Design and safety approach of HTGRs and safety approach of HTGRs ... Serpong, Indonesia, 19-23...

Design and safety approach of HTGRs

Jim C. Kuijper

IAEA Training Course on High-Temperature

Gas-Cooled Reactor Technology

Serpong, Indonesia, 19-23 October 2015

Introduction & outline (1)

Approach ::: Philosophy ::: Background

Context - Basic HT(G)R concepts

Some history

Origin of design criteria o Safety constraints, limits o Application & performance

Specific characteristics of HTGR systems (focus: reactor…) o Reactor physics (neutronics) o Material properties o Thermal hydraulics & heat transfer

19-10-2015 IAEA Training Course on HTGR Technology, Serpong, Indonesia, 19-23 October 2015 2

Introduction & outline (2)

HTGR core design characteristics o Core shape and dimensions o Fuel selection and (re-) load strategy

Concluding remarks…

Presentation is based on the chapter “(V)HTR in detail – Design & safety approach” of the JRC-IET book on Generation IV systems (to be published December 2015?)

State-of-the-art ~December 2014

With special thanks to the originators of the illustrations and other info, in particular to Prof.dr.ir. Jan-Leen Kloosterman (Delft University of Technology, NL) and Mr. Xavier Raepsaet (CEA Saclay, France)

For further (detailed/background) information, see the [References]


Context (1)


Context (2)


Context (3)

(Very) High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (Gen III+, IV)

(TRISO) coated particle fuel (He) gas-cooled Graphite moderator/reflector Epi-/thermal spectrum Pebble-bed and prismatic Influence of design choices on behaviour Some details of (V)HT(G)R (reactor) physics & thermal hydraulics HGTR fuel cycle – flexibility (other presentation) Not about: Calculation/analysis methods (other presentations)


Basic HTGR concepts


Pebble-bed fuel


(J.L. Kloosterman, RAPHAEL Eurocourse, March 2007)

“Prismatic” fuel


(W. Bernnat, RAPHAEL Eurocourse, March 2007)

Some history

Early gas-cooled reactors

HT(G)R plants constructed and operated

Former HGTR designs

“Current”HTGR designs


Early gas-cooled reactors Name or acronym Oak Ridge Graphite

Reactor Windscale piles P2 Magnox AGR Tokai-1

Magnox

Location Oak Ridge, TN USA

Sellafield UK

Saclay France

UK UK Tokai Japan

Operation years 1943 - 1963 1950 1951 1956 - present 1962 - present

1966 - 1998

Fuel U metal cyl. Al cladding

Nat. U Nat. U metal Al cladding

Nat. U Nat. U Nat. U

Moderator Graphite Graphite Heavy water Graphite Graphite Graphite

Coolant Air air N2 (initially) CO2 (later)

CO2 CO2 CO2

Power [MWth/MWe]

1 – 4/- - 2 / - - / 166 - / 166

Reference [R.1.7] [R.1.8] [R.1.9]


HTGR plants constructed & operated Name/ Acronym

DRAGON Peach Bottom

Fort St. Vrain

AVR THTR HTTR HTR-10

Location UK USA USA Germany Germany Japan China

Operation Years

1964 – 1975

1966 - 1974

1976 – 1989

1967 - 1988

1985 - 1991 1999 - present

2000 – present

Fuel element Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder in hex. block

Sphere Sphere Cylinder in hex. block

Sphere

Fuel coating TRISO BISO TRISO BISO BISO TRISO TRISO

Fuel kernel Carbide Carbide Carbide Oxide Oxide Oxide Oxide

Enrichment [%] 90 93 17

Power [MWth/MWe]

20 / - 115 / 40 842 / 330 46 / 15 750 / 300 30 / - 10 / -

Tin / Tout [oC] 350 / 750 377 / 750 400 / 775 270 / 950 270 / 750 395 / 950 300 / 700

He pressure [bar]

20 25 49 11 40 40 30

Power density [W/m3]

14 8.3 6.3 2.6 6.0 2.5 2.0

Reference [R.3.4] [R.3.4] [R.3.4] [R.3.4] [R.3.4] [R.3.4] [R.3.4]


HTGR designs – Some basic data


[H. Nickel, HTR/ECS, 2002]

Former HTGR designs …


[W. von Lensa, HTR/ECS, 2002]

USA – From prototype to commercial design


[W. von Lensa, HTR/ECS, 2002]

“Current” designs Name/ Acronym

MHTGR GT-MHR HTR-Modul PBMR HTR-PM

Location USA USA/Russia Germany South Africa China

Fuel element Compact in hex. block

Compact in hex. block

Sphere Sphere Sphere

Fuel coating TRISO TRISO TRISO TRISO TRISO

Fuel kernel UCO/Th-oxide UCO/MOX Oxide Oxide Oxide

Enrichment [%] 20 19.8 7.8 4.2 – 9.6 8.5

Power [MWth/MWe]

4x350/508 600 200 400/165 2 x 250/211

Tin / Tout [oC] 259 / 687 491 / 850 250 / 700 500 / 900 250 / 750

He pressure [bar]

63.7 70.7 60 90 70

Power density [MW/m3]

5.9 6.6 3.0 4.8 3.2

Remarks Preliminary design completed / Licensing process not finalised

Licensed Project terminated in 2009

Under construction


Observations

Great variety in parameters (dimensions, power, He pressure, etc.)

Trend towards higher coolant outlet temperature (HTGR VHTR)

High degree of “passive safety” possible (if sufficiently low power density…)


Origin of design criteria

INPRO (IAEA International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles) [R.2.1]

Safety Constraints / limitations

Application & performance

Design...


INPRO (1)

Comprehensive methodology for the assessment of safety and performance of an innovative reactor (so the HTGR/VHTR)

INPRO Volumes 1-9 [R.2.1]: 1. Overview of the methodology

2. Economics

3. Infrastructure

4. Waste management

5. Proliferation resistance

6. Physical protection

7. Environment

8. Safety of nuclear reactors

9. Safety of nuclear fuel cycle facilities


INPRO (2)

Evaluation of innovative nuclear system designs: o Basic Principles

o User Requirements (safety, performance, ...)

o Criteria (= Indicator + Acceptance Limit)

Only a (very) small subset hereof in this presentation...


Safety (1)

Many ways to define nuclear safety (IAEA, USNRC, ... [R.2.2])

INPRO volume 8 (reactors) and volume 9 (fuel cycle facilities)

Practical definition:

A nuclear reactor (system) is classified as “safe” if there is no health hazard to the public or personnel under all conceivable normal (operation, anticipated deviations) and off-normal (DBA, BDBA) sitiations.

Include “almost inconceivable” situations (“stress test”)???


Safety (2)

This implies:

No need for off-site evacuation or taking shelter near the site boundary

No need for moving mechanical components to ensure this

Exposure to personnel significantly lower than current internationally accepted values


Safety (3)

Safety design philosophy for a nuclear reactor: criteria at 3 distinct levels:

Top level criteria: o National regulatory body International/IAEA standards

o ALARA [R.2.3]

Basic safety functions: o Control of reactivity/criticality (ensure subcriticality)

o Removal of (decay) heat from (the fuel in) the core (temperature limit)

o Confinement of radioactive material


Safety (4)

Defence-in-depth principle to prevent, mitigate and control any off-normal event. The IAEA formulation distinguishes 5 levels of defence: o Prevent deviations from normal operation

o Detect and control deviations

o Prevent core damage by incorporating safety features/systems

o Mitigate consequences (on-site and off-site)

o Mitigate radiological consequence (on-site and off-site)

Prevention and mitigation systems.

To be applied to all safety-related activities (organisational/behavioural/design) and all (reactor) system states (full power/low power/various shutdown states).


Safety (5)

Alternative formulation of Defense-in-depth (USNRC [R.2.4][R.2.4a]):

“…, the philosophy ensures that safety will not be wholly dependent on any single element of the design, construction, maintenance, or operation of a nuclear facility”.

Both formulations share the notion of multiple, independent layers of defence or multiple barriers of protection against health hazard to public and personnel.

HTGR/VHTR can incorporate these barriers in a passive manner.


Application & performance

Envisaged application & required performance (technical/economic), mostly connected to the possibility of high coolant outlet temperature:

Electricity and (process) heat

High fuel temperature basic design choices: o Refractory materials in the core: graphite o Use of (inert) gas as coolant: He, CO2, H2

o Coated particle ful (SiC, PyC)

Other requirements, e.g. high degree of sustainability:

In GIF usually attribited to fast spectrum systems (“closing the fuel cycle”) [R.2.5]

HTGR/VHTR may also provide a high degree of sustainability [R.2.6][R.2.6a][R.2.7]


Design (1)

Several definitions of “design” possible... (see e.g. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com)

For a reactor system like a HTGR, “design” refers to the choice of materials, dimensions, and arrangement of structures and components and the choice of relevant (design) parameters (e.g. nominal power level, temperature, pressure, but also dimensions and dimensional changes) during normal operation and off-normal states.


http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/

Design (2)

Application to structures and components at different levels:

Reactor system and structures’ dimensions, components and materials more or less fixed

Fuel elements (materials and dimensions) some details may change during the lifetime of the reactor

Core layout and loading scheme variation from cycle to cycle (or continuous...)


Origin of design criteria – overview


Application – Performance, e.g.:

Electricity production

CHP

District heating

H2-production (process heat in general) [R.3.3]

Pu/MA utilization/incineration [R.2.6][R.2.6.a][R.2.7]

Fuel utilisation – Waste production (sustainability), e.g.:

High burn-up

High conversion ratio

Reduction of Pu and/or MA [R.2.6][R.2.6a]

Minimise production of waste

Direct disposal

Operation, e.g.:

Cycle length

Maintenance

Direct/indirect cycle

Plant life

Multiple modules

Safety – inherently safe design (?)

Normal operation – Incidents/Accidents

Excess reactivity

Control rod worth – Shutdown margin

Xe-effect / Xe-oscillations

(Negative) temperature reactivity coefficient

Max. (fuel) temperature

Max. power per fuel element (particle, pebble, compact)

Fast fluence in fuel and core internals

Max. burn-up

Decay heat removal (passive)

???

Constraints (limits)

Reactor physics/neutronics

Thermal hydraulics

Material science

???

Design criterion ≈ Range of permissible parameter values

Specific characteristics of HTGR

Characteristics and associated constraints/limits:

Reactor physics/neutronics: mutual interaction of the materials in the reactor with the neutron field

Material properties

Thermal hydraulics and heat transfer

...


Reactor physics/neutronics (1)

Neutronic properties of HTGR materials – which materials?

Interaction of materials with neutron field: o several reactions (fission, capture, scatter, (n,2n), (n,3n),…) possible per

nuclide o σ(E), η(E),... o material compositions/distribution changing with time

Radioactive decay

Moderator-to-fuel ratio (M/F ≈ C/U) => k

Material (nuclide) distribution over space → o Neutron distribution over energy (spectrum) o Neutron distribution over space => power distribution => temperature

distribution, decay heat distribution


Reactor physics/neutronics (2)

Enrichment ε, burn-up, conversion ratio, control rod worth,…

Resonance self-shielding – Doppler effect – CP dimensions

Neutron leakage o H/D ratio (cylindrical core)

o Neutron streaming

o Minimum neutron leakage for cylindrical core: H/D ≈ 0.924

keff ≥ 1 (uncontrolled...)


Materials in HTGR

Fissile: U235, U233, Pu239, Pu241 (usually oxide or (oxy-) carbide)

Fertile: U238, Th232 (usually oxide)

Moderator: graphite (C12)

Other materials in the fuel (e.g. inert matrix material)

Structural material: graphite, SiC

Control elements: steel, B4C

Fission products: Xe135, Sm149, Mo95, Cs133, Cs135, Tc99, Ag110, Nd145, Xe131, Rh103, Pm147, Eu153,…

Heavy isotopes: Pa233, U234, U236, Np239, Pu240, Pu242, Am…, Cm…, …

Coolant: He (“neutronically inert”)


Neutron flux spectral distribution (1) Higher thermal and epithermal flux than in LWR

Dependent upon HM load, enrichment and burn-up

(W. Scherer, HTR/ECS, 2002)


Neutron flux spectral distribution (2)

Dependent upon HM load, enrichment and burn-up [R.1.6]


Neutron flux spectral distribution (3)

Dependent upon HM load, enrichment and burn-up [R.1.6]


Controllability

Position of control structures (elements, absorber spheres,[R.1.5]) must be such that: o Sufficient subcriticality can be ensured at all times, even if the most reactive

element can not be inserted (“shutdown margin”).

o Sufficient margin for altering the reactivity (“control rod worth”) to counter changes in reactivity during operation

No real problem for prismatic block type HTGR

Limit on radial dimensions of core cavity for cylindrical pebble bed HTGR (on the other hand: THTR...)


He coolant

Helium (mostly He4) is transparent to neutrons: ”No” change in reactivity from change in He temparature or density

DLOFC is almost purely thermal-hydraulic issue

No (positive) void coefficient No limits on the use of Pu fuel

Functions of coolant (He) and moderator (graphite, C12) not combined: No correlation between cooling geometry and M/F-ratio High degree of flexibility w.r.t. fuel management while retaining excellent safety characteristics


M/F – Moderator-to-fuel ratio

M/F ≈ C/U (or C/HM or “light atoms”/HM)

Range: 500 to 3000

Under moderated?

[R.1.6]


Coated particle size

Fuel in kernel of TRISO (or BISO) particle

Resonance self-shielding (hence resonance escape probability) depends on kernel and CP size

Double heterogeneity

[R.1.6]


Coated particle size (2)

Harder spectrum and higher conversion for smaller particles

For smaller particles curve tend to the one for the homogeneous case


Migration length – Prompt fission chain

“Neutronic” dimensions of the core: Compare actual dimensions with characteristic distances of neutronics (migration length, prompt fission chain length) o Migration length M o Prompt fission chain length:

(J. Keijzer, PhD thesis, Delft, 1996 [R.3.1a])

Prismatic type: M ~ 22 cm; lPFC = 668 cm

Pebble-bed type: M ~ 32 cm; lPFC = 972 cm

If characteristic dimension of the core > prompt fission chain length, axial Xe-oscillations may occur

Core height H limited to approx. 10 m


2

PFC

M6l

Axial Xe-oscillations (1)

Xe-effect


Axial Xe-oscillations (2)


Temperature influence on reactivity

Mainly 3 temperature coefficients of reactivity:

W.r.t. temperature of the fuel (CP) (Doppler effect)

W.r.t. temperature of the moderator (in the core)

W.r.t. temperature of the reflector


Doppler effect vs. burn up


Graphite temperature effect

Moderator and reflector

Shift of Maxwellian peak to higher energy if temperature increases

Lower effective cross section (reaction rate) for “1/v” cross sections (thermal neutron energies)

Possibly higher effective cross section (reaction rate) for “non 1/v” or resonance cross sections (intermediate neutron energies)

Net effect may be positive or negative, depending on (local) circumstances (difference between reflector and moderator)

Example: equilibrium state (time-independent nuclide distribution)


Temperature coefficients of reactivity (1)

PBMR-400 in equilibrium state (U-based fuel)


Temperature coefficients of reactivity (2)

PBMR-400 in equilibrium state (Pu-based fuel)


Material properties

Radiation damage o Fuel (coatings) o In-core structures (e.g. reflector) o Fast fluence (E > 0.1 MeV)

(Chemical) compatibility of coolant and other materials – not a big problem for He

Thermal stress & Chemical interactions with(in) CPs o Limit retention capability of FP and actinides o Max. acceptable release (R/B ratios) limit on burn-up

Limit on coated particle temperature (1600 oC/1250 oC)

Limits on material temperatures in general → limit on coolant output temperature

Wigner effect in graphite → minimum coolant entrance temperature of 200 oC

Many (other) material properties of materials used in HTGR components, with influence on performance and safety. Should be properly addressed in the design process

See e.g. [R.3.3] and [R.3.4] for applicable codes and standards


Fuel at very high burn up

U-based fuel: 150 MWd/kg

Pu-based fuel: > 700 MWd/kg achieved in Dragon and Peach Bottom unit 1:


Dimensional changes in graphite

30 years of irradiation at fast flux of 3x1013 cm-2s-1 (above 0.1 MeV) gives fast fluence of 2.5x1022 cm-2

Dimensional (and other) changes in graphite by radiation damage [R.1.5]


Failure of coated particles – Fast fluence

Fast fluence < 5x1021 cm-2 (TRISO) (less restrictive nowadays?)

For CP failure mechanisms, see [R.3.1][R.3.5][[R.3.6][R.2.9]

[R.1.5]


Failure of coated particles – Temperature (1)

> 1250 oC fission product attach on SiC layer

> 1600 oC decomposition effects and porosity in SiC layer

> 2000 oC thermal decomposition of SiC dominant mechanism

See [R.3.1][R.2.9]

Maximum design base event fuel temperature: 1600 oC

Maximum (peak) fuel temperature during normal operation: 1250 oC


Failure of coated particles – Temperature (2)


[R.3.7]

Thermal hydraulics

Transfer heat from fuel to a useful purpose (Tout?)

Heat conduction, convection and radiation [R.3.15]

Coolant properties (thermodynamic, fluid dynamic): He (other possibilities: CO2/H2)[R.1.4]

Cooling geometry o Pebble bed: fixed coolant volume fraction (CVF) o Prismatic block with coolant channels: CVF somewhat more flexible in the design phase

Coolant flow o Mass flow o Flow direction (upward/downward through the core) o Core pressure drop (← core dimensions, friction,…) o ∆p ~ H3

Passive (decay) heat removal capabilities (see [R.3.9][R.3.10][R.3.11][R.3.12][R.3.13] for background info on decay heat) o Core geometry and dimensions, H/D-ratio, friction, … o Free convection


Pressure drop over the core

Pressure loss Δp over a pebble-bed core as function of core height (He-pressure is 40 bar) [R.1.5]


Coolant volume fraction in core

CVF in pebble bed is more or less fixed (~0.39)

Larger range of possible CVFs in prismatic type (coolant channels in blocks), also < 0.39 → higher fuel density possible → higher power density possible


Fluctuation of packing density (1)

Fluctuation of packing density has no significant influence on flux distribution or keff [R.3.17][R.3.18][R.3.19]

Stochastic nature of pebble bed has considerable influence on power- and temperature distribution [R.3.17][R.3.18][R.3.19]

Should be taken into account in the design extra margings for critical design parameters


Fluctuation of packing density (2)

Axial packing fraction profile: measurement and simulation [R.3.17]


HTGR core design characteristics

Core shape/dimensions and control structure positions – More or less fixed when design has been fixed

Fuel design and core (re-) loading, possibly including burnable poison – More or less flexible, even for a reactor already in operation.

Detailed design is a complex activity entailing many (other, even important) aspects well beyond this presentation, e.g. issues connected to the production, activation, transport, deposition and resuspension of (graphite) dust, especially in the case of pebble-bed HTGRs [R.4.3].


Core shape and dimensions

Pebble-bed or prismatic – Coolant Volume Fraction

Cylindrical or annular core

Dimensions o Limits on core height H:

Xe-effect (oscillations) Coolant pressure drop over core ∆p ~ pumping power ~ H3

pumping power < ~5 % of electrical output ∆p < ~ 0.8 bar

o Limits on core diameter D: Control rod worth → annular core (control elements in central column) Passive heat removal → distance to core surface not too large

H/D-ratio o Minimum neutron leakage: H/D ≈ 0.9

Fixed or dynamic inner column


Control rods – pebble bed

Control rods (usually) in reflector

Worth dependent upon thermal flux, hence reflector graphite temperature

Control rods in pebble bed not impossible (THTR), but not necessary

Reactivity requirements (feasible if cylindrical core radius not too large) o Control and hot shut down: ~4%

o Cold shut down: ~10%

(W. Scherer, HTR/ECS, 2002)


Fuel selection and (re-) load strategy

HTGRs are very flexible with regard to fuel and fuel cycle o Uncoupling between and parameters characterising cooling geometry and

neutronics optimisation

o Solid moderator (no void effect)

Many types of fuel possible in principle – not all fuel designs have been qualified

High burn-up feasible – demonstrated (AVR, Peach Bottom, FSV, THTR)


Physical reasons for flexibility w.r.t. fuel (cycle)

[R.1.6]


Fissile and fertile materials

LEU cycle (enrichment 5 to 19%)

MOX cycle

Pu only

Th (HEU; MEU; Pu) [R.1.6]


(Re-)load schemes

Pebble bed o MEDUL - continuous re-load o OTTO - Once Through Then Out N.B. Low excess reactivity for MEDUL/OTTO without BP o Peu-à-peu o cartridge o (spatial distribution of) burnable poison o ???

Prismatic o specific re-load scheme (axial and radial shift) o spatial distribution of fuel loading/enrichment o (spatial distribution of) burnable poison o ???


Examples of reload schemes

OTTO vs. Medul (re-) loading scheme for pebble-bed HTGR

Comparison of radial loading patterns in “HTR-PM” (earlier 380 MW design with 2 m core radius)

Pebble-bed cartridge core with burnable poison (ACACIA)

Two-batch axially shifted re-fueling in GTHTR 300


OTTO vs. MEDUL (re-) loading scheme

Comparison of axial power density distribution of pebble bed MEDUL (“Mehrfachdurchlauf”) and OTTO (“Einwegbeschickung”) [R.1.5]

Top Bottom


Comparison of radial loading patterns in “HTR-PM”


N.B. Earlier version with 2 m core radius and 380 MW thermal power

Radial power distribution “HTR-PM” (380 MW)


Radial power distribution “HTR-PM” (1515oC)


Pebble-bed cartridge core (ACACIA)


ACACIA reactor with annular core (and BP)


ACACIA – Initially homogeneous BP


ACACIA – Initially inhomogeneous BP


Two-batch axially shifted re-fueling in GTHTR 300


GTHTR 300 core lay-out


GTHTR 300 fuel layers and re-fueling scheme


Axial power distribution in GTHTR 300


Transient behaviour of GTHTR 300


Concluding remarks

An overview was given on main considerations regarding design– and safety philosophy of present-day HTGR designs

Focus on main features and issues w.r.t. the reactor. Many (even important) issues have NOT been treated in this presentation

Once more it has been shown that HTGR core design is extremely flexible, although there ARE limits

Many different applications, fuels, fuel cycles, etc. possible within constraints of safe operation

Burnable poison can be used to limit excess reactivity while retaining core life

Developments are ongoing, e.g.: o Radial cooling [R.5.1] o “Wallpaper” fuel [R.5.2]

Development towards higher core outlet temperatures (> 1000 oC) is possible [R.2.9] Gen IV VHTR


Coordinates

Dr.ir. J.C. Kuijper (Jim)

Nuclear Reactor Physics Expert

E [email protected]

M +31 6 4022 9728

http://www.nuclic.eu (per 1 January 2016)

Associated with Nuclear-21.Net

http://www.nuclear-21.net


mailto:[email protected]

http://www.nuclic.eu/

http://www.nuclear-21.net/




Terima kasih


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Volume 1 - Overview of the Methodology

Volume 2 - Economics

Volume 3 - Infrastructure

Volume 4 Waste Management

Volume 5 Proliferation Resistance

Volume 6 Physical protection

Volume 7 Environment

Volume 8 Safety of Nuclear Reactors

Volume 9 Safety of Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities


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[R.5.2] A. Marmier, M. Fütterer, K.Tucek, J.B.M. de Haas, J.C. Kuijper, and J.L. Kloosterman, “Revisiting the Concept of HTR Wallpaper Fuel”, Proc. 4th International Topical Meeting on High Temperature Reactor Technology HTR2008, Washington D.C., USA, September 28 - October 1, 2008.


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