Determination of Heavy Metals in Sediments and Water from Johor River.docx

8/19/2019 Determination of Heavy Metals in Sediments and Water from Johor River.docx

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

One of the main causes of water pollution is from heavy metals. The presence

of heavy metals in water and sediment can cause considerable impacts on the

environment (Madzin and Shai-in et al., !1"#. $eavy metals have attracted a

considerable amount of attention and raisin% human concerns due to their to&icity,

wide sources, non-biode%radable properties and accumulative behaviours ('u, 'uan

et al., !!#. )oth natural and anthropo%enic activities are responsible for the

abundant of heavy metals in the environment (*ilson + yatt, !! /han, 0ao et

al., !!#. ivers have always been the recipients of li2uid water dischar%es from

human activities, such as domestic sources, industrial or a%ricultural effluents or

minin% process waters. Over the last two centuries, since the a%e of industrialization,

the massive increase of industrial production accompanied by the %rowth of lar%e

urban populations has led to severe water pollution problems on many rivers, turnin%

some of them into essentially open cloacae. 0ompared to other developin% countries,

0hina suffers the most from water pollution due to rapid economic %rowth and

intense industrialization. The intense industrialization inevitably leads to heavy metal

pollution in this re%ion primarily due to sewa%e dischar%e from the factories, for

e&ample, metal and electronic industries ('e, $uan% et al., !1 *u, Tam et al.,

!13#.

ecent studies have proven the ability of sediment as pollution indicator of

environmental health status (4#. This is due to hi%her capability of sediment to bind


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with metal ions as compared with other environmental matrices li5es water and biota

(4#. 6ccordin% to Marcus (1771#, sediment serves as diffuse sources of contamination

to the overlyin% water body, slowly releasin% the contaminant bac5 into the water

column. Therefore, ensurin% %ood sediment 2uality is crucial to maintain a healthy

a2uatic ecosystem, which ensurin% better protection of human health and a2uatic life.

Therefore, sediment of 8ohor iver has been chosen for this study due to

%eo%raphical area and it impact on various pollution loadin% from anthropo%enic

activity nearby area.

1.2 Prob!" Stat!"!nt

9t has lon% been 5nown that, in the ri%ht concentration, many metals are

essential to life and eco-systems. 0hronic low e&posures to metals can lead to severe

environemtal and health effects. Similarly, in e&cess, these same metals can be

poisonous. :nli5e many or%anic pollutants, which eventually de%rade to carbon

dio&ide and water, heavy metals will tend to accumulate in the environment,

especially in la5e and estuarine. Metals can also be transported from one

environment compartment to another, which complicates the containment and

treatment problem. $eavy metals are closely connected with environmental

deterioration and the 2uality of human life, and thus have aroused concern all over

the world. More and more countries have si%ned treaties to monitor and reduce heavy

metal pollution. Moreover, this field of research has been receivin% increasin%scientific attention due to its ne%ative effects on life. ;or e&ample, it was found that

metals accumulate in animal and plant cells, leadin% to severe ne%ative effects. The

transport and accumulation of heavy metals by air, water and soil have also been a

hot topic for research. 9t was found that in some cases contamination was circulate on

a %lobal ran%e.

1.# Ob$!ct%&!' of Study


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1.


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CHAPTER 2

+ITERATURE RE,IE-

This section %ives an introduction of this study for the analysis of heavy metal and its

characteristics.

2.1 o/or R%&!r 0Sunga% o/or

8ohor iver is the main river in the Malaysian state of 8ohor. The river is

1. 5m lon% with a chatchment of ,@


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%gur! 2. 1 3a) of Sg o/or and %t' tr%butar%!'4 and t/! ocat%on of tr!at"!nt )ant )ro&%d!d by

Syar%kat A%r o/or

8ohor iver is the ma?or contributor for water supply in 8ohor, about ""C of total state needs. Treatments plants in Sun%ai 8ohor supply treated water to fast

%rowin% 9s5andar Malaysia (8ohor )ahru, /ulai 8aya, asir Audan% and partially

ontian#, pro?ected population up to < million in !" by 9=6. 8ohor *ater *or5s

of :) with capacity "! MA= is vital source of treated water for Sin%apore, with

population more than " million people. Most of ma?or treatment plants have been

fully utilized, with buffer less than 1!C. opulation of 8ohor iver is caused by

urbanization of /ota Tin%%i 0ity, a%riculture, animal farm and also sand field.

*ater from rivers in 8ohor is used for a%riculture, domestic needs, industrial

and urbanization as well as recreational use. Sun%ai 8ohor basin had 1@ crude palm

oil mills in operation with ten dischar%e effluents into the river and another si&

dischar%e palm oil effluents onto land (Salleh et al., !1oramin + 8ani, !11#.


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%gur! 2. 2 Sg o/or tr%butar%!' and %t' and u'!

2.2 Str!a"' and R%&!r'

6ll throu%h the a%es, rivers have played an important role in society. They

have provided means of transportation, water for irri%ation, water supply, power

%eneration and many other uses. They have also caused disasters, primarily durin%

floods when they inundate portions of the floodplain and destroy property and

infrastructure (ar5inson and Aoldenfum et al., !1!#. Streams and rivers supply

important ecosystem services, such as drin5in% water supply, fish production,

opportunity for recreational activities and the collection, transport and processin% of

pollutants and contaminants ori%inatin% from the surroundin% landscape (0Dceres,

=iaz et al., !!"#.


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2.# -at!r Pout%on

*ater pollution is the contamination of la5es, rivers, oceans and %roundwater

with forei%n substances caused by human activities, substances that can be harmful

to or%anisms and plants that live in the water (almer, !1!#. esearchers suspect

that this form of pollution may be the leadin% worldwide cause of deaths and

diseases and that it accounts for the death of more than 13,!!! people daily. That is

why research into water pollutionEs causes and solutions is so essential and this boo5

offers readers the most up-to-date and serious research in the field.

2.( Urban%5at%on I")act' on -at!r 6ua%ty

*aterways and receivin% waters near urban and suburban areas often

adversely affected by urban stormwater run off. The de%ree and type of impact varies

from location to location, but it is often si%nificant relative to other sources of

pollution and environmental de%radation. :rban storm water runoff affects water

2uality, water 2uantity, habitat and biolo%ical resources, public health and the esthetic

appearance of urban waterways. 6s stated in the >ational *ater Fuality 9nventory

177@ eport to 0on%ress (:S-G6, 177#, urban runoff is the leadin% source of

pollutants causin% water-2uality impairment related to human activities in ocean

shoreline waters and the second leadin% cause in estuaries across the :nited States.

:rban run off was also a si%nificant impairment in rivers and la5es.

:S-G6 (!!"# has classified the adverse impacts of urban runoff on

receivin% waters into three cate%ories as followH

• Short-term chan%es in water 2uality durin% and after storm events includin%

temporary increases in the concentration of one or more pollutants, to&ics or

bacteria levels

• Bon%-term water-2uality impacts caused by the cumulative effects associated

with repeated stormwater dischar%es from a number of sources

• hysical impacts due to erosion, scour and deposition associated with

increased fre2uency and volume of runoff that alters a2uatic habitat


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6ccordin% to $orner et al. (the TerreneEs ;undamentals of :rban unoff

Mana%ement#, pollutants associated with urban runoff, which are potentially

harmful to receivin% waters, are listed in Table I. These pollutants de%rade the

water 2uality in receivin% waters near urban areas and often contribute to the

impairment of use and e&ceedances of criteria included in water-2uality

standards. The 2uantity of these pollutants per unit area delivered to receivin%

waters tends to increase with the de%ree of development in urban areas.

Poutant

Sourc!

So%d

'

Nutr%!n

t

Pat/og!n

'

O7yg!n

D!"an

d

3!ta

'

O%

'

Organ%c

'

So% !ro'%on √ √ √ √!rt%%5!r' √Hu"an

8a't!

√ √ √ √

An%"a

8a't!

√ √ √ √

,!/%c!

fu%d'

√ √ √ √ √

Int!rna

co"bu't%on

√

,!/%c! 8!ar √ √ √

Hou'!/od

c/!"%ca'

√ √ √ √ √

Indu'tr%a

)roc!''!'

√ √ √ √ √ √

Pa%nt' and

)r!'!r&at%&!

'

√ √ √

P!'t%c%d!' √ √ √Table I. :rban unoff ollutant Souces and 0onstituents

2.* 3!ta To7%c%ty

Out of 1!@ identified elements, about ! of them are called metals. These

metallic elements can be divided into two %roups which are those that are essential


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for survival, such as iron and calcium and those that are nonessential or to&ic, such as

camium and lead. These tosic metals, unli5e some or%anic substances, are not

metabolically de%radable and their accumulation in livin% tissues can cause death or

serious health threats. ;urthermore, these metals, dissolved in wastewaters and

dischar%ed into surface waters, will be concentrated as they travel up the food chain.

Gventually, e&tremely poisonous levels of to&in can mi%rate to the immediate

environment of the public. Metals that seep into%roundwaters will contaminate

drin5in% water wells and harm the consumers of the water.

ollution from man-made sources can easily create local conditions of

elevated metal presence, which could lead to disastrous effects on animals and

humans. 6ctually, manEs e&ploitation of the worldEs mineral resources and his

technolo%ical activities tend to unearth, dislod%e and disperse chemicals and

particularly metallic elements, which have recently been brou%ht into the

environment in unprecedented 2uantities and concentration and at e&treme rates.

2.9 S!!ct!d H!a&y 3!ta'

$eavy metals can be defined as formin% positive ions in solution and they

have a density five times %reater than that of water. They are of particular

to&icolo%ical importance. Many metallic elements play an essential role in the

function of livin% or%anisms they constitute a nutritional re2uirement and fulfil a

physiolo%ical role. $owever, the abundance of the essential trace elements and

particularly their substitution of non-essential ones, such as the case may be, for

cadmium and nic5el that can cause to&icity by symptoms or death. $umans receive

their allocation of trace elements from food and water, an indispensable lin5 in the

food chain bein% plant life, which also supports animal life. 9t has been shown thatspectacular metal enrichment coeffients of the order 1!"-1! can occur in cells.

9mbalances or e&cessive amounts of a metal species alon% this route lead to to&icity

symptoms, disorders in the cellular functions, lon%-term debilitatin% disabilities in

human, and eventually death.

[email protected] 6luminium


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6round "!!! patients have been identified with 6s-related health problems in *est

)en%al (includin% s5in pi%mentation chan%es# (4#. 9n some areas in )an%ladesh,

%roundwater arsenic concentration can reach m% B-1 (1! ppb# (4#.

.@.< 0admium

0admium is found in natural deposits as ores containin% other elements. The

%reatest use of cadmium is primarily for electroplatin%, paint pi%ments, plastics,

silver-cadmium batteries and coatin% operations, includin% transportation e2uipment,

machinery and ba5in% enamels, photo%raphy and television phosphors. 9t is also used

in nic5el-cadmium batteries, solar batteries and in pi%ments (4#. 9n one review, it was

noted that the use of cadmium products has e&panded in recent years at a rate of "-

1!C annually and the potential for further %rowth is very hi%h (4#. The whole worldEs

annual production of cadmium is around !,!!! tons. =ischar%e of cadmium into

natural waters is derived partly from the electroplatin% industry, which accounts for

about "!C of the annual cadmium consumption in the :nited States. Other sources

of water pollution are the nic5el-cadmium battery industry and smelter operations,

which are more li5ely to be fewer in number, but of a %reater point source

si%nificance, often affectin% the environment at distances of a 1!! 5m order of

ma%nitude (4#. 0admium occurs in nature in the form of various inor%anic

compounds and as comple&es with naturally occurrin% chelatin% a%ents

or%anocadmium compounds are e&tremely unstable and have not been detected in the

natural environment. 9ndustrial and municipal wastes are the main sources of

camium pollution. The solubility of cadmium in water is influenced to a lar%e de%ree

by the acidity of the medium. =issolution of suspended or sediment-bound cadmium

may result when there is an increase in acidity (4#. The need to determine cadmium

levels in suspended matter and sediments in order to assess the de%ree of

contamination of water body has been pointed out. The concentration of cadmium in

seawater avera%es about !.!!!1" m% B -1 (4#. Surface waters containin% in e&cess of a

few micro%rams of cadmium per litre have probably been contaminated by industrial

wastes from metallur%ical plants, platin% wor5s, plants manufacturin% cadmium


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pi%ments, te&tile operations, cadmium-stabilized plastics, or nic5el-cadmium

batteries, or by effluents from sewa%e treatment plants (4#.

=ue to its acute to&icity studied only recently, cadmium has ?oined lead and

mercury in the most to&ic N)i% Three cate%ory of heavy metals with the %reatest

potential hazard to humans and the environment. 0admium is one of the metals most

stron%ly absorbed by livin% cells accumulated by ve%etation. 9t is also amon% the

most to&ic to livin% or%anisms and more li5ely to leach from industrial wastes. The

acute oral lethal dose of cadmium for humans has not been established it has been

estimated to be several hundred milli%rams (4#. =oses as low as 1"-

acidic foodstuffs stored in cadmium-lined containers have resulted in acute

%astroenteritis. The consumption of fluids containin% 1


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the he&avalent state. Main contamination is %enerated by industrial wastewaters.

0hromium was reco%nized to be hazardous element in the early years after it was

discovered. $owever, no reports indicate that chromium salts (999# have severe to&ic

effects. The :.S. Standards 9nstitute listed a ma&imum acceptable concentration

(M60# of !.1 m% m-


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%enerally decreased in lar%e areas of the peaty lowlands in the >etherlands (4-sc#. 6s

a result, iron-containin% seepa%e has decreased in many re%ion, while ala5aline

hine river, which is rich in sulfates and poor in iron, has been used to compensate

for the shorta%e of water. This has resulted in increased al5alinity and or%anic

sediment brea5down. 9ncreased sulfate reduction leads to iron sulphide precipitation

and internal al5alinity %eneration. 6s a result of these processes, phosphate and

ammonium levels in sediment pore water have increased stron%ly. elease of these

nutrients to the water layer has resulted in internal eutrophication of the peatland

ecosystems. ;urthermore, iron levels have decreased stron%ly as a result of decreases

seepa%e and iron sulphide precipitation. 6s a result, sulphide accumulates in

sediment pore water and reaches to&ic levels. ;urthermore, decreased iron levels

appear.

The direct and indirect effects of iron on structure and function of lotic

ecosystems have been reviewed (4-sc#. 9n addition to the minin% of iron enrich ores,

intensified forestry, peat production and a%ricultural water runoff have increased the

load of iron in many river ecosystems. The effects of iron on a2uatic animals and

their habitats are mainly indirect, althou%h the direct to&ic effects of ;e P are also

important in some lotic habitats that receive iron-enriched effluents particularly

durin% cold seasons. 9ron hydro&ide and iron-humus precipitates on both biolo%ical

and other surfaces, indirectly affect lotic or%anisms by disturbin% the normal

metabolism and osmore%ulation and by chan%in% the structure and 2uality of benthic

habitats and food resources. The bioaccumulation of iron in the or%ans and tissues of

the freshwater crab, otamonautes warren 0alman, from three metal-polluted

a2ualtic ecosystems was e&amined (4#. =ifferences in iron concentrations in the crab

occurred in the %ills, su%%estin% this or%an to be the prime site for the absorptionandor loss of iron to and from the a2uatic environment.

The to&icity of iron is %overned by absorption. 0hronic iron overload is an

insidious tissue that often does not produce obvious symptoms until substantial tissue

dama%e to tissue dama%e to vital or%ans has occurred. Bar%e amounts of free iron in

the circulation are 5nown to cause dama%e to critical cells in the liver, heart and other

metabolically active or%ans. 9ndustrial wor5ers e&posed to fumes of iron compounds

show potential symptoms of poisonin% such as irritation of eyes, s5in and respiratory,


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cou%h, metal fume fever (M;;#, severe vomitin%, diarrhea, abdominal pain,

dehydration and siderosis (a beni%n pneumoconiosis#. eports have indicated that

severe siderosis leads to myocardial diseases and death. 9ron to&icity is usually the

result of more chronic iron overload syndromes associated with %enetic diseases, the

liver becomes cirrhotic. $epatoma, the primary cancer of liver, has become the most

common cause of death amon% patients with hemochromatosis. *or5ers and the

%eneral public with hemochromatosis absorb iron very efficiently, which can result in

build-up of e&cess iron and cause or%an dama%e such as cirrhosis of the liver and

heart failure.

.@. Man%anese

Man%anese is a naturally occurrin% metal that is found in many types of

roc5s. The metal is reactive chemically and decomposes slowly. 9t is an important

component of steel. The common or%anic man%anese compounds include pesticide

such as Maneb or Mancozeb. Metallic man%anese is used in the manufacturin% of

steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron and super alloys to increase hardness,

stiffness and stren%th. Man%anese chloride is used in dyein%, disinfectin%, batteries,

as a paint drier and dietary supplement. Man%anese o&ide (MnO# is used in te&tile

printin%, ceramics, paints, coloured %lass, fertilizers and as a food additive.

Man%anese to&icity, man%anism, in?ures the part of the brain that helps to control

body movements and affects motor s5ills such as holdin% oneEs hand steady. The

symptoms of man%anese poisonin% include but not limited to headache, insomnia,

disorientation, speech disturbances, memory loss, lan%uor, wea5ness, emotional

disturbances, spastic %ait, recurrin% le% cramp and paralysis. 0ontinuation of

e&posure to man%anese causes disturbance to motor function, tremors, unsteady

wal5in% and e&a%%erated refle&es similar to ar5insonism. $owever, there are no

reports indicatin% that man%anese causes cancer in humans. The :.S. G6 has

included man%anese in %roup =, meanin% not classifiable as a human carcino%en.


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.@. Mercury

Mercury and its compounds are used in dental preparations, thermometers,

fluorescent and ultraviolet lamps, and pharmaceuticals and as fun%icides in paints,

industrial process waters and seed dressin%s. The pulp and paper industry also

consumes mercury in si%nificant amounts in the form of phenyl mercuric acetate, a

fun%icide, and in caustic soda, which may contain up to " m% 5% -1 as an impurity.

Mercury in air can be washed out by rain. 9n industrial areas, mercury concentrations

as hi%h as !.!!! m% B-1 have been reported in raun. 9n most surface water, $%(O$#

and $%0l are the predominant mercury species. 9n reducin% sediments, however,

most of the mercury is immobilized as the sulphide. 0oncentrations of mercury insurface and drin5in% waters are %enerally below !.!!1 m% B -1 (4#. The presence of

hi%her levels of mercury in water is due to effluents from the chlor-al5ali industry,

the pulp and paper industry, minin%, %old and other ore-recoverin% processes, and

irri%ation or draina%e of areas in which a%ricultural pesticides are used.

9nor%anic mercury in sediments, under anaerobic conditions, can be

transformed by microor%anisms into or%anic mercury compound, the most common

of which is methyl mercury (4#. These compounds can readily associate with

suspended and or%anic matter and be ta5en by a2uatic or%anisms. Methyl mercury

has a hi%h affinity for lipids and is distributed to the fatty tissues of livin% or%anisms

(4#. 6lthou%h methyl mercury is estimated to constitute only 1C of the total mercury

content of water, more than 7!C of the mercury in biota is in the form of methyl

mercury (4#. 9t has been estimated that about "!!! tons of mercury are annually

released into the environment by manEs activities. Mercury is readily scaven%ed by

or%anic matter. Mercury salts from industrial effluents deposit in the river or la5e

sediments and are then acted upon by anaerobic bacteria, which convert them into

to&ic methyl mercury and dimethyl mercury. Soluble mercury is readily incorporated

into or%anisms in the a2uatic environment and ultimately finds its ways into hi%her

members of the food chain such as man. The pro%ress of mercury throu%h the food

chain successively increases its concentration to such an e&tent that natural levels in

some commercial fish are close to or e&ceed the lowest level that was set by health

authorities in the countries. 6nalyses of the Areenland ice cap revealed that while


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mercury levels worldwide have been constant since !! ).0., since 17"!, the

amounts present seems to have doubled.

6lthou%h it had been 5nown for many centuries that mercury is poisonous to

animals and humans, it was not until the late 17"!s that its e&treme to&icity to

humans was appreciated as it made headlines worldwide. 9n 17"


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others. >ic5el-induced contact dermatitis is well documented for humans and is the

most prevalent effect of nic5el e&posure in humans. >ic5el and nic5el compounds

are 5nown to be human carcino%ens based on sufficient evidence of carcino%enicity

from studies in humans, includin% epidemiolo%ical and mechanistic information,

which indicates a casueal relationship between e&posure of nic5el compounds and

human cancer.

[email protected]! Bead

Bead is the most common of the heavy elements. Bead is present in tap water

as a result of dissolution from natural sources or from household plumbin% systems

containin% lead in pipes. The amount of lead from the plumbin% system that may be

dissolved depends on several factors, includin% acidity (p$#, water softness and

standin% time of the water (4#. Other sources of lead inta5e include ceramic ware,

activities involvin% arts and crafts, peelin% paint, and renovations resultin% in dust or

fumes from paint (4#. Bead can be absorbed by the body throu%h inhalation,

in%estion, dermal contact (mainly as a result of occupational e&posure#, or transfer

via the placenta. Of the total body lead, appro&imately ! J 7"C in adults and about


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and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy were observed in occupationally e&posed

populations at blood lead levels of 3!-@! µ% dB-1.

[email protected] Linc

>ormal avera%e zinc inta5e by adult humans throu%h the diet ran%es from

m% d -1 to 1@ m% d-1. 9n humans and animals, lon%-term e&posure to e&cess levels of

zinc may result in copper deficiency, reduced immune function, reduced levels of

hi%h-density lipoproteins (the %ood cholesterol#, anaemia, death of foetuses, and

dama%e to the liver, pancreas and 5idneys (6TS=, !!@#. $owever, in the conte&t

of pollution, zinc is more a cause of phytoto&icity rather than bein% to&ic to animals

and humans. 6nthropo%enic sources of zinc are %alvanised steel, sewa%e slud%e,

waste disposals and industrial releases. Aalvanised steel is used in roofs, %utters,

drainpipes and wire fences. G&posure to acid rain slowly dissolves these materials

and the zinc ends up in soil or runoff water. Linc is also widely used in domestic

products such as s5in care products (cosmetics, baby creams, shampoos#. To%ether

with draina%e water from %alvanised surfaces, these are the main sources of zinc

pollution of sewa%e water, effluent from wastewater treatment plants and sewa%e

slud%e. $ence, spreadin% sewa%e slud%e on land as a fertiliser pro%ressively

increases the zinc concentrations in a%ricultural soils. The other ma?or sources of

zinc in domestic waste in adition to discarded %alvanised materials and domestic

products containin% zinc are batteries, pi%ment and paints. *aste disposal can

therefore lead to local soil and %roundwater pollution around landfills.

2.: Agr%cutura and Urban%5at%on Eff!ct to R%&!r

Band-use chan%es in river basins, as a result of a%ricultural intensification and

e&pansion, as well as urbanization, can affect various characteristics of river

ecosystem inte%rity, such as water 2uality, community structure, and primary andsecondary production, or%anic matter decomposition, ecosystem metabolism and


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ener%y flu&es (6llan, !!3 'oun% and Matthaei et al., !! osa, 6%uiar et al.,

!1


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2.< Part%cuat! Trac! 3!ta'

articulate trace metals are 5ey components in the bio%eochemical cycles of

many elements of the water column. They represent an intermediate sta%e in the

transport of the chemical components in seawater to the seafloor sediments.

articulate enters the marine environment throu%h waterways, runoff, eolic transport,

%roundwater and others (aleni5, Arimwood et al., !! Tiefenthaler and Stein et

al., !!#.

2.1= a"! Ato"%c Ab'or)t%on S)!ctro'co)y

6mon% the spectrometric methods used to determine metal concentrations,

;66S is particularly useful to perform water analysis. 9t is relatively ine&pensive

method, which presents an ade2uate sensitivity sufficiently hi%h for the

determination of ma?or metals in most of a2uatic systems. 0onsiderin% the most of

atomic absorption instruments are also e2uipped to operate in an emission mode,

lar%e number of al5ali metals are typically determined by flame photometry or flame

atomic emission spectrometry 7;6GS# due to their relative low e&citation and

simplicity of the emission techni2ues. This techni2ue is relative free from spectral

interferences and considerin% its versatility and simplicity of opration, it has become

the most e&tensively used method for the determination of metals within water

samples.


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CHAPTER #

RESEARCH 3ETHODO+O>?

#.1 R!ag!nt' and Standard'

6nalytical %rade (6# chemicals will be use throu%hout the study without

any further purification. To prepare all the rea%ents and calibration standards, double

%lass distilled water was used. The metal standards were prepared from stoc5

solution of 1!!! m%B (Merc5, Aermany#R by successive dilution with ultra-pure

water. =eionized water was used throu%hout the study. )efore di%estion, the sample

flas5s and di%estion vessels is soa5in% into 1!C $>O


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#.2 Sa")!' Co!ct%on and Pr!'!r&at%on

Samplin% is schedule to done between months of September to >ovember

!1" from five different stations, all alon% Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai

/ampun% /elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. Three to four samples

of base flow is e&pected to be collected between these months and another two to

three samples of storm flow is e&pected to be collected between these months. The

coordinates of the samplin% areas areH

Samplin% area 0oordinates

Sun%ai /elantan 1E 3 should be worn durin% water samplin%. Store the water samples

in polythene bottles.

;or total recoverable metals, all samples must be acidified at the time of

collection with " mB of $>OO


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#.2.2 S!d%"!nt Sa")%ng

0ollect freshly deposited upper sediments layer from shallow water near ban5

at each samplin% point of Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%

/elantan and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. lace the sediment that has been

collected into pre-cleaned polythene ba%s. Oven dried %round, homo%enized and seal

the sediment samples in clean polythene ba%s. Store the sediment samples in a

refri%erator.

#.# D%g!'t%on of -at!r Sa")!' for D!t!r"%nat%on of 3!ta'

Transfer a 1!! mB ali2uot well-mi&ed sample to a bea5er. ;or metals that are

to be analyzed, add mB of concentrated $>O


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"

This method is to e&plain the preparation of sediments for analysis of samples

by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (90-MS#.

#.(.1 Pr!)arat%on of S!d%"!nt

Mi& the sample thorou%hly to achieve homo%eneity and sieve. 6ll e2uipment

used for homo%enization should be cleaned to minimize the potential of cross-

contamination. ;or each di%estion procedure, wei%h to the nearest !.!1 % and transfer a 1- % sample (wet wei%ht# or 1 % sample (dry wei%ht# to a di%estion vessel. ;or

samples with hi%h li2uid content, a lar%er sample size may be used as lon% as

di%estion is completed.

#.(.2 EPA 3!t/od #=*=B

6 procedure recommended by Gnvironmental rotection 6%ency (G6,

Method

$>Oslowly without allowin% any losses. eflu& the mi&ture with 1! mB of


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@

#.* In'tru"!ntat%on for D!t!r"%nat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n -at!r and

S!d%"!nt

6ll the determinations are %oin% to be done with inductively coupled plasma

mass spectrometry. 90-MS is a relatively new method for determinin% multi-

element analysis and ideal for water, since the vast ma?ority of tar%et compounds can

be detected below !.1 m%B. The operatin% conditions are listed belowH

>ebulizer Aas flow rates !.7" lmin

6u&iliary Aas ;low 1. lmin

lasma Aas ;low 1" lmin

Bens Kolta%e ." K90 ; ower 11!! *

0eO0e !.!


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eplicate sample should be processed on a routine basis. 6 replicate sample is

a sample brou%ht throu%h the whole sample preparation and analytical process.

eplicate samples will be used to determine precision. The sample load will dictate

the fre2uency, but "C is recommended. Spi5ed samples or standard reference

material should be employed to determine accuracy. 6 spi5ed sample should be

included with each batch.

#.: Cacuat%on

The concentrations determined are to be reported on the basis of the actual

wei%ht of the sample. 9f a dry wei%ht analysis is desired, then the percent solids of

the sample must also be provided. 9f percent soilds is desired, a separate

determination of percent solids must be performed on a homo%eneous ali2uot of the

sample.

=etermine the concentration of heavy metals in each sample by referrin% to

the calibration curve. 6lternatively, calibrate the spectrophotometer and read directly

in concentration mode. 0alculate the concentration of heavy metals in milli%rams per

litreH

Metal, m%B 0 × (1!!K#

where,

0 J 0oncentration from curve, m%B

K J Kolume of ali2uot, mB


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CHAPTER (

E@PECTED RESU+TS

(.1 Conc!ntrat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n S!d%"!nt

;rom the research conducted, the concentrations of heavy metals are

estimated to be very hi%h durin% storm flow. 6 recent study by Araham, Kino%radoff

et al. (!!@# revealed that storm flow can play a ma?or role in the release of dissolve

b from peatland soils. Thus the concentration of b in water is e&pected to be hi%h

durin% storm flow compared to base flow.

(.2 Conc!ntrat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n -at!r

6ccordin% to )yrne and eid et al. (!!7#, it has been shown that in their

studies, that rain-fed floods substantially increase the potential to&icity of river water in the 6fon Twymyn. Measured metal concentrations were si%nificantly %reater than

Gnvironmental Fuality Standards (GFSs#. This source was most li5ely because

hi%hly mobile and bioavailable metals adsorbed to the sediment of the river

bedmar%ins.


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7

CHAPTER *

CONC+USION AND RECO33ENDATION

This wor5 is set out to determine the concentration of heavy metals durin% base

flow and storm flow all alon% Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%

/elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. )esides that, this study is to evaluate

the ris5 related to contamination associated with such e&tensive natural events. The

e&pected outcome of this pro?ect is that there could be possible adverse impacts to the

residin% a2uatic life as a result of the e&posure to hi%h concentration of the studied

metals.

Monitorin% heavy metals at Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%

/elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5 should be continued durin% dry and

wet weathers. )iolo%ical to&icity surveys should be underta5en in order to provide

definite decision re%ardin% the possible adverse effects.


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REERENCES

6llan, 8. =. (!!3# Bandscapes and riverscapesH The influence of land use on stream

ecosystems. Vol. 35. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics (pp.

"-3#.)yrne, ., eid, 9., + *ood, . 8. (!!7#. Short-term fluctuations in heavy metal

concentrations during flood events through abandoned metal mines, with

imlications for a!uatic ecology and mine water treatment . aper presented at

the 9nternational Mine *ater 0onference !!7, retoria, South 6frica.

0Dceres, =. M., =iaz, S., olo, M. A., /itzber%er, T., arma, 6., ascual, M.,

abinovich, 8., Tancredi, G., + Ki%lizzo, G. (!!"#. Gcosystems and $uman*ellJbein%H )iodiversity Synthesis. etrieved 11 October !1", from

httpHwww.millenniumassessment.or%enSynthesis.html

0uon%, =. T., + Obbard, 8. . (!!@#. Metal speciation in coastal marine sediments fromSin%apore usin% a modified )0-se2uential e&traction procedure. Alied

"eochemistry, #$(#, 1apoli, 0., Aendler, /., Manuell, 6., Tai, K., Kallon,

O., i%aneau, A., 8ance5, S., $ei?de, M., 8abbari, /., )owler, 0., Bohr, M.,obbens, S., *erner, A., =ubcha5, 9., azour, A. 8., en, F., aulsen, 9.,

=elwiche, 0., Schmutz, 8., o5hsar, =., Kan =e eer, '., Moreau, $., +

Ari%oriev, 9. K. (!!#. The tiny eu5aryote Ostreococcus provides %enomic

insi%hts into the parado& of plan5ton speciation. )roceedings of the ational Academy of Sciences of the nited States of America, $('(1#, !"-1!.

almer, G. (!1!#. ater )ollution (1 ed. Kol. 3#. 9ndiaH 6pple 6cademic ress 9nc.ar5inson, 8. >., Aoldenfum, 8. 6., + Tucci, 0. G. M. (!1!#. /ntegrated rban ater

*anagement0 1umid &roics (Kol. @#. BondonH 00 ress Taylor + ;rancis

Aroup.

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/Synthesis.htmlhttp://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/Synthesis.html


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