This article was downloaded by: [RMIT University] On: 17 March 2013, At: 02:51 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Road Materials and Pavement Design Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trmp20 Development of an accelerated pavement test reproducing the effect of natural ageing on skid resistance M. Kane a , D. Zhao a , E. Chailleux a , F. Delarrard a & M. T. Do a a IFSTTAR, Pt 75, Route de BOUAYE, Bouguenais, 44340, France Version of record first published: 11 Dec 2012. To cite this article: M. Kane , D. Zhao , E. Chailleux , F. Delarrard & M. T. Do (2013): Development of an accelerated pavement test reproducing the effect of natural ageing on skid resistance, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 14:1, 126-140 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2012.749804 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and- conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
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This article was downloaded by: [RMIT University]On: 17 March 2013, At: 02:51Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Road Materials and Pavement DesignPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trmp20
Development of an acceleratedpavement test reproducing the effectof natural ageing on skid resistanceM. Kane a , D. Zhao a , E. Chailleux a , F. Delarrard a & M. T. Do aa IFSTTAR, Pt 75, Route de BOUAYE, Bouguenais, 44340, FranceVersion of record first published: 11 Dec 2012.
To cite this article: M. Kane , D. Zhao , E. Chailleux , F. Delarrard & M. T. Do (2013): Developmentof an accelerated pavement test reproducing the effect of natural ageing on skid resistance, RoadMaterials and Pavement Design, 14:1, 126-140
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2012.749804
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representationthat the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of anyinstructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primarysources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Development of an accelerated pavement test reproducing the effect ofnatural ageing on skid resistance
M. Kane*, D. Zhao, E. Chailleux, F. Delarrard and M.T. Do
IFSTTAR, Pt 75, Route de BOUAYE, Bouguenais 44340, France
This study deals with the development of a new test method simulating the effect of ageingon skid resistance. This test is applied to bituminous mixes in this study, but can also beapplied to concrete. This test relies on two machines, the Wehner–Schulze machine, to measurethe friction, and the Weatherometer sunset machine, to simulate weather effects (rain, wind,sunlight, etc.). The relevance of this test is evaluated from comparisons between changes infriction and a chemical function linked to bitumen ageing: the carbonyl index. Validation isperformed on bituminous mixture samples exposed to natural and accelerated ageing modes.Three very thin asphalt concrete (VTAC) slabs are manufactured in the laboratory with threedifferent types of bitumens. Two specimens are extracted from each slab: one for natural ageingand the other for accelerated ageing. The evolutions of friction and carbonyl index measuredon these samples submitted to the two ageing modes exhibit similar tendencies for all threebitumen types, thus confirming the relevance of the test. A conversion factor describing thecorrespondence between the durations of accelerated ageing and those of natural ageing isproposed for each type of bitumen.
1. IntroductionTire/road friction, which is one of the main factors determining the overall road safety, dependson a large number of factors such as tire characteristics, environment, car operating conditionsand pavement characteristics. Road skid resistance is defined as the contribution of the pavementto the generated friction. But skid resistance evolves continuously during the life of the pavement.For bituminous pavements, presently, four phenomena are identified as being responsible for thisperpetual evolution (Brillet & Gothié, 1983; Chelliah, Stephanos, Smith, & Kochen, 2003; Do,Tang, & Kane, 2009; Kane, Piau, & Do, 2008; Kane, Zhao, De-Larrard, & Do, 2012; Kane,Zhao, Do, Chailleux, & Delarrard, 2010; Lopez et al., 2012; Nitta, Saito, & Isozaki, 1990; Roe& Hartshorne, 1998; Tourenq & Fourmaintraux, 1971): binder removal, aggregate wear, bitumenageing and seasonal variations.
Generally, in the early life of the pavements, the skid resistance increases due to the scouringof the bitumen present on the surface. As shown by Do et al. (2009), this phenomenon graduallyreveals the microtexture of the aggregates. The rate of change depends upon the surfacing materialssuch as bitumen and aggregates, traffic intensity and environmental conditions.
This microtexture should be sharp enough to penetrate the water film and ensure a good skidresistance in wet conditions. However, this sharpness induces high stress on asperity tips when
being in contact with tires (Kane et al., 2008). Therefore, the traffic tends to polish the aggregateson such surfaces and makes them slippery (Kane et al., 2012). As pointed out by Tourenq andFourmaintraux (1971), rocks offering high polishing resistance are those composed of minerals ofsufficiently different hardness. Recently, in the continuation of Tourenq’s work, a laboratory testreproducing the evolution of skid resistance due to traffic polishing using the Wehner–Schulzemachine has been developed (Do et al., 2009).
The fluctuations accompanying the evolution of skid resistance are widely attributed to seasonaland/or short-term environmental variations. This is confirmed by the fact that the magnitude ofskid resistance generally follows the pattern of local seasonal variations and is generally higherin winter than in summer (Brillet & Gothié, 1983).
In addition to these two well-known phenomena described above, regular monitoring campaignsof skid resistance reveal that on emergency shoulders of motorways (lanes without any traffic andthus no polishing and no scouring of bitumen), friction increases strongly in the first few monthsuntil reaching a maximum and then remains relatively constant. The same phenomenon hasbeen noted on countryside roads with very less traffic (Kane et al., 2010). Therefore, the ageingphenomenon, only due to environmental loading, cannot be ignored when predicting the evolutionof skid resistance.
A new accelerated ageing procedure is proposed in this paper to simulate the effects of naturalageing on asphalt pavement friction. This new test is based on the use of two machines: Wehner–Schulze machine, to measure the friction, and the Weatherometer sunset test machine, to simulateweather effects (rain, wind, sunlight, etc.). The relevance of the test method is evaluated viacomparisons between changes in friction and a chemical function well known to be linked to theageing of bitumen: the carbonyl index.
2. Accelerated ageing tests2.1. Bitumen ageingGenerally, ageing affects bitumen by bringing about changes in its rheological behaviour and inits composition. In the field, ageing generally induces cracking of the pavements. The bitumenundergoes two types of ageing (Farcas, 1996; Hagos, 2008; Hagos, Molenaar, & Van de Ven, 2009;Lopez et al., 2012; Nitta et al., 1990; Oliver, 2009; Partal, Martinez-Boza, Conde, & Gallegos,1999; Petersen & Glaser, 2011; Wu et al., 2008; Xiaohu & Isacsson, 2002):
• Physical ageing results in an increase in the viscosity without a chemical modifica-tion. Physical ageing occurs when the material is stored at cold temperatures. It bringsabout slow molecular changes, making the material stiffer and less able to relax. Thistype of ageing is reversible after passage of the binder in liquid phase by simplyheating it.
• Chemical ageing is by far the largest and most complex process and corresponds tooxidation reactions, cyclisation and aromatisation. It also leads to the hardening of thebitumen under the combined effect of heat and oxygen. Contrary to physical ageing, it is anirreversible mechanism. The kinetic of hardening is influenced by temperature, ultraviolet(UV), humidity and material characteristics.
2.2. Existing ageing tests of bitumenTwo tests are commonly used to simulate the chemical ageing of bitumen: rolling thin filmoven test, which simulates ageing during the mixing step, and the pressure ageing vessel test,which simulates ageing in the field during the laying. Unfortunately, these tests simulate only
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the chemical ageing due to the combined effect of temperature and air, but do not simulateenvironmental attacks combining the effects of UV light, temperature, oxygen and moisture. Onthe other hand, there is no ageing test coupled with friction measurements to assess the effectof ageing on skid resistance. In order to understand these physicochemical phenomena, there isa need for a new accelerated ageing procedure to simulate the effects of natural ageing on skidresistance. This is what is proposed in the following.
2.3. Ageing test for bituminous mixture proposed in this study2.3.1. The ageing machine: Weatherometer SUNTEST XXLThe Weatherometer SUNTEST XXL machine allows us to test the influence of sunlight, temper-ature and water on any type of specimen (Figure 1). It is designed to provide uniform illuminationthrough filtered xenon arc lamps, especially designed to simulate natural sunlight. It also makesit possible to control the relative humidity and simulated rainfall with an irrigation system(Wu et al., 2008).
The lighting system consists of three irradiators placed above the chamber. A xenon lamp isinstalled in each of them. The radiation is absorbed by a quartz filter and is distributed by a curvedreflector. A black panel with a temperature range of 45–100◦C is used to control the temperature ofthe test sample surface and the power of xenon lamps. The humidification system allows varyingthe air relative humidity in the chamber between 20% and 95%. The watering system is presentinside the chamber with a variable flow rate of approximately 0.3 l/min.
Figure 1. The SUNTEST XXL machine.
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Figure 2. The Wehner–Schulze machine: (a) panoramic view, (b) polishing wheels and (c) frictionmeasurement pads.
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2.3.2. Accelerated ageing test procedureThe test protocol is defined to have equivalences between operating parameters of the ageingmachine and the real weather conditions in the Nantes region (France). To do so, meteorologicaldata have been collected from METEO FRANCE and analysed (Brillet & Gothié, 1983). Accord-ing to the collected data, one year of rain in Nantes generates 82 cm of water. Thus, the water flowof the ageing machine is set at 0.11 cm/min, which corresponds to 12 h of watering. Similarly,the climate of Nantes is oceanic with an annual average humidity of 81%; therefore, this valuewas chosen directly as the operating value of humidity of the ageing machine. Solar radiation isconsidered as one of the main causes of ageing. Therefore, for artificial ageing, it is necessaryto give it special importance. The average annual radiation in Nantes is 215 MJ/m2/year, so theduration of exposure to the ageing machine for an irradiance of 60 W/m2 is 3.58.106 s (equivalentto one year of irradiation).
From these estimates and taking into account the technical characteristics of the machine, 500cycles of 2-h duration are used. Each cycle consists of 2 min of watering and 118 min of dryingunder irradiation. Every 24 h, the samples are removed from the ageing chamber to carry outfriction and chemical measurements.
3. Tests used for the physical and chemical evaluations of bituminous mixture surfaceevolution during ageing
3.1. The friction measurement: the Wehner–Schulze machineThe Wehner–Schulze machine consists of two systems: a polishing system and a measurementfriction system (Figure 2). Only the measurement friction system was used in this study. Thissystem reproduces in the laboratory the locked wheel measuring method practised in the field. Atthe start of the measurement process, the three rubber pads of the measuring head are acceleratedto a speed of 100 km/h. Then, water is sprayed and the rubber pads come into contact with thesurface of the specimen. The friction values are recorded over the whole speed range from 0 to100 Km/h, but only the value at 60 km/h has been considered for this study (Do et al., 2009).
3.2. Measurement of the chemical evolution: the carbonyl indexA non-destructive technique has been developed to characterise the chemical modifications of thebinder at the surface of the samples. Details of the protocol can be found in Lopez et al. (2012). Inthis new procedure, only two bitumen-coated aggregates are extracted and immersed in a solvent(Figure 3). The mineral part is separated from the organic part (bitumen) by centrifugation. Then,the infrared absorption spectrum is measured directly on the mixture composed of the solventand bitumen. The knowledge of the absorption spectrum of the solvent allows the absorptionspectrum of the bitumen to be measured. The obtained spectrum has two characteristic absorptionbands of the major oxygenated functional groups: the carbonyl functions around 1700 cm−1 andsulphoxide functions around 1030 cm−1 (Figure 4). Assuming that the ethylene (CH2) groups at1460 cm−1 and methyl (CH3) groups at 1375 cm−1 are not significantly modified by the oxidationof the binder, the quantities of the oxygen function are determined quantitatively by calculatingthe two structural indices of carbonyl and sulphoxide. The carbonyl index (Ic), used in this studyas the chemical ageing factor, is calculated from the following formula:
Ic =∫ W=1750
W=1650 F(W ) dW∫ W=1500
W=1325 F(W ) dW, (1)
with F(W ) representing the spectrum and W the wave number (Figure 6).
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Figure 3. Gravel extraction for a chemical analysis.
4. Materials and samplesA test plan was developed to evaluate the ability of the test procedure described above to reproducethe effect of natural ageing on skid resistance. A set of slabs were fabricated in the laboratory usingthree different bitumens. These binders represent three types of bitumens that could be found inactual pavement construction: a naphthenic bitumen, a paraffinic bitumen and a polymer-modifiedbitumen. Table 1 reports the design characteristics of the samples.
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Figure 4. The infrared absorption spectra of bitumen at different levels of ageing.
Table 1. The characteristics of the bituminous mixtures used in the study.
Components (VTAC 0/10) Name, type, PSV (%) Name
Aggregates Fraction 6/10 mm F, Diorite, 52 55,454/6 mm 12,320/2 mm 24,17Filler K, Limestone, 32 2,84
Notes: PSV, polishing stone value; SBS, styrene butadiene styrene.
The samples were divided into two groups: one group for natural ageing and the other groupfor accelerated ageing. For natural ageing, the first group of samples was left outdoors, exposedto the various climatic elements (Figure 5 (b)). On the other hand, for accelerated ageing, the testprocedure described above was applied to the other group of samples (Figure 5(a)).
Figure 5. The samples used for both modes of ageing: (a) accelerated and (b) natural.
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5. Results5.1. Friction coefficient measurements during ageingFigure 6 shows the evolution of the friction coefficients due to both modes of ageing measuredon the three types of samples. For all samples and for both modes of ageing, a real increase infriction during the first few moments of the ageing process was noted. This increase was followedby the stabilisation of friction (2 months for natural ageing and 18 h for accelerated ageing). For
Figure 6. The evolution of the friction coefficients for the three types of samples: (a) the friction coefficientsof the samples submitted to the accelerated ageing protocol and (b) the friction coefficients of the samplessubmitted to the natural ageing protocol.
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both modes of ageing, the friction coefficients of the three samples were similar, whatever thebitumen tested.
These observations clearly confirm the ability to reproduce the effect of natural ageing on skidresistance by the accelerated ageing protocol described above. However, the stabilised part of thefriction evolution curves of the samples subjected to natural ageing exhibits some periodic fluctu-ations of 12 months. These fluctuations can be perhaps attributed to seasonal variations. But moreinvestigations need be done before being categorical. The slight decrease in friction observed inthe samples subjected to accelerated ageing would probably be due to the numerous repeated mea-surements of friction done always inside the same track (crown). This procedure finally polishes
Figure 7. The changes in the carbonyl index as a function of ageing time: (a) natural ageing and (b)accelerated ageing.
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Table 2. The synthesis of the slope and the R2 values on Ic measures.
the microtexture slightly. This polishing phenomenon, after numerous friction measurements,would probably be found in samples subjected to natural ageing, but the phenomenon is certainlynegligible compared with the observed seasonal variations.
6. Carbonyl index measurements during ageingThe Ic evolutions of the three bitumens, extracted from the samples exposed to natural andaccelerated ageing, are shown in Figure 7. The curves show the evolution of Ic as a function of thetwo time scales, respectively (days in Figure 7(a) and months in Figure 7(b)). In both cases, the Icindex increases with the ageing time. However, the samples submitted to accelerated ageing showhigher final values of Ic, indicating a higher degree of ageing at the end of the process. The Icindices did not stabilise during the time of the study, showing that oxidation could continue untila higher value is reached. Contrary to what we expected, 40 days of accelerated ageing appearedto be more severe than one year of natural ageing. Indeed, Ic measured after 40 days of artificialageing is 2% superior to Ic measured after 1 year of natural ageing, whatever the binder used. In thefirst approximation, Ic values were linearly interpolated. The slopes, intercept and R2 values of thetrend lines are given in Table 2. Intercepts were chosen in order to correspond, for both modes ofageing, to the initial values of the carbonyl index. For each ageing condition, the interpolated linesshowed a similar ageing kinetic whatever the binder tested: 0.23% per day for accelerated ageingand 0.53% per month for natural ageing (mean value of slopes). Finally, using the aforementionedageing methods, it can be concluded that surface ageing can be accelerated by 10 by means ofthe accelerated method or, in other words, 3 days of accelerated ageing corresponds to 1 monthof natural ageing.
7. From accelerated ageing to natural ageing effect predictionThe evolution of the friction coefficients of the samples studied here is assumed to be only theconsequence of the ageing of the organic phase: the bitumen. Hence, if the accelerating law isknown for the carbonyl index, it would be possible to predict the evolution of friction in naturalexposition from friction measured on the sample exposed to accelerated ageing conditions. Thisassumption is tested in the following.
7.1. Accelerated factor determined from the carbonyl index measurementsIn order to obtain the accelerating factor (named here kv) due to ageing, data from the infraredmeasurements are used. Hence, carbonyl indices from accelerated ageing and natural ageing areused to establish a relationship between the “accelerated time” Ta, expressed in days, and “naturaltime” Tn, expressed in months. A linear relationship is assumed between Ta and Tn (Equation 2).
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Figure 8. The adjusted straight lines of Ic – natural ageing versus accelerated ageing of the three binderssubjected to the two modes of ageing.
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Table 3. The summary of the conversion factors kv and the coefficients ofdetermination R2 of the three bitumens.
This assumption is formulated after analysing the friction evolutions due to the two modes ofageing. Indeed, they exhibit the same shape (excepting that one is more stretched than the other,as has been pointed out already in the previous section):
Ta = kvTn, (2)
where kv represents the conversion factor.Practically, kv is calculated using several couples (Ta, Tn) chosen so that Ic(Ta) = Ic(Tn).
Figure 8 shows 1/Ta plotted according to 1/Tn. A linear interpolation is performed where theslope corresponds to the accelerating factor Kv . The results for the three binders are summarisedin Table 3.
7.2. Use of the accelerated factor kv as a tool to predict the natural evolution of the frictioncoefficients from accelerated tests
Figure 9 compares the evolutions of friction due to both modes of ageing after stretching thedays-axis of the accelerated ageing friction curve using the conversion factors kv taken fromTable 3. The triangle-shaped dots and the diamond-shaped dots represent the values of frictioncoefficients measured on the samples during accelerated ageing and natural ageing, respectively.The quality of the superposition validates the assumption that the evolution of friction is mainlydue to the ageing of the organic phase.
8. Suggestions for future investigationsTo go further regarding this topic, some key points must be addressed in future investigations:
• The changes in bitumen during the ageing process must be apprehended via the changes intexture also. Indeed, the texture of the pavement governs skid resistance, and it would beinteresting to regularly record it during the ageing process and to evaluate how it changeswith it.
• Of course, it is expected that only the microtexture undergoes changes with ageing (andnot the macrotexture). So to study the relation ageing/microtexture/friction, the character-isation of the hardness of the Wehner–Schulze rubber pads must be done. Indeed, the useof very soft rubbers means that the contributions of both microtexture and macrotextureare measured. Even if testing at 100 Km/h with the Wehner–Schulze will not allow us tomeasure the macrotexture as the rubber does not envelope the stones, but at lower speedssuch as 60 Km/h, nothing can be claimed.
• It is also very important to evaluate the friction measurement conditions (air and watertemperatures). These parameters affect the measured friction. Indeed, the temperatureaffects rubber hardness.
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Figure 9. The comparison of the evolutions of the friction coefficients due to both modes of ageing afteraxis conversion using the accelerating factor kv determined from the carbonyl index measurements.
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9. ConclusionIn this paper, an accelerated ageing test is proposed to simulate the evolution of skid resistance asa result of natural ageing. This test uses the XXL Weatherometer SUNTEST machine to simulateclimatic conditions such as rain, sunshine and humidity against bituminous pavements. In thisstudy, the Wehner–Schulze machine was used to measure the friction. A set of slabs with threedifferent bitumens were fabricated in the laboratory and separated into two groups: one groupwas subjected to natural ageing and the other group was subjected to accelerated ageing. For bothmodes of ageing, the evolution of the friction coefficients exhibited the same shape, whatever thebitumen tested. The similarity between both the evolutions of skid resistance due to both modesof ageing validates this test.
An accelerating factor between natural ageing and accelerated ageing has been proposed froma comparison of the carbonyl indices induced by both modes of ageing. This accelerating factorallows us to predict skid resistance from data obtained in the laboratory under accelerated condi-tions. This result shows that the chemical ageing of the organic phase is strongly involved in thefriction evolution during the first year.
This test also has the potential for saving time. For example, accelerated ageing under the testconditions described above for 30 days simulates about 365 days of natural ageing.
AcknowledgementsThe research leading to the results reported in this paper has been partly performed by means of an appa-ratus funded by the Europeans Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under grantagreement no. SCP-GA-2008-218747.
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