to the changes of position, frequencies,

and powers.

6

1.6 Thesis Outline

This thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 describes the problem

statement and motivation to the field of study, followed by objectives. Few scopes have

been decided as the study limitations which aimed for the contribution to the

knowledge.

Chapter 2 presents the literature review of the field being studied. It consist of

the background study of microwave imaging, the developed antennas for microwave

imaging, the techniques used for detection, human head properties, and the standard

SAR limits.

Chapter 3 shows the methodology of the research. The specifications and

material used in designing antenna for head MI are listed out. The simulation and

programming tools are also described, and the fabrication steps are explained in detail.

The dielectric measurement method of the jean substrate, solid material, and liquid are

demonstrated. Furthermore, measurement method on antenna performance,

experimental setups for detecting object and specific absorption rate (SAR) are shown.

Chapter 4 describes the designs of proposed textile antennas and the conducted

investigations. Performance of antenna under bending, wetted, and washed conditions

are presented. The results are analyzed through the performance of the related antenna

in term of reflection coefficients.

Chapter 5 discusses about the detection of an object inside the human skull

phantom. The concept of detection of a buried object has been proved using a folded

aluminium foil in the oil filled container. Furthermore, results of the detection of an

object inside the skull phantom at two different locations of 40 mm and 80 mm from the

transmitter are compared to the computed and simulated outcomes.

7

Chapter 6 shows the SAR measurement results in SAM head model at 1800

MHz and 2600 MHz frequencies. The implementation of multi-antenna for the SAR

investigation using decomposition and superposition method are analyzed. SAR

produced by the antenna configured in horizontal and vertical positions, excited with

various input powers are being studied.

Meanwhile, Chapter 7 provides the conclusion of the research study with a

number of suggestions for future work that can be carried out to enhance the proposed

research work.

8

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of microwave imaging (MI) with radar-

based concept. The radar-based MI consists of two main parts, which are hardware and

algorithm. This chapter focuses only on the hardware part. MI hardware consists of the

transmitter antenna, thus designs of antennas which applied for MI are reviewed based

on the material, design, and flexibility. Since the radar-based MI uses dielectric property

(DP) contrast for the detection, the DP of human head is presented instead of breast.

Human head has inhomogeneous tissue and more challenging in tumour detection

system. Furthermore, as the antenna used for MI is intentionally implemented on human

body, SAR of antennas that used near to human body is presented. Some reviews on the

background of SAR and established international standard SAR limits are discussed at

the end of this chapter prior to the chapter summary.

9

2.2 Microwave Imaging

Microwave imaging (MI) can be defined as a sensing technique which has

capability to detect the existence of embedded object that buried in a given prospect

using electromagnetic (EM) wave investigation [6]. This technique has been used in

many fields such as industrial, civil, geophysical prospecting, and biomedical

engineering [7]–[11]. Recently in biomedical engineering, MI has shown a great deal of

interest in cancer detection, based on microwave frequency interrogation.

There are two microwave imaging methods which can be applied for the

detection of tumour and abnormalities inside the human body, which are tomography

[12] and radar-based technique [13]. In microwave tomography, EM radiation is used

and the inverse scattering algorithm is applied to reconstruct shape, location, and the DP

of the interest object. Meanwhile, radar-based approach utilizes simpler and faster

computational to identify the presence and location of the tumour using significant

backscattered signal. Here, this study will focus on the radar-based MI. Detail concept

on microwave radar imaging is presented in the following section.

2.2.1 Radar-Based Microwave Imaging

There are three different configurations of a microwave radar system which are

mono-static, bi-static, and multi-static. In the mono-static configuration, transmitter and

receiver is collocated as shown in Figure 2.1 (a). Since there is only an antenna is

applied, the reflection coefficient, S11 is taken for signal investigation. In the bi-static

configuration as illustrated in Figure 2.1 (b), a transmitter and receiver are located in

separate distance. Hence, the reflection and transmission coefficient is gathered.

Meanwhile, multi-static is a form of configurations which comprises of an array of

antennas, and the transmission and reflection coefficient of the array are considered. As

10

the configurations of microwave radar-based have been discussed, general view of MI

system is being detailed.

Figure 2.1: The radar-based concept of MI [14]

MI system composes of two major parts which are hardware and imaging

algorithm (post-processing). The hardware part consists of measurement

instrumentation which comprises an antenna, sample under test, measurement

equipment such as VNA, and computerizes system. In contrast, the post-processing

section involves imaging algorithms on the collected data. Overall view on general

setup of MI system is shown in Figure 2.2, which is setup in mono-static configuration.

During the imaging process, the EM wave is transmitted from the antenna at certain

frequency towards the sample. Due to the differences of electrical properties

(permittivity, ε and permeability, μ) among the imaging object and surrounding

medium, the signal is scattered and reflected in all directions. The backscattered signal

or the signal that reflected back to the direction from which it came, is then gathered by

the antenna which measured as S11 in the VNA [15].

11

Figure 2.2: General view of microwave imaging system [15]

The backscattered signal of S11 obtained from the transceiver is converted to

pulse waveform, to indicate the location of the detected object. Since this study

concentrated on the detection using mono-static configuration, the concept of object

detection which based on backscattered signal will be explained in the following

section. Nevertheless, the conversion of the backscattered signal to the pulse waveform

is also presented.

2.2.2 Detection Concept

In mono-static radar-based MI, only backscattered signal is measured, where the

location and image of the detected object is depicted from the collected data. The

detection operation is based on the contrary in electrical properties between the imaged

object and its surroundings. For instance, whenever a wave propagates from a medium

to another different medium, the signal is transmitted to that medium. However, there is

12

signal reflected back to the direction which the wave came from due to the difference in

the electrical properties of the two mediums.

Figure 2.3 illustrates the plane wave propagation from the free space to a lossy

medium [16]. Free space has permittivity and permeability of ε0 and μ0. Meanwhile, the

conductivity of free space is zero (ζ = 0). Whenever an incident wave, Ei travels along z

direction, the signal is transmitted to the lossy medium at z>0 region, which has

permittivity, permeability, and conductivity of ε, μ, and ζ. This transmitted signal is

symbolized as Et. Since the electrical properties (ε, μ, and ζ) of the lossy medium is

contradict to the free space (ε0, μ0, and ζ = 0), there is an existence of reflected signal, Er

in the z<0 region. Thus, this reflected signal that resulted from the difference of

electrical properties between the lossy medium and the free space, is analyzed for

getting useful information of the detected object and the localization.

Figure 2.3: Plane wave reflection from an arbitrary medium [16]

In localization estimation, frequency spectrum with an amplitude of A in

frequency function, is converted to time domain representation, which is in form of

pulse, h(t). A conservative method has been used for the conversion which using

Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) technique. Equation 2.1 shows the formulation

of the IFFT in time function:

13

(2.1)

where, f0 and t are the frequency limit and time, accordingly. The Fast Fourier

Transform (FFT) and IFFT are an interrelation pair between each other and can be

indicated by (2.2):

h(t) ↔ H(f) (2.2)

where h(t) and H(f) are in time and frequency representation, accordingly. Therefore,

the Fourier Transform (FT) pair of pulse frequency waveform can be accomplished as

in Figure 2.4. Thus, by referring to the pulse that indicated in the time domain, the

existence of an object can be detected.

ℎ 𝑡 = 2𝐴𝑓0

𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓0𝑡)

2𝜋𝑓0𝑡

𝐻 𝑓

=

𝐴, 𝑓 < 𝑓0

𝐴

2, 𝑓 = 𝑓0

0, 𝑓 > 𝑓0

Time domain Frequency domain

Figure 2.4: Fourier transforms pair [17]

The detection concept by using microwave radar principle is previously used for

tumour detection in homogeneous breast tissue [18]–[22]. Moreover, the similar

concept can also be applied to the human head for detecting brain tumour [23]–[25].

Therefore, the properties of inhomogeneous human head are studied in the following

section.

ℎ 𝑡 = 2𝐴𝑓0

sin 2𝜋𝑓0𝑡

2𝜋𝑓0𝑡

14

2.3 Human Head

Human body consists of homogeneous and inhomogeneous tissues.

Homogeneous tissues are defined as the tissues which are uniform and similar in their

DP, such as women breast fat. In contrast, inhomogeneous tissues consist of non-

uniform parts that are not similar in their DP, for instance human head. In the human

head, the detection of tumour is more challenging, due to the difference of human head

DP in each head layers and complex DP of brain tissue. The following subsection

presents the DP of the human head.

2.3.1 Dielectric Properties of Human Head

Human head comprises of non-homogeneous tissues that comprises of non-

uniform parts, and dissimilar in their DP. Figure 2.5 presents the cross sectional view of

human head.

Figure 2.5: Human head layers cross sectional view [26]

Skin Skull

Dura

Brain

15

In the human head cross sectional view, brain is covered by the main part of

skin, skull, and dura. Human brain that comprises of two major tissues of grey matter

and white matter, is surrounded by a thick layer membrane namely dura. The DP of the

human head parts are presented in Table 2.1. In the detection of tumour, the difference

of DP between the tumour and healthy tissue will provide high dielectric contrast in MI

system. According to [27]–[29], relative permittivity (or dielectric constant), εr of

tumour which can be also called as malignant tissue is nearly similar to the muscle.

Based on [30], εr of tumour at 5 GHz is 50.65, while the conductivity, σ is 4.84 S/m.

Table 2.1: Dielectric properties of tissues in human head at 3.5 GHz based on [31]

Tissue Relative

permittivity, εr

Conductivity,

σ (S/m) Loss tangent

Brain grey matter 47.305 2.636 0.28619

Brain white matter 35.003 1.81 0.26558

Skin 37.005 2.0249 0.28103

Skull 10.793 0.61457 0.29244

Dura 40.717 2.3653 0.29835

Muscle 51.444 2.5575 0.25533

Since MI diagnostic purpose relies on the contrast in DP between normal and

malignant tissues, many articles have been published on the study of brain and head

layers mimicking tissues. Hence, extended information on the DP of the human head is

strongly requisite among researchers to build human head mimicking phantom [32]–

[34].

2.3.2 Human Head Phantom

Human head phantom that has electrical properties mimicking human head are

highly required for verification of devices and systems of microwave head imaging. It is

16

very important to study interactions of EM fields and biological systems between

healthy and malignant tissue.

According to Figure 2.6, a computerised human head phantom is built to have

three separate layers of brain, skull, and scalp. The scalp is geometrized from a

mannequin head that used in silicone mould prototyping, while the brain geometry is

developed from MRI averaging high-resolution which acquired from the database in

[35]. To be noted that, the head is created to have the same scale to an average male

head. The advantage of the phantom is, it is for the electroencephalography (EEG)

evaluation system, but not possible to be tested and compared on human.

Figure 2.6: Computer aided design of the human head phantom [36]

A 3D phantom which developed in [37], consists of four hemisphere layers of

skin, skull, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brain as shown in Figure 2.7. The phantom is

constructed based on conductivity of the different head tissues. This phantom is built for

the use in testing and validation of tomography imaging equipment.

17

Figure 2.7: Four-shell domain of human head structure [37]

A realistic human head phantom that fabricated by 3D-printed moulds for

experimental validation of various microwave platforms is presented in Figure 2.8. The

tissue-equivalent mixture layer is filled into the skull cavity, and mimicking malignant

tissue object can be inserted inside the brain. The anatomy of realistic structure that is

derived from a 2D-MRI image at 1 mm intervals can be used for the intention of cancer

diagnosis, treatment, and tumour detection [38].

Figure 2.8: The tissue mimicking head phantom [38]

The detection of tumour or malignant tissue is highly depending on the

capability of an antenna to give sight of the sensed area. Therefore, antennas that ever

proposed for the application of MI are presented in the next section.

18

2.4 Microwave Imaging Antennas for Tumour Detection

Antenna plays an essential role and has been a promising prospect in MI

application. Therefore, review on MI antennas based on frequencies and materials are

performed, whether for breast cancer detection [39]–[41] or brain imaging [42], [43].

There were antennas in [44]–[46] which are designed at single frequency for MI

application at the respective 5.8, 2.7, and 2.45 GHz. Meanwhile, an interesting array

antenna which arranged on hemisphere shape is built up in a helmet as presented in

Figure 2.9 for head imaging. The resonance frequency of the antennas is 1.3 GHz which

is the continuous design in [47]. The hemisphere shape is considered to follow the

human head shape. However, the helmet dimension of array antenna cannot be fixed to

the different size of human head shape, while considering the gender and age. In

addition, the frequency is narrow which is less suitable for high resolution imaging.

Figure 2.9: An array antenna that built up in helmet shape [46]

In addition to the narrow BW antennas, there are MI antennas that proposed for

dual-band frequencies were reported in [48] and [49]. Antenna in [49] is the triangular

shape antenna with slots on the radiating patch as shown in Figure 2.10. The antenna

comprises of two types of substrate which are foam and duroid that has εr = 2.2 material.

In this design, the implementation of the two slots makes the antenna operates at dual

band microwave frequencies that resonate at 2 and 2.65 GHz. The advantages of the

19

antenna are simple in design and easy to be fabricated. Meanwhile, the drawback is the

BW is narrow.

(a) Top view (b) Side view

Figure 2.10: Compact antenna for microwave imaging and hyperthermia treatment of

brain tumour [49]

Furthermore, multi-band antenna has also been proposed for the MI application.

An antenna in [50] presents a multiband frequency antenna which is developed to

operate in a biocompatible immersion medium of safflower oil for microwave breast

imaging as presented in Figure 2.11. The antenna is fabricated on 32-mil-thick RO4003

substrate and is immersed in 32×15×11 cm3 tank filled with safflower oil. The antenna

may operate at 1.37, 1.95, and 2.90 GHz frequencies. The usage of multiband antenna is

expected to provide higher signal-to-noise ratio and imaging sensitivity during

immersion in low-loss coupling medium due to the higher gain at the designated

frequency. However, the disadvantage of multi-band antenna is on the decrement of

image resolution.

20

(a) Side view (b) Top view (c) simulated and measured S11 of the

miniaturized patch antenna immersed in

safflower oil

Figure 2.11: Multi-band slot-loaded patch antenna [50]

Since broad BW antenna is required to provide better image resolution

compared to narrow BW antenna, several wideband antennas have been designed [51]–

[53]. Antenna in [54] and [55] uses the folding technique for directivity enhancement.

The substrate used for the antenna is FR4 material. The folded structure deteriorates the

impedance BW of the antenna. Therefore, additional part of the design which is shown

by suspended layer in Figure 2.12 need to be included to improve the BW of 1.4-3.4

GHz. However, this BW is considered narrow for good resolution MI. Furthermore, the

addition of suspended layer somehow doubles and complicates the designing process.

(a) Folding process (b) Top view (c) Side view

Figure 2.12: Three dimensional folded wideband antenna [55]

21

Another antenna with some miniaturizations on the tapered slot is presented in

Figure 2.13. Corrugations on the top and bottom layer are applied to resonate the lower

frequency band [56]. However, the use of uniform corrugations possibly notch certain

frequency band as mentioned in [57]. The drawback of this antenna is, it has enough

BW for head imaging which is 1-4 GHz [58], but the structure is hard and has no

flexibilty.

Figure 2.13: Miniaturized tapered slot antenna [59]

In advanced, a system that constructed for head imaging is reported in [60]. The

antennas that were fabricated on Rogers RO3010 operated at 1-4 GHz frequency are

arranged on the rotating table as shown in Figure 2.14. The advantage of the system is,

the imaging process can be evaluated for all ages. However, the drawback is, the rotary

table is considered bulky. In addition, it can cause discomfort to the patient due to the

process that needs them to stay straight and static for accurate diagnostic process.

22

(a) MI system configurations

(b) Simulated and measured S11 of MI antenna

Figure 2.14: Configurations of MI system and the S11 for brain tumour detection [60]

Moreover, a directive and greater BW antenna which based on metal plate

material is shown in Figure 2.15. The antenna operates at wideband frequency of 4-9

GHz for imaging purpose that can be applied for breast cancer screening. However, this

antenna is complicated to be fabricated. The metal material which air as the substrate

[61] is potentially dented and bent during it is handled, which leads to less accuracy

measurement results compared to firm material like microstrip antennas [62]–[64].

Figure 2.15: Metal plate of ground plane antenna [65]

23

Even though many antennas were designed on microstrip, patch antenna leads to

narrow antenna BW. Therefore, a stacking technique ables to enhance the bandwidth

instead of using slot method. A stacked patch antenna in [66] proposed three layers

dielectric for the immersion in breast fat mimicking medium at 4-9 GHz. Low εr

substrate (εr= 2.2) is flanked by high εr substrate (εr = 10.2) on the top and bottom of the

main antenna. The high εr is used to minimize the size and to reduce the reflection due

to the high dielectric contrast between breast fat mimicking medium and the lower εr

substrate. The advantage of additional stack is to improve the BW, which is good for

image resolution. However, there is perturbation at 6-7 GHz whether in air or in the

immersion medium. In addition, the compact structure of the antenna is complicated to

be fabricated, due to the size of main patch is less than 10 mm which is too small and

difficult to be handled as presented in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16: Prototype and schematic of the stacked patch antenna [66]

Since the antennas in [59] and [66] covers the respective lower and higher

frequency band, an antenna that operates at the entire frequency of 1-9 GHz has been

designed and shown in Figure 2.17. The antenna has been reported for stroke detection

purpose. The 35×35mm2 planar antenna was fabricated on Rogers RT 6010 (εr = 10.2,

thickness, d =1.27 mm, tan δ = 0.0023). The antenna is fed by separate differential

feeding technique in the size of 26 × 52 mm2, which is perpendicular to the radiating

plane. Advantage of this design is the antenna owns a stable radiation performance and

high front-to-back ratio throughout the frequency range. However, the antenna is non-

24

compact in the size and suffers from high profile feed structure [67]. Therefore, low

profile structure is required which can be achieved by profile optimization in a class of

printed and slots technique [68].

(a) Left side view (b) Right side view

Figure 2.17: An arrangement of the antenna with differential feeding network [69]

The implementation of slot has been used in ultra wideband (UWB) antenna in

[70], which operates at 3.1 - 10.6 GHz frequency range. Moreover, a compact tapered

slot antenna shown in Figure 2.18, has been fabricated on Rogers RT6010LM substrate.

The antenna operates at 2.75-11 GHz frequency and has a high gain between 3.5-9.4

dBi. The design seems simple, but slightly complicated on the feed line alignment

between the radiator and the ground. The misalignment of the feed line might contribute

to the changes of impedance matching. In addition, the drawback of using tapered slot is

the contain of high back lobes as enlightened in [71].

(a) Antenna prototype. Left: upper layer;

right: lower layer

(b)The tepered slot antenna geometry

Figure 2.18: Tapered slot antenna geometry [72]

178

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