Güney-Doğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Dergisi Yıl: 2014-2 Sayı: 26 S. 65-96 * Assoc. Prof., Gümüşhane University, Faculty of Letters, Department of History, [email protected]DIPLOMACY AS A SOURCE OF TRAVELOGUES: THE CASE OF PIERRE AMÉDÉE JAUBERT’S MISSION IN PERSIA IN 1805-1806 Özgür YILMAZ * Abstract In terms of sources of travelogues, it could be said that diplomatic relations have a very important place in the emergence of this kind of writing as seen in the early examples of travelogues. Among the travelogues on the Eastern countries, the European diplomat, am- bassador or his retinues wrote an important part of them. These works can be used as a diplomatic source with respect to their writers, as well as being an unofficial type of literature; they contain many interesting details about the country in which travellers journeyed and re- sided. There is a very rich travel literature on Persia, and they constitute an important part of the sources of Persian history. Travelogues increase especially in the 19 th century. However, considering the developments of the early periods of the century, it can be seen that these sources are more important in terms of Persian external policy. Napoleon’s attempt to ally with Persia led to the emergence of some important sources about this period. Focusing on Jaubert’s mission in Persia, this paper aims to make some determinations about the impor- tance of diplomatic missions in travel writing. Keywords: Jaubert, Travelogues, Diplomacy, France, Persia, Armenia. Introduction The longing for distant places and curiosity about unknown places that inherited in the nature of the human being make people to travel longer journeys, to write vo- luminous travel books. This kind of writing, which was created by diplomats, writers, artists, scholars traveling around the world, is called as “travelogues” in general, shows a literary feature as well as being a historical resource. 1 Travel literature is a broad genre consisting of descriptive accounts, also known as travelogues or itineraries, telling about an individual or a group’s encounter with a new place, peoples and cultures. Travelogues can present an account of a cross-cultural or transnational aspect, or tell about travel to particular regions of a country. 2 When we look at the rise of the oriental travel, we must refer to the Ottoman Em- pire, which became a great power from the 15 th century in the Mediterranean especially aſter the conquest of Syria and Egypt. 3 The intense relations with the European states and the Ottoman dominance over the trade routes from 1580s have attracted many travellers 1 Winfried Löschburg, Seyahatin Kültür Tarihi, Trans. Jasmin Traub, Ankara: Dost Kitabevi, 1998, p. 8. 2 Özgür Yılmaz, “Osmanlı Şehir Tarihleri Açısından Yabancı Seyahatnamelerin Kaynak Değeri”, Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi, 28/2, İzmir 2014, pp. 599-606. 3 Gülgün Üçel-Aybet, Avrupalı Seyyahların Gözünden Osmanlı Dünyası ve İnsanları (1530-1699), İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2003, p.16.
Transcript
Güney-Doğu Avrupa Araştırmaları DergisiYıl: 2014-2 Sayı: 26 S. 65-96
DIPLOMACY AS A SOURCE OF TRAVELOGUES: THE CASE OF PIERRE AMÉDÉE JAUBERT’S MISSION IN PERSIA IN 1805-1806
Özgür YILMAZ*
Abstract
Intermsofsourcesoftravelogues,itcouldbesaidthatdiplomaticrelationshaveaveryimportantplace in theemergenceof thiskindofwritingasseen in theearlyexamplesoftravelogues.AmongthetraveloguesontheEasterncountries,theEuropeandiplomat,am-bassadororhisretinueswrotean importantpartof them.Theseworkscanbeusedasadiplomaticsourcewithrespecttotheirwriters,aswellasbeinganunofficialtypeofliterature;theycontainmanyinterestingdetailsaboutthecountryinwhichtravellersjourneyedandre-sided.ThereisaveryrichtravelliteratureonPersia,andtheyconstituteanimportantpartofthesourcesofPersianhistory.Traveloguesincreaseespeciallyinthe19thcentury.However,consideringthedevelopmentsoftheearlyperiodsofthecentury,itcanbeseenthatthesesourcesaremoreimportantintermsofPersianexternalpolicy.Napoleon’sattempttoallywithPersialedtotheemergenceofsomeimportantsourcesaboutthisperiod.FocusingonJaubert’smissioninPersia,thispaperaimstomakesomedeterminationsabouttheimpor-tanceofdiplomaticmissionsintravelwriting.
1 WinfriedLöschburg,Seyahatin Kültür Tarihi,Trans.JasminTraub,Ankara:DostKitabevi,1998,p.8.2 Özgür Yılmaz, “Osmanlı Şehir Tarihleri Açısından Yabancı Seyahatnamelerin Kaynak Değeri”, Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi,28/2,İzmir2014,pp.599-606.3 Gülgün Üçel-Aybet,Avrupalı Seyyahların Gözünden Osmanlı Dünyası ve İnsanları (1530-1699), İstanbul:İletişimYayınları,2003,p.16.
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totheOttomanlands.4Inthe18-19thcentury,aremarkableincreasewasseeninthequantitiesoftraveloguesontheOrient.Attheendofthe18thcentury,theestablishmentoftheBritishadministrationinIndia,theoccupationofEgyptby theFrench,and theBritish-Frenchcompetition led toanunexpected in-creaseinthenumberoftravelstotheEast.Moreover,thetravellerspublishedvoluminoustraveloguestosatisfyEuropeanreaderswhowerereadytoreadallkindoftravelliterature.Thisprocessplayedakeyroleintheemergenceofascientificdisciplinecalled“orientalism”.AsaproductoftheWest’sdefiningprocessof theEast,orientalismbecameameansofestablishingthewest-ernhegemonyovertheEasternculturesbytheendofthe19thcentury.TheEuropeantraveller’ssystematicstudyoftheEastledtosystematicabusesinculturalandpoliticalmatterstoo.5
Therewasa close relationshipbetween travelsanddiplomacyasob-served in the emergence ofmany travelogues. Diplomacy and commercialinterests intertwined fromancient times,andembassiesbetween rulers todiscussmatters of politics and trade have generated informal travelogues,diaries,orlettersoutsidetheofficialreportssentbacktoambassadors’mas-ters.TheearliestrecordeddiplomaticmissionstookplacewhenthekingsofBabylonia,AsssyriaandEgyptsentenvoystonegotiatewithotherruler.Al-though little isknownaboutearliest trademissions,oneof thefirstwas inancientEgypt. In theChristianera,papalmissions to convert the “enemiesofChrist” oftenusedbymembersof religiousorders-DominicanandFran-
4 OnthistopicseeGeraldMacLean,The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580-1720,Hamshire:PalgraveMacmillan,2006;MicheleLongino,French Travel Writing in the Ottoman Empire: Marseilles to Constantinople, 1650-1700,NewYork:Routledge,2015.5 Fatma Acun, “Seyyah Söylemi ve Trabzon’a Gelen Yabancı Seyyahlar”, Trabzon ve Çevresi Uluslararası Tarih-Dil-Edebiyat Sempozyumu Bildirileri, (3–5 Mayıs 2001),V.I,Trabzon:TrabzonValiliği,2002,p.146.6 Löschburg,op.cit.,pp.112-118.
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ciscansand later theJesuits-asambassadors tomakecontactwithrulerswhosesubjectswereviewedonthebasisoftotalignorance,aslikelycandi-datesforconversion.Onthesecularandcommercialfront,themostfamousmedievalwesternerwhovisitedthecourtsofFarEastwasMarcoPolo.Nev-ertheless,outwardembassytrafficwasnotconfinedtoChristianEurope.Oneof thegreatestmedieval travellerswasthe14thcenturyscholar IbnBattutawho journeyed throughout Islamicworld.Another Islamic travellerwas IbnHaldunemployedbyNasridSultanMuhammedVofGranadaasambassadortoPedroCruelofCastilein1360s.IntheFarEast,theChinesecourtalsosentambassadorstoMalayPeninsulaforcommercialanddiplomaticmissionsin15thcentury.SomeofthemostimportantreportswerewrittenbyJesuitswhowereattachedoftenforalongperiodstothecourtsofforeignpowers.7
Ambassadors and pilgrimswere themost important group of travel-lersduring the15-16th centuries.Otherservants,whowereworkingunderthepatronageofembassies,as interpreters,accountants,traders,religiousofficials,pharmacists,researchers,clergy,priests,orientalistsandarchaeol-ogists,chamberlains,prisonersandslaves,followedthem.TheypreparedsomanytraveloguesconcerningtheOttomanEmpireandcreatedaninterestingsourceofinformationonthehistoryofOttomandiplomacy,internationalaf-fairsandtheOttomansocialandeconomiclife.9
7 MartinJ.Manning,“DiplomaticandTradeMissions”,Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia,Ed.JenniferSpeake,NewYork:Routledge,2003,pp.339-341.8 Manning,op.cit.,pp.339-341.9 EsinYurdusev,“StudyingOttomanDiplomacy:AreviewoftheSources”,Ottoman Diplomacy Conventional or Unconventional?Ed.ANuriYurdusev,NewYork:Springer,2004,p.181.
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Adirectoutcomeoftheperennialrivalriesamongthegreatwesternna-tionsintheearly19thcenturywasanumberofdiplomaticmissions,particu-larlyFrench, sent toPersia in thehopeof concludingagreementswith theshah.AmongthefirstFrenchmissions,somewerealsoengagedinresearchongeographical,economic,politicalandsocialaspects.TheirfindingsbroughthometothewesttherealizationthatPersiawasnotashighlydeveloped,noraspopulatedandrichassome17thcenturytravelogueshadledthemtobe-lieveasintheexampleofJaubert’stravelogue,andthemapsthatsometimesaccompaniedtheaccountsshowedaconsiderablepartofthecountryasbar-renanddeserted.12FromtheBritishside,manymoreBritishwroteabouttheirtravelsinPersiaduringthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury:armyofficersgoinghomeorreturningtoIndiafromleave,otherofficersonintelligencegathering
10 BruceWannell,“Iran/Persia”,Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia,Ed.JenniferSpeake,NewYork:Routledge,2003,pp.616-617.11 NaderNasiri-Moghaddam,“FranceVIII.Traveloguesofthe18th-20thCenturies”,Encyclopaedia Iranica,X/2,p.146.12 Op.cit.,p.146.
ThehistoryoftherelationsofFrancewithPersiagoesbacktomedievaltimes. IntheearlymiddleAges,PersiawasperceivedbytheFrenchmostlythroughbiblical,Greek,andLatinsources.DuringtheCrusades,whichweresanctionedbythepapacyandlaunchedbytheFranks,allMuslimcountries,including Persia, were considered enemies of Christianity. The Mongol in-vasions,despitetheircalamitouseffects,permittedtherenewalofcontactsbetweentheeastandthewest,withFranceplayingaleadingpart.Europe’sforemostmotivationwastoChristianize theMongols,as ithadearlierbar-barianinvaders.DominicanandFranciscanmissionariesweresenttoIl-kha-nidPersia.MissionsandecclesiasticalseeswereestablishedatSoltaniyeh,Maraga,Tabriz,andTiflis.Christianmissionaryactivity,diplomacy,commerceandtravelcontinuedinthefollowingcenturies.IntheAqQoyunluperiod,theEuropeanstateswere trying toestablishpoliticalandcommercial tieswithTamerlaneandUzunHasanagainsttherisingOttomandanger.14IntheSafavidperiod,theOttoman-FrenchrelationspreventedtheFrenchfromestablishingdirectrelationswiththeSafavids.AlthoughitcausedthereactionoftheOt-tomangovernment,thefirstattempttoestablishdirectFranco-Persianwasmade in the reignofLouisXIII.DeshayesdeCourmeninwent to theSafevipalaceandsawtheshah,buthecouldnotgainaveryimportantachievementintermsofFranco-Persianrelations.15
However, despite this political failure,Catholicmissionaries settled inPersiaandtheFrenchCapuchinsactivitiesachievedtoestablishmentoftheFrench in thiscountry.Frenchmissionariesplayedan importantpartas in-formantsfortravellers,merchants,anddiplomats.Inthebeginningofthe18th century,French-Persianrelationwascarriedoutbysemi-officialmerchantasJeanBillondeCanserille,Jean-BaptisteFabre,MariePetitandPierre-VictorMichel.Inthisprocess,thefirstPersianembassyMuhammedRızawhowassenttoFrancereachedParisin1715tonegotiateanewPersian-Frenchtrea-ty.However,withthe fallof theSafaviddynastyshortlyafterwards in1722,theadvantageswerenotenforcedandtherewasnoincreaseinFrenchtradewithPersia.ShortlyafterthePersianembassy’sreception,LouisXIV’sdeathin1715coincidedwith thedeclineof theSafavids.Onceagain,France triedtofurtheritspoliticalandcommerciallinkswithPersiathroughtheenforce-mentoftherenewedtreaty.ButFrenchendeavourstoestablishrelationswithPersia remained cautiousand limited.Despite that, France tried toplayan
13 DenisWright,“GreatBritainVII.BritishTravelerstoPersia”,Encyclopaedia Iranica,XI/3,p.246.14 JeanCalmard,“FranceII.RelationswithPersiato1789”,Encyclopædia Iranica,X/2,p.127.15 RenéPillorget,“LouisDeshayesdeCourmeninetl’Orientmusulman(1621-1626)”,Cahiers de l’Association internationale des études francaises,27,Paris1975,p.67.
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importantpartinpost-SafavidexternalpoliciesofPersiasometimesasame-diatorbetweenRussia,TurkeyandPersiasometimestoarrangeTurco-Per-sianallianceagainstRussia.CulturallinksbetweenFranceandPersia,thoughgradually developing throughout this period, suffered at times because ofrupturesindiplomaticandcommercialrelations.IntheSafavidperiodanditsaftermath,Franco-PersianrelationsremainedmostlyunderthecontroloftheFrenchambassadorstothePorte.16
Afterthisintroductionpartonthetravelliterature,theriseoftravelre-latedtotheEastandespeciallythebriefintroductionofFrenchrelationswithPersia,thefollowingsectionofthisstudywillfocusontheactivitiesofFrenchalliancewithPersia in the frameworkofNapoleon’seasternpolicyandwillexaminetheemergenceprocessofthePersianmissionofJaubertaccordingtosecondarysourceson this topic.Jaubert’s journey toPersiaandthe fol-lowingsectionsarebasedonJaubert’stravelogue,VoyageenArménieetenPerse,faitdanslesannées1805et1806,whichwaspublishedin1821.17 Inthiscontext,thecontentofthestudyisformedaccordingtoJaubert’sbook.Intheseparts,wewillfocusonJaubert’sjourneyontheOttomanandIranianlands,thedifficulties,whichhefaced,andtheimpressionofthetravellerontheOttomanandthePersiansides.ThemissionofJaubertbyFath-AliShahandhisobservationonPersia inmany respectsaresummarizedaccordingtoJaubert’sworkinthesection.Inthelastpart,thejourneyofthetravellerfromPersiatoFinkensteinisexamined.Asitwillbeseeninthetext,thestudyrevealed new findings about the difficultieswhich Jaubert faced in Bayezidfromthecorrespondencesof theFrenchConsulates inTrabzon.Tosumup,thestudyislargelybasedontheworkandimpressionsofJaubert.Itcanbesaidthat,intheframeworkoftravelliterature,theriseofOrientaltravelandtheFrenchattempttoalliancewithPersiainNapoleon’sreign,thestudyaimstomakebriefevaluationofJaubert’sworkonhisPersianmission.TheothersecondarysourcesandFrencharchivaldocumentsareused,thoughthestudyisbasedonlargelyJaubert’swork.
16 Calmard,op.cit.,pp.129-131.17 For the analysis of Jaubert’s travelogue in French see Nouvelles Annales des voyages,de lagéographieetde l’histoire,publiéesparMM.J.B.EyrièsetMalteBrun,TomeXIII,Paris:LibrairiedeGide,1822,pp.236-255;ForEnglishseeM.Jomard,“AnalysisoftheTravelsofM.AmedeeJaubert,inArmeniaandPersia,in1805and1806”,The European Magazine, and London Review,Vol.82,London:PhilologicalSocietyofLondon,1822,pp.137-143;Jaubert’straveloguetranslatedtoGermanin1822,seePierre-AmédéeJaubert,Reise durch Armenien und Persien: in den Jahren 1805 und 1806,Weimar1822;AndtoDutchin1823,seePierre-AmédéeJaubert,Reis in Armenië en Perzië, gedaan in de jaren 1805 en 1806,Amsterdam1823.
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1. The Background of Jaubert’s Mission: Napoleon’s Persian Policy
In the last yearsof the18th century, significant changeswere seen intermsofinternalandexternalpolicyofFranceandPersia.DespitethehostilityofCatherinetheGreatofRussiatowardsbothPersiaandtheFrenchRevolu-tion,theascendancyoftheQajarsinPersiaandthechangesbroughtaboutbytheFrenchrevolutionarygovernmentin1789didnotatonceleadtoanyclosertiesbetweenthetwocountries.Fromlate1795,PersiabecamepartofFrenchprojects againstBritish India.Napoleonhad viewedhis Egyptian campaign(1798-99)asafootholdtolaunchaconquestofIndia.18HeisalsosaidtohavecombinedwiththeTsarPaulIajointattackonIndia.FromtherenewaloftheFranco-OttomanrelationswiththeTreatyofParisinJune1802,19hesoughtin-formationonPersia.DiplomaticoverturestowardsaFranco-PersianallianceweremadethroughGeneralBrune,20FrenchAmbassadoratConstantinople.21 ThemainmissionofGeneralBrunewasnotonlydealdirectlywiththesultanandbeyondbuttoestablishthefirstrelationsofFrancewithPersia.22
18 IradjAmini,“NapoleonandPersia”,British Institute of Persian Studies,37,London1999,p.109;FormoredetailedinformationontheNapoleonicperiodofFranco-Persianrelations,seeIradjAmini,Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian Relations Under the First Empire,WashingtonDC:MagePublishers1999.19 Forthistreaty,seeComptedeSaint-Priest,Mémoires sur l’ambassade de France en Turquie et sur le commerce des Français dans le Levant,Paris:LibrariedelaSociétéAsiatique,1877,pp.523-537.20 Fortheambassador’smissioninConstantinople,seeP.Coquelle,«L’ambassadedumaréchalBruneàConstantinople(1803-1805)»Revue d’histoire diplomatique,XVIII/1,Paris1904,pp.53-73.21 JeanCalmard,“GardaneMission”,Encyclopædia Iranica, X/3,pp.292-297;BrunewasinstructedbytheFrenchgovernmenttocollectdetailedinformationondifferentOttomanprovincesandsenttoFrenchcabinet.Besides,BrunehadtomakeobservationsaboutPersia,seeHenriDehérain,“Lettres inédits de membres de la mission Gardane en Perse (1807-1809)”, Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer,TomeXVI,15,Paris1923,p.249.22 David Vinson, “« Napoléon en Perse » : la mission Jaubert (1805-1807) Entre expérienceviatique et contexte diplomatique,” Astrolabe, 20, Paris 2008, (http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).23 Rousseauwasthewriteroftheunpublishedmanuscriptunderthetitleof“Tableau général de la Perse moderne ou mémoire géographique et politique sur la situation actuelle de cet empire”,andwas another important source of information on Persia in this period. IreneNatchkebia,“UnrealizedProject:Rousseau’sPlanofFranco-PersianTradeintheContextofIndianExpedition(1807),” Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian, ed. U. Bläsing, V.Arakelova,M.Weinreich,Leiden:Brill,2015,pp.115-126.
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180672
fortressofGanjainAzerbaijanandwasabouttobesiegeErevanunderPer-sianpossession. In thiscase,Fath-AliShahapplied toassistanceofBritaininaccordancewiththetermsofthe1801Anglo-Persiantreaty.However,theshah couldnot see the supportofBritishassistance thathehadexpected.Therefore, Fath-Ali Shah did not have other option of asking for help fromtheFrench.24Fromthispossiblealliance,eachsidehadtheirownexpectation.Fath-AliShahhopedNapoleonmighthelphimrecoverGeorgia,whilethelat-terthoughtthatclosertieswithPersiamight facilitatethedefeatofRussiaandopenthewaytoIndia.25Fath-AliShahwrotealettertoNapoleonandgaveittoanArmeniancalledOssepVassilovitztohandovertotheFrenchambas-sadorinConstantinople.VassilovitzdeliveredtheShah’slettertoPierreRuf-fin,theembassy’sCounsellorandinformedhimofthesituationinPersiaandofthecharacteroftheshah.26
Inthisperiod,apartfromthearrangeFrench-Persianrelations,themostimportantoccupationsoftheFrenchembassyatConstantinoplewasthere-lationbetweenSelimIIIandNapoleon.UnderpressurefromtheBritishandtheRussians,SelimIIIhavingrefusedtoacknowledgetheimperialtitleofNa-poleon,theFrenchambassadorinTurkeydecidedtoquithispostinprotest.In such a diplomatic atmosphere, the French took a newstep and decidedtosendJaubert toConstantinople,nearBrune, to transmit thenewsofhiscoronationtoSelimIIIandtonegotiatetherecognitionoftheimperialfactbytheOttomansultan.AssoonasJaubertarrivedinConstantinople,hebeganto look forasuitable interviewfacility togive the letterof theNopoleon toSelimIII.AccordingtoJaubert,however,theincreasingRussianinfluenceafterBrune’sdeparture fromthecapitalpreventedhimtoreachthisopportunity.Finally,JauberthadanoccasiontomeetwithSelimIII inKağıthaneandhewaswell receivedbySelim III and conveyed the letter ofNapoleon. There-fore,hefulfilledthefirstpartofthemission.27However,themoreimportantandmoredifficultPersianmissionofJaubertwasbeginning.SuspectedtherealityofOssepVassilovitz’sletter,Napoleonwantedtoconfirmwhethertheletterwastrue.Aswecitedabove,Napoleon,whowantedtomakeamilitaryalliancewithPersiaagainsttheBritishandRussiansbymakinguseofthisop-portunity,chargedPierreAmédéeJauberttoexaminethesituationandmakepreliminarypreparationsforthetreatywhichwouldbesignedwiththeshah.
24 Amini,op.cit.,p.112;MustafaAydın,Üç Büyük Gücün Çatışma Alanı Kafkaslar (1800-1830), İstanbul:Gökkubbe,2008,p.118.25 FlorenceHellot-Bellier, “France III.RelationswithPersia1789-1918,”Encyclopaedia Iranica, X/2,p.131.26 Amini,op.cit.,p.112.27 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.3-4.
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Jaubert.HewasborninAix-en-Provence,3rdJunein1779.HestudiedTurk-ish,Arabic,andPersianlanguagesfortwoyears(1796-98)withSylvestredeSacyat theÉcoledesLanguesOrientales inParis,and thenwasappointedinterpreterwith the title “jeune de langues” at the French legation in Con-stantinople.Thenhetookpart,astheinterpreter,inNapoleon’sexpeditiontoEgypt(1798-99)andin1799,hebecametheseniorinterpreterintheserviceofNapoleon.Hetaughtfortwoyears(1800-01)attheÉcoledesLanguesOrien-tales,beforeaccompanyingFrenchtroopsin1802intheirexpeditiontoAlex-andriainEgypt.28OnhisreturntoFrancein1803,hewasappointedsecretaryinterpreterattheMinistryofForeignAffairsandprofessorofTurkishlanguageattheÉcoledesLanguesOrientales.Aswementionedabove,in1804,hewaschargedtoannouncetoSultanSelimIIIthatNapoleonhadbeencrownedem-peror. InMarchof the followingyear,hewassent toPersia toestablishanalliancewithFath-AliShahagainstEnglandandRussia.29
After returning to France from the Persianmission, Jaubert receivedmanyprivilegesfromNapoleonBonaparte:thecrossofchevalieroftheLé-giond’honneur,thetitleofChevalieroftheEmpireinMay1808,andtheposi-tionofMasteroftherequestsattheCouncilofStatein1810.DuringtheperiodknownasHundredDaysbetweenMarch8andJuly1815,Jaubertoccupiedthepositionofthe“Chargéd’affaires”ofFranceinConstantinople.ThatwaswhythenextFrenchregimedidnotappreciatehisservicesandhewasdis-missed.Afterwards,hedevotedhistimetolinguisticresearchandtoteaching.In1818-19,withgovernmentaid,heembarkedonanewtriptoTibet,fromwhencehesucceededinintroducingintoFrance400Kashmirgoats.HewasonceagainsenttoIstanbulbyKingX.Charlesin1830forthedeterminationoftheOttoman-Greekborder.30Jaubertspenttherestofhislifeinstudy,inwrit-ingandinteaching.Inthesameyear,hejoinedtheAcadémiedesinscriptionsetbelles-lettreswhileteachingastheprofessorofthePersianlanguageintheCollègedeFrance.In1834,hewasnamedpresidentoftheSociétéasiatique.In1841,hewasappointed“PairdeFrance”intheChambredesPairsinParis.HebecameChevalier of theLégiond’honneur (1845) andwaspresidentoftheSociétéasiatiqueuntil1847.HediedinParison28January1847andwasburiedinthePère-Lachaisecemetery.31
InSeptember1805andJune1806, theFrenchenvoyJaubertand the
28 Formore detailed information on Jaubert, see.M. Sedillot, “Notice sur P. Am. Jaubert,” inPierreAmédéeJaubert,Voyage en Arménie et en Perse, précédé d’une notice sur l’auteur, par M. Sédillot,Paris:E.Ducrocq1860,pp.I-XXVII.29 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam, “Jaubert, Pierre Amédée Émilien-Probe”, Encyclopædia Iranica, XIV/6,p.593.30 Semavi Eyice, “Jaubert, Pierre Amédée Jaubert,DİA, vol. 23, 2001, pp. 576-578 ; Jaubert,op.cit.,p. XVIII.31 Nasiri-Moghaddam, op.cit.,p.593.
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180674
army officer Antoine Alexandre Romieu were instructed to present lettersfromNapoleonto theshahofPersia.Whenwe lookatNapoleon’s instruc-tions in this regard, it can be seen that these twoofficers explain in detailhowtheyshouldgotoPersia.32WhenJaubertwaswaitingforhisjourneytoPersia,AlexandreRomieuarrived inConstantinopleonMay20,1805.Bothwerethereforechargedwithacommonmissionwithsimilarexpectationsandinstructions,butforsafetyreasonstheyhadtofollowdifferentroutes.More-over,Romieu,unlikehis “co-emissary”,a recognizedorientalistand formerchief interpreter of the Egyptian expedition, did notmaster any of the lan-guagesusedinthecountriestobecrossedand,apartfromhisshortexperi-enceintheIonianIslands,heknewverybadlytheorientalhabitsandcustoms.Despite thesecrecysurrounding themissionRomieu, theEnglishconsul inBaghdad,HarfordJones,wasquicklyinformedbyhisPersianintermediariesandhiscolleagueinAlep,Barker,triedtopreventRomieuandhisentouragefromreachingPersiancapital.Accompaniedbytheyounginterpreter,GeorgesOutrey,Romieusetouton15June1805 forTehranviaHalep,Urfa,Diyar-bakır,Mardin,Musul,Kerkuk,Hamedan,andQazvin.DespitedangerswhichcamechieflyfromthehostilityoflocalpopulationsandtheintriguesofEnglishagents,RomieuarrivedinTehranonSeptember25,1805.33
InthePersiancapital,Romieumettheshahandhisministers,andwrotecorrespondences and various diplomaticmemories. According to Amini, inhis correspondences, Romieu saw little interest in an alliancewith Persia.InRomieu’sopinion,theonlypointofsuchanalliancewouldbeontheonehandtopreventRussianexpansion,andontheothertoreservetheremainsoftheOttomanEmpire.34Interestingly,however,RomieudiedinOctoberthreemonthsafterhisarrival.Therewasamidrumoursthathehadbeenpoisoned
32 “ThepersonIintendtosendtoPersiaisAdjutantCommandantRomieu.HavehimgivethesameinstructionsasM.Jaubert,andlethimgoassoonaspossible?IfithappenedthatM.JauberthadnotleftConstantinoplewhenhearrivedthere,theywouldconcerttogether,andsetoutatagreatdistancefromeachother,andbydifferentroads.M.RomieumightwellpassthroughTrebisonde;butifheweretopassthroughBagdadaswell,heoughtnottosetoutatthesametimeasM.Jaubert,sothatifaccidentsshouldhappentoone,theotherwouldovercomethem.YouwillnotfailtoinformhimthattheprincipalobjectofhisjourneyistolearnofthesituationofPersia,andofthecourseofthegovernorswhoexistthere,provincebyprovince,andtorecognizetowhatextenthisforcesaremounted.Hemust,ifpossible,travelthebanksoftheAraxesandpushtotheRussianfrontiers.Hewilltakeinformationonpastevents,and,lastly,onallthatmayenablemetoknowthecountrywell.Hewillbeveryreserved,however,intalkingwiththeministersandtheEmperor(Fath-AliShah),hewillsaythatIwanttoenterintoacovenantwithhimandofferhimsuccor”. Vinson, op.cit.,(http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).33 DavidVinson,“«NapoléonenPerse»:lamissiondiplomatiqueRomieu:Un«lieudemémoire» viatique au début du XIXe siècle,”Astrolabe, 26, Paris 2009, (http://www.crlv.org/astrolabe/juilletaoût-2009/napolé-en-perse-la-mission-romieu).34 Amini,op.cit.,p.112;Vinson,op.cit.,(http://www.crlv.org/astrolabe/juilletaoût-2009/napolé-en-perse-la-mission-romieu);Calmard,op.cit.,pp.292-297.
Özgür YILMAZ 75
byagents in theserviceofEngland.Because,RomieuhadalreadyaccusedtheBritishconsul,Barker,inAleppoofhavingattemptedtoassassinatehimduringhistriptoPersia.35Thus,asthefirstdiplomatofNapoleontothecourtofPersiatoseekFranco-Persianalliance,Romieu’smissiondidnotrevealtheexpectedresults.Nevertheless,afterRomieu’sdeath,hisassistant,GeorgesOutreyreturnedtoFrancewiththenewsthattheShahintendedtosendanambassadortoParis.36
2. A Perilous Journey of Jaubert to the Persian Border
Afterthisinformation,letusreturnnowtothedetailsofJaubertmis-sion.AccordingtoJauberts’travelogue,“inordertoensurethesuccessofthejourney,itwasimportantthatthemotiveshouldnotbedisclosed.TheshahofPersiadesired it, and itwasknown that theSublimePortedidnotwishEuropean travellers topass through itsprovincesofAsia;Moreover, itwasreasonabletosupposethattheagentsofEnglandandRussia,employedintheOttomanEmpire,wouldneglectnothingtodefeatsuchamission,iftheyknewitsobject”.Forthesereasons,JaubertleftsecretlyParisonthe7thofMarch1805.HecrossedGermany,Hungary,andTransylvaniadiligently,andarrivedatBucharestonthe2ndofApril.HepassedtoNessebar,fromtherehetooktheroadtotheBlackSeacoastbySüzebolu,İğneada,andKıyıköy,whichex-posedhimtolessdangerthanthoseofEdirne.JaubertfollowedthisdirectiontoashortdistancefromConstantinople,andafterthethirty-fifthdayjourney,hearrivedonthe10thofApril intheOttomancapital. Aftercompletingthefirstpartofthemissionthere,JaubertbeganpreparationsforthevoyagetoPersia.M.Ruffin,counsellorof theEmbassy,assistedhim forpreparationsandJaubertconcertedwiththeArmenian,OssepVassilovitz,whohadbroughttheshah’sletterandhadwaitedatConstantinopleforananswer.However,itwasnoteasy todecidewhichroute tochoose for thevoyage.JaubertwhocontributedtotheanarchicenvironmentinAnatoliaandtheBritishentrancesinBaghdaddecidedtogotoTrabzonbyseaandthentoproceedtoPersiancapital.JauberthadtostayinConstantinopleformorethanamonthtogetthenecessarypreparations.Finally,accompaniedbytheArmenianguide,aTartarandaFrenchservantJaubertleftConstantinopleandaftersevendaysjourney,hereachedPhase(Faş)andfromtheretoTrabzon.37
35 DavidVinson, “ «NapoléonenPerse» :genèse,perspectivesculturelleset littérairesde lamissionGardane(1807-1809)”,Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France,109/4,Paris2009,pp.882.36 P.Avery-G.R.G.Hambly-C.Melville(Ed.),The Cambridge History of Iran,vol.7,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991,p.380.37 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.5-6.
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180676
hostingtheFrenchconsulatessince1803.38Therefore,wecansaythatJau-bertshouldbeencouragedbythepresenceofFrenchofficialsattheseports.AthislandingatTrabzon,hehandedtotheFrenchconsul,PierreDupré,thelettersofrecommendation.InthisletterJaubertwasonlyqualifiedas“amer-chant”whotravelledforhisbusiness.ItisinterestingtosaythatPierreDupré’scorrespondencedoesnotincludeanyinformationonJaubert’svisittothecityandthepermissionfortravelfromthegovernorofthecityinthisperiod.39Itispossibletoexplainthissituationas follows:At that time, thatDupréhadaninfluentialcompetitor,Roubaud,whowasalsoFrenchcitizen,butwasinchargeofRussian interests in Trabzon.Dupréoccasionally blamedRubaudwhowas appointed later by theRussian government as consul in the city,forhisintriguesastoseizetheDupré’slettersandgethimoutofTrabzoninaccordancewithRussianpolitics.40ProbablybecauseoftheconfidentialityofJaubert’smission,DupréchosenottomentionFrenchdiplomatinhisreports.
JauberthadchosenaveryinappropriatetimetotraveltoPersia.TherewasacompleteatmosphereofchaosandturmoilinAnatoliaduringthisperi-od.TheturmoilcausedbytherebellionofTayyarMahmudPashahadaneffectontheeasternpartofAnatoliaaswellasonthecentralAnatolianregion.41 As forTrabzon,thegovernorofTrabzon,MemişAğawasatwarwiththeinhab-itantsof thecountry.Therefore,asJaubertstated inhis travelogue,MemişAğahadwarnedFrenchconsulDupréwho introducedJaubert tohimself.42 After threeor fourdaysstay inTrabzon,Jaubert took thepermission fromMemişAgatodepartthecity.HeleftTrabzonandarrivedinErzurumonJune19afteran8-daytrip.Jaubertdressed inArmenianclothesfor fearthathecouldberecognizedinthecity.HisguidehadassuredhimthattheinhabitantsofErzurumwere themost fanaticaland intolerantofmen.Butdespite thiscamouflage, Jaubertwas recognisedbyAhmedBey, intendantgovernorofthecustom-house,whohadreceivedmanycivilitiesfromtheFrencharmyinEgyptsixyearsbefore,afterhavingbeenstrippedofeverythingbytheArabs;
38 FormoreanddetailedinformationontheFrenchconsulatesintheseports,seeÖzgürYılmaz,“Güney Karadeniz’de Yeni Fransız Politikası: Pascal Fourcade ve Sinop Konsolosluğu (1803-1809)”, Cahiers balkaniques, 42, Paris 2014, pp. 223-268; Özgür Yılmaz, “Trabzon’da FransızVarlığınınİlkDönemleri:PierreJarômeDupré’ninTrabzonKonsolosluğu(1803-1820)”,Karadeniz İncelemeleri Dergisi,21,Trabzon2016,pp.87-120.39 FortheDupré’scorrespondences,seeAMAE,CADN,APD,Constantinople(Ambassade),SérieD,Trébizonde,Tome1-2;AMAE,CADC,CCC,Trébizonde,Tome1-2,(1801-1824).40 AMAE,CADC,CCC,Trébizonde,1,DuprétoTalleyrand,Trabzon,5July1806.41 For theTayyarMahmudPasha’s rebellion fromtheFrenchperspectives,seeYılmaz,Pascal Fourcade ve Sinop Konsolosluğu,pp.243-251;Yılmaz,Jarôme Dupré’nin Trabzon Konsolosluğu, pp.98-103.42 “Whatdoesthisinfidelwant?Doeshenotknowthattheroadsareimpracticable,anddoeshethinkmetobelievethattheonlylureofmediocregaindetermineshimtoriskhislifetoarriveafewhoursearlierinArmenia?Ifthedeclarationhemadeis“true,lethimtakepatience,ifitisnot,lethimgo;Ishallbeabletodiscovertheobjectofhisjourney”.Jaubert,op.cit.,p.9.
InBayezid,JaubertwascoldlywelcomedbyMahmudPasha,beyoftheregion,andthepashawasalsosuspiciousofthem.Indeed,thepasharetainedthe tartar andArmenian as prisoners. This latter, being put to the torture,confessedtheobjectofthejourney,andwassoonafterstrangled.Inthisway,thepasharealizedthatJaubertdidnotalso intendtogotoYerevan,buthewasaEuropeanwhowassenttothePersiancapitalwithhisvaluablegifts.Jaubert,obligedinhisturntomakesomeconfessions,wasreassuredbytheinsinuatingmannersofMahmudwhopromisedhimhelpandprotection,andevengavehimanescort,HalilAğa,toaccompanyhimtotheplaceofhisdes-tinationtoErivan.44
Accompanied by the Tartar and two servants Jaubert departedunderanescortofKurds,butdeprivedoftheassistanceofhisArmenianguide.Theescortsoon increased;everymoment freshsoldiersarrived.At length theycrossedtheriverwhichrunatthefootofMountArarat,andservedasafrontiertotheTurkishpossessions;theylandedandwhileJaubertwascongratulatinghimselfonhisarrivalinthePersianterritory,hewassuddenlysurroundedbytheKurds;oneseizedhiminthemiddleofhisbody,anothertiedhisarms,andathirddisarmedhim.Theyblindfoldedhim,turnedhisfacetowardstheground,andboundinthesamemannerhisservantsandtheTartar.Theythencarriedthemall intoasolitaryvalley.Somehoursafter,Jaubertandhisat-tendantswereconductedtoalonelycastle,whereMahmoudexpectedthem.MahmudPashapretendedtohavereceivedfromConstantinopleanordertoseizeJaubertandhisservants.Heafterwardscausedhimtobethrownintoafrightfulwithhisthreecompanions.45
43 M.Jomard, “Analysisof theTravelsofM.AmedeeJaubert, inArmeniaandPersia, in1805and1806”,The European Magazine, and London Review,Vol.82,London:PhilologicalSocietyofLondon,1822,p.137;Jaubert,op.cit.,p.14.44 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.26-30.45 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.38-51.
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180678
thattime,BayezidwasdividedintoahighcityinhabitedbytheKurdishtribes,andeachoccupiedaseparatequarterandinthecity,inhabitedbytheArmeni-ans.Itwasintheupperpartthatthecontagioncausedthegreatestravages.ThealarmwasattheharemandMahmudPashaattackedbytheplagueandinashorttimehewasthevictimofthedisease.LastsuccessorwashissonAhmetBeywhowascondemnedtheprisonerstodeath.However,fortunate-lyAhmedBeywhowasstruckwiththecontagiondiedtoo.Atthismoment,therewas a development thatwould end Jaubert’s bondage. ThegovernorofErivanhadsentforhimtoBayezidacourierwhoinformedthattheshahof Persiawouldmenace the townwith thewholeweight of his vengeanceiftheydidnotrestorehimtoliberty.İbrahimBey,successorofAhmedBey,wrotetoConstantinoplefortheprisoner’ssituation.TheanswerofthePortesoonarrivedfromConstantinoplethatorderedİbrahimBeytosendJauberttothecampofYusufPacha.46Thus,Jaubertmiraculouslysavedfromanappar-entlyinevitabledeath.AccordingtoJaubert,hiscaptivitybeganonthe5thofJuly1805,andendsonlyonthe14thofMarchofthefollowingyear,thedayofhisarrivalatYusufPasha’scamp,inotherword,anintervalofeightmonthsandthirteendays.47
Itmustbepointedoutthatneitherthecurrent literaturenorJaubert’straveloguecontainanydescriptive informationaboutwhowastheoriginofthiscaptivityinBayezid.AccordingtoJaubert’swriting,thisseemslikeade-cisiontakenbyMahmudPasha’sowninitiative.However,inthisissue,wefindinterestinginformationintheconsularcorrespondencesfromTrabzon.Aswestatedabove,JauberthadcometoTrabzonwherehewasintroducedtolo-calauthoritiesasaFrenchmerchantbytheFrenchconsulDupré.But,inthecity,therewasanotherFrenchmerchantnamedRoubaudwhowastheRus-sianconsularcandidateandchargedwithtakecareoftheRussianinterests.Interestingly, in his correspondences, Dupréwas steady complained aboutRoubaud’shostilitytowardshimandlinkedJaubert’scaptivitywithRoubaud’sintrigues.InaletterofDuprétoRoussindatedonMay26,1806,FrenchconsulstatedthatJaubertbroughtalsoRuffin’slettertoRoubaud.WhentheJaubertgavethelettertoRobaud,herecognizedhimbecauseRoubaudhadseenhiminConstantinople.Although Jaubert told him that hewaswrong,RoubaudwhodeliveredthissecretmissiontoConstantinoplelearnedthetruthandin-formedRussianconsulinSinop.48BasedonDupré’scomments,itispossibletosaythatJaubert’sbondagewasareactionoftheRussiandiplomacy,whichdidnotwanttoseetheFrenchpresenceinPersia.
The impressionson the region,whichhehadobtainedduring this journey,wereincludedbytheauthorasaseparatesectiononhistravelogue. Inthischapter,hementionedtheKurdishpopulationintheregion.WhenwelookattheinformationofJaubertontheregion,heespeciallyfocusedonthedivisionoftheKurdishregioninthenorthandinthesouthandanotherdivisionoftheregionintotwoparts,oneofwhichiscomprisedinAsiaticTurkey,andtheoth-erinthePersianEmpire.HealsomentionedKurdishcustoms,theirexercises,theirlivelihoodmethods,andtheirnomadiclife.49
Jaubert,whodepartedBayezidwithacavalryescort,arrivedatToprak-kaleon22February.Afterahardjourneyfromhere,hereachedErzurumonMarch3.Jaubertstayedincomfortablyforawhilehere,alsohadtheopportu-nitytowritealetteraboutthesituationofhimselftotheFrenchconsulDupréinTrabzonafteralongtime.50JaubertwhodepartedfromErzurumarrivedatYusufPasha’scampinSuşehri.YussufPashaknewJaubertpersonally,havingseenhiminEgyptafterhisfatallossatthebattleofHeliopolis.HegaveJau-bert a very distinguished reception, in consequenceof having just receivednewsofthegreatvictorygainedbytheFrenchatAusterlitz.HepromisedtosendhimsafetohisdestinationandatthesametimecautionedhimagainstthepolitenessandagreeablemannersofthePersians,who,althoughsomuchthoughtofinEurope,aredeficientinfranknessandsincerity.Jaubert’svisittothevicinityofSuşehrihadalsoallowedhimtomakeobservationsabouttheregion.Jaubert focusedontheCanikregion inparticularandgavevaluableinformationabout thepeopleofCanik, theanarchicenvironmentprevailingintheregion,thestrugglebetweenTayyarPashaandYusufPasha,andYusufPasha’sactivitiesinordertoprovidelocaltranquillity.51
Afterseventeendays’stay,JaubertlefttheYusufPasha’scamponApril1,1806withanescortwhichconsistsoftwentymenofconfidence,command-edbyMustaphaAğa.After threedays’march, they arrived inErzincan, theancientSatala,upon theEuphratesnearoneof thechainsofTaurus.Fromthence,hearrivedfivedaysafterinErzurum.AvoidingtheroadtoBayezid,hedirectedhiscoursesouth,towardsHınıs,MalazgirtandVan.NearMalazgirt,JaubertmetwiththeYezidiswho,accordingtoJaubert,aKurdishtribe,areterribletotravellers, inhabit the footof themountain; theyworshiptheevilspirit,andconsiderrobberyandmurderlawful.JaubertarrivedinVanwhereFeyzullahPaşareceivedhimwithgreatdistinction;gavehimanescort;andbyoneofthoserevolutionssoveryfrequentamongtheTurks.Butthepashaperishedthreedaysafter,beingassassinatedbyarival.JaubertleftVanwith
Jaubert left Tabriz, full of gratitude for all thegood treatment hehadreceived there. Instead of going on towards Tehran, he travelled eastward,throughSaidabad,Serab,andArdebilinordertovisitthecampofAbbas-Mirza.According to Jaubert’s observation, in this country between Seidabad andErdebil,thehouseswerebuiltbelowthesoil,likeseveralpartsofArmeniaandGeorgiawhere the inhabitants lodgeunderground. The environsofArdebil,bettercultivatedthanthoseofSerabandChelebian,aboundinexcellentfruits.Thecity,whichwaslocatedsouthofthemountainrange,servedasaware-houseforgoodstransportedbycaravanstraveling fromTiflis,DerbendandBakutoTehranandIsfahan.So,thebazaarsofthiscitywerewellmaintained.AtErdebil,Jaubert,whohadresumedhisEuropeandress,becametheobjectofgeneralanddisagreeablecuriosity.55
OnhisarrivalatthecampoftheyoungPersianprince,AbbasMirza,onMay17,hewastreatedwiththegreatestdistinction.Abbas-MirzahadrecentlygainedsomeadvantageovertheRussians;buttherenownofthevictoriesoftheFrencharmies excitedhis admiration, andhewished tohavea faithfulaccountofthem.Byaskingthefollowingquestions,Abbas-Mirzawishedtoinformhimselfofeverythingremarkable:“Whatisthepowerwhichgivesyousogreatasuperiorityoverus?What is thecauseofyourprogressandour
52 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.95-128.53 ThefamousFrenchtravelerwhotraveledtoeastbetweentheyears1664-1677.JeanChardin,Voyages du chevalier Chardin en Perse, et autres lieux de l’Orient,Paris:LeNormant,1811.54 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.128-145.55 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.146-150.
AfterspendingsixorsevendaysinArdebil,JaubertleftthecityforthePersiancapital.HereachedtoKhalkhalanddepartedfromthereonMay24,after twodays’marchhearrived inZanjanwhere tworoads that lead fromTabrizandArdebiltoTehranmeetin.JaubertandhisentouragetravelledintwodaysfromZenghiantoSoltaniyeh,wheretheyfindremarkableruins,notbyahighantiquity,butbytheimmenseextentoftheground,whichtheyoccu-py.ThisaspectofSoltaniyehwastheresultofcivilwars.BeyonditisthefertilevalleyofAbharwhichfollowsthedesertofKazvin;JaubertwasverypleasedwiththenatureofAbher,asmallvillageinhisrouteafterSoltaniyeh.InKazvinJaubertwasquitewellreceivedbyBabaKhan,wherehewitnessedabrilliantfeteinhonourofthebirthofthreeprincesoftheblood-royal:music,poetry,illuminations,flowers,dancing,andthemostdeliciousperfumesembellishedasplendidrepast.57HeonlyspenttwodaysinKazvin,andleftthatcityonthe2ndofJune.Afterthreedays’march,JaubertreachedtothePersiancapitalandenteredtothecitywiththeescortofanumerousandmagnificentcavalrythatFath-AliShahhadsenthim.58WhenJaubertarrived inTehran,anotherFrench emissary, Romieu had died in October 1805. Therefore, the Frenchstruggle to achieve thePersian alliance had interrupted about tenmonths.AlthoughRomieuwasofadifferentreligion,PersiansextremelyaffectedatthesightofthebodyofaFrenchwarrior,andtheyerectedforhimamonumentsurmountedbyacupola.59
4. Jaubert in the Persian Court
Afteradelayof15months,JaubertfinallyreachedtohistargetthatandthefirstaudiencegrantedtohimbytheShahofPersia.Inhistravelogue,Jau-bertmakesverydetaileddescriptionsofthisfirstreceptionceremony.Inhiswords,“Theyascendedbyhorse,precededbyanumerousandbrilliantcav-alry,andbyvariousslaves.Adoublehedgeofsoldiersseatedontheground,withagunonhisshoulder,borderedthestreets.Thespectatorsstoodbehind,theterracesofthehouseswerecoveredwithwomenandchildren.Thedoorof the imperialpalace, towhich thePersiancalledDar-ıSaadet,was likea
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180682
fortress,defendedbyalargeditchonwhichadrawbridgewasdropped.Afterpassingthebridge,theyenteredthefirstcourtyardofthepalace,whichisveryspaciousandsawtroopsthere,somepiecesofcannon,andwhitehorsesbe-longedtotheshah.Themane,tailandlegsoftheseanimalswerepaintedredontheorange.Then,theyreachedaseconddoor,builtofpaintedbrick,andsituatedattheentranceofadarkgallery,whichextendstothesalonoftheviziers”.Jaubertwasreceivedbytheteşrifatçıbaşıandtaken intothedraw-ing-roomwhereheencounteredwiththeVizierandtheministers.Whilehewaswaiting for thehourappointedby theastrologers for theaudience,hewasofferedthenarghilehandrefreshments. In thisceremony,Jaubertwaskept so faroff, thathe couldscarcely see the throneofFath-AliShah.Themasteroftheceremonieshavingannouncedhimtotheshah,hereplied,“youarewelcome”.60
Afterwhichavizierconductedhimtothehallofaudiencewherehesalut-edtheshahagain.TheletterthatJaubertwascarrying,enclosedinabrocadebag,wasthenpresentedtotheshahonagoldentray.TheGrandVizier,afterhavingdisplayedthisletter,readthetranslation,modulatinghisvoicetomaketherhythmofthephrasesfeel.Theshah,byapeculiarbenevolence,allowedJaubert to sit downwith thePersian opposite to him. The audience lastedmorethananhour,becauseoftheshah’sdesiretobepreciselyinformedoftheobjectofJaubertmission,orbecausehewaspleasedtobeabletoconversewithaEuropeanwithoutinterpreterassistance.Beforetheendofthisaudi-ence,Fath-AliShahorderedhimtoseethegardensofhispalace,afavourthatnostrangerhadenjoyeduntilthen.61
AfterFath-AliShah’sreceptionceremonyandthedescriptionofhispal-ace,Jaubertbeginstogiveinformationabouttheking’sadministration.Fath-AliShah,whoreignedoverPersia,wasabout fortyyearsoldwhenJaubertarrivedinTehran.Hewasofanelevatedstature,andofaverystrongconstitu-tion.HisphysiognomypresentsthecharacterofthatofthemenofTurkestan.Theshahwasaffable,generous;butseveretoexcess,andimplacableinhisanger.Heenjoyedquestioningherguestswhowereenvoys, travellers,anddervishes,who fromvariouspartsofAsia arrivedaily at his court.Hehada taste for literature,andcultivated itsuccessfully.JaubertalsomentionedpoliticalsituationofPersiaundertheadministrationoftheshah.WhenFath-AliShahascendedtothethrone,thePersianEmpirewasstillshakenbytheshocksofthedeathofTahmasKuluKhan.TheeasternprovincesofPersiadidnotobeyFath-AliShah’sreign.Inaddition,Hussein-Khan,hisbrother,seemedwillingtoraisethestandardofrevolt.However,despitethepoliticalsituationofthecountry,thegreatesttranquillityreignedthroughouttheempireunder
thereignof theshah,because theshah’sorderswereexecutedpunctually.In thissafetyenvironment, the traveller couldsafely traverseall the roads.ReferringheretotheanarchyenvironmentinAnatolia,JaubertstatedthatinthePersianterritorytherewasnolongeranyneedtofearasintheTurkishterritorybythehordesofArabsandKurds.Inadditiontothese,theshahhadestablishedcompletecontroloverthepalace.InPersia,thevizierswerenotinvestedwithalltheauthorityofthemonarch,astheywereatthebeginningofthiscenturyinTurkey.Onthecontrary,theshahdominatedeverythingbyhimself.Hisministerswereonlyentrustedwiththedetailsofaffairs.Inorderthathisministerscouldnot turnagainsthim,he tookcare tochoosethemonlyamongthemirzasortheulemas.62
JaubertalsotoldabouttheresidenceinthecapitalwherehelivedinthepalaceofMirza-Riza-Kulu.AgreatnumberofPersianlordsandArmenians,guidedbycuriosityandchieflybythedesiretodosomethingagreeabletotheshah,visitedinthecapital.Theministersgavebrilliantfestivals,whichalwaystookplaceatnight.ThecityofTehranwasbuiltonalowgroundatthefootofthechainoftheMountAlborz.MehmedKhan,in1794,determinedtofortifyTehranand toestablishhis residence in thatcity.Although theair,which itbreathesin,wasveryunhealthy insummer,andthatthesojournof Isfahanought tohaveseemedmoreagreeable tohim.The fortificationsof the cityseemedtohimverymediocreandthepalaceandgardensoftheshahcoveredaconsiderablesite;butthehousesofthegreathavenoappearance.ThePer-sians’preferringtoadorntheinsideratherthantheexterioroftheirdwellings,themosques,bazaars,andcaravanseraisofTehranwerestillintheirformerstate.However,thecity,atthetimeofJaubert’svisit,wasnotveryflourishing,andwhose inhabitantswerenotmore than thirty thousand.Thesoil of theneighbourhoodofTehran,bothontheeastandwestsides,isstonyandbar-ren;butthewaterswhichflowfromthemountainssituatedsomedistancetothenorthofthistown,wateringtheintermediateplain,makeitsusceptibleofsomecultivation.63
5. Sketches of Persia: Agriculture, Population, Economy, Army, Commerce and Traditions
TheriversofPersiawhichreachtheCaspianSeaareextremelyrapid,whichproceedsfromtheconsiderablevolumeoftheirwatersandfromtheslopeoftheground;butthosewhichwatertheplainsofKashan,Qom,Isfahan,andShiraz,flowwithlessspeed,andastheymoveawayfromtheirsources,theydiminishinsteadofgrow.Whileonlyafewoftheseriverscanreachthesea,mostofthemdisappearinthemiddleofthesandyplains.Theinhabitantsofthesearidprovincessuccessfullyappliedtoirrigationbyundergroundaq-ueducts,whichknownasQanatinPersia.Oncethesoilhadbeensoakedwithwater,grass,wheat, rice,vegetablecrops,herbaceouscotton,shrubs, fruittrees,treestoprovideshade,suchasthewillow,thepoplar,theplanetree,theabalone,growinsight,andpresentaverdureallthefresher,themoreagreea-ble,asitcontrastswiththecolourofthesandofthedeserts.Prettydwellings,kiosks,mosques,andpalacesroseinthemidstoftheseimmenseorchards.However,thepopulationsometimeswereinfectedbyakindofvenomousrep-tiles thatescape fromthedesertandbreed in inhabitedplaces. Inaddition,thepopulationwasexposedanotherinconvenienceswhich,insummer,resultfromthescarcityofwater,air,andtheexhalationsofahumidcountry.That’swhy,theinhabitantsofseveralprovincesofPersiawasgenerallyofadiseasedcomplexionandspendagreatpartoftheirlivesindifferentplaces.65
As for thepeopleofPersia,Jaubertsaid thatbecauseofalmostcon-tinual disorders, thepopulation reduced to six or sevenmillionswhoweredispersed in thevariousprovincesof theempire.Besidethis, thepeopleofPersiaconsistedmainlyoftwodifferentsectswhichonethatofthenomadsinhabitsthemountainsortraversesthedeserts;theother,knownbythenameofTajik,livesinfieldsandwateredplaces,orresidesintowns.InPersia,onthecontraryofEgyptandArabia,thenomadwasnotreluctanttonaturalizehimselfinacity.Thefarmerembracedthekindoflifeandthepastoralhabitsofthenomads.TheMuslimsdidnotscrupletoprofessthemostcompletetol-
erationtowardsChristianswhowereresidedindifferentpartsoftheempire.Jaubert,whocomparedArabandTurkmennomadswiththatofPersian,pointoutthatthelatterwerequitedifferent.Theyweresubjectoftheprince,who-everreignsoverPersia,contracteveninthemidstofthecamps,gentlenessandpolitenessoftheinhabitantsofthetowns.ThePersiannomadspreferredthevastlands,thehighmountains,asabodingplacesmostfavouredbyna-ture.Theychanged theirplaces fromtime to time, tobreatheanewair, toexperience,sotospeak,ateverymoment,thefeelingoftheirindependence.Whentheinhabitantsofthetowns,indolentandeffeminate,tookuparmsonlyinapressingdanger,thenomadswerealwaysarmedandreadytofighttheirenemies.Thesenomadscreatedalsoanimportantmilitaryforcefortheshahasmercenarytroupes.Jaubertalsomentionedsomeofthemostimportantofthesenomadictribes,aswellastheplacestheylivein. 66
The class of Persian agriculturists, by their condition and the habits,holdsthemiddleclassbetweenthoseofthenomadsandthetownspeople.AcultivatorinPersiawasinabsolutedependenceonthegovernment.Heobeysandsufferswithoutmurmuring,aslongastheevilisnotcarriedtoexcess;butifthetrusteesofpublicauthorityoppresshimtoostrongly,hefledhisfields,abandonedthepaternalroof,andreturnedtotheclassofnomads.However,whenheresumedhislaboursandpursuedthemwithasmuchactivityasin-telligence,andwhennothingdisturbedhimintheexerciseofhisindustry,aPersiancultivatorcouldeasilyhaveenriched.Thisrichnesswasshowing inthemostmediocrevillagesofPersiaaslargeandbeautifulhouses,containingallthesuperfluitiesaffordedbyopulence.67
Jaubertdescribed the formationofPersian townsas follows:Whenachiefofapowerfulnomadtribecampedinafertilevalleytotakepossession,firstly he built houses asweak as the tents and indicated to each one thegroundheoughttocultivate,andheregulatesthekindofworkheisentitledtoexpectfromthosewhoaresubordinatetohim.Someplantgardens,othersdigreservoirs.Womenoccupythehousekeeping,kneadthebread,spinthewool,treadfeltsandweavecarpets.Iftheestablishmentthrives,ifthechiefinspirationofconfidence,merchantsattractedbythelureofgain,comeinalldirections.Thehutsaresucceededbydwellingsproper,convenient,butopenandairy.Afterthenmosques,bazaars,andfountainsareerected,andsoonthecampofpastorspresentstheappearanceofacity.68
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180686
quencyofearthquakes.AnotherfactorofthisviewwasthePersiancustomsthattheyleavethepaternalhousewhentheymarryandbuildtheirhousesattheirwillasJaubertobservedinSoltaniyeh.Besides,accordingtoJaubert’sobservation,manyimportantPersiancitiesasTabriz,Isfahan,andHamadanwereinadeclinecomparedtotheirformerstate.Contrarytothetestimonyofthenativesources,Jaubertsaidthatthepresentpopulationandthereve-nuesofPersiawerenotasmuchsuperiorastheyexpressed.Fromdifferentsources,heevaluatedpopulationofPersiaas6,562.000.Asfortherevenuesoftheshah,theywerecomposedoftheproductsofhisdomains;royaltiespaidtohimbythegovernorsoftheprovinces;customsdutiesleviedondifferentgoods;tributeswhichitimposesonthechiefsofthenomadichordesandtheprincesofsomeneighbouringcountriesandpresentsthat,inordertoconcili-atehisbenevolence,makehimvariousgovernors,whetherrulersorforeign-ers,andespeciallythoseoftheAfghanprovinceofHerat. It isnecessarytoaddthissumhorses,cattle,felts,carpets,andotherobjectsgivenbythetribalchieftainsthatincreasedtherevenuesoftheshahtoseventytoeightymillionsoffrancs.Bytheserevenues,theshahwastomaintainhisarmy,topaytheexpensesofhispalace,andtogivetothoseofhissubjects,whohavedeservedthembytheirservices,considerablegratuities.Asforpublicestablishments,suchas colleges,mosques, fortifications, aqueducts, andbridges, they areforthemostparttheresponsibilityoftheprovinces,andconsequentlypoorlymaintained.Withacriticalapproach,Jaubertstressedthattheshahinsteadofemployingtheserevenuesinamannermoreusefultothecountryandtotheshahhimself,hewasthinkingonlyofaccumulatinghiswealth.Because,inJaubert’sopinioninthedespoticstates,thepublicinterestwascountedfornothing,andthatthewordsofpoliticaleconomy,wisdomofadministration,orderandforesightwereunknown.69
Ofcourse,anothercrucialobservationtopicofJaubert,whowassenttoPersia to seekalliancewith this country for thebenefitFrance,was thePersianmilitarypowerthathestudieditastheirdiscipline,theirpay,andtheirpresumednumber.ThePersian troops,whenon themarch, livealmostal-waysattheexpenseofthecountrytheytraverse.Theintendantsofthearmygavemayorsofeachvillage,recognitionofthecommodities,whichhadbeenconsumed.However,thismethodgenerallycausedthevillagerstobedam-aged.Persian troopswerearmed lightlyand inamannerquiteappropriatetomilitaryservice.As thearmy towentanexpedition in summer, theyof-tenwalkedbynight,bythelightoftorches,andbythesoundofnoisymusic.The places of encampment and residencewere assigned by the firmansoftheshah.Officerswhowereorderedtochoosesuitablepositionsandarrangeforfoodandforageweredespatchedbeforehand.Inthisway,tentsandother
69 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.233-240.
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necessitieswereprovidedbeforemilitary troopsarrived.As for thePersianarmy’sabilitytofight,Jaubertusedrathernegativeexpressionslike“Persianhadnoideaonwarandtheirtroopsretainednoorderasseenintheirmanneroffighting”.Moreover, thearmyhadnobarracks,nomilitaryhospitals,norstores for the supply of the army. Each cavalierwas obliged, bymeans ofthepay,rangedfrom120to140franc,whichhereceivesfromthesovereign,tosupplyhimselfwitheverything.Referring to theMalcolm’sbookonPer-sia70,Jaubertcalculated thenumberof thePersianarmyas254.000whichconsistedofguardsoftheshahandprinces;troopssuppliedbythenomadictribes;provincialmilitiasandvariouscorpsof infantry,cavalryandartillery,exercisedanddressedalmostEuropean.Inthiscontext,onthemodernisationofthearmy,Jaubert,whoalsotookintoaccountsubsequentdevelopmentsinthecountry,expressedthatthereweresomeobstaclestothemodernizationofthearmy,whichstemmedfromthereligionandthetraditions.71
PlacedbetweenEuropeandIndia,thePersiansimportedbyland,andatlittleexpense,theproductions,andweregenerallysatisfiedwithamediocregain,werehopingtoextendtheiraffairsbythismeans.Jaubertidentifiedthreemajorobstaclestothefurtherenrichmentofthecountryandthedevelopmentoftrade.Thefirstwasthemwasthepractise,whichallowedeveryonetobuyandsellforhisownaccount.Thesecondwastheaversions,whichthePer-sianshadalwayshadforthesea.Theyneglectedtheshortermaritimeroutesandpreferredthepassagefromthemostaridanddangerousdeserts.ThelackofmaritimecultureofthePersian,whichresultedofsuchanantipathy,wasdoubly fatal to thecountry,whichplacedbetween theCaspianSeaand thePersianGulf.Thethirdcausewasthelackofexchange.ThebillsofexchangeandthatofpapermoneywerenotunknowninPersia.However,despitetheseshortcomings,theindustriousgeniusofthePersians,andtheadvantageaf-fordedthosebythesituationoftheircountry,whichwasplacedbetweenthetworichestpartsoftheworld,combinedwiththesafetyoftheroadsofPersia,couldchancetheconditionsofthePersian.JaubertwhodescribedthetradepartnersofthecountryandtheproductswhichsubjectedtoimportandexportofPersia,referredalsotheproductsthatFrancecouldsell.72
Jaubert analysed themannersof theoriental in three chapters in histravelogue.Butitcanbesaidthat,thesechaptersnotonlybasedonhisobser-vationinPersia,butalsolongyearsthatJaubertlivedintheTurkishandtheArabicsociety.Hisorientalknowledge, thathehadstudiedTurkish,Arabic,andPersian languages for twoyears,allowedhimtoengagewith the local
70 JohnMalcolm,The History of Persia, From the Most Early Period to the Present Time,Vol.I-II,London:JohnMurray,1815.71 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.241-247.72 Jaubert, op.cit., pp. 248-254; Vinson, op.cit., (http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180688
populationdirectlyandcomparewitheachotheraswellasEuropeansoci-ety.Hestatedthatalthoughthegeographiesandoriginsaredifferent,Turk-ish,ArabandPersiansocietybelongtocommontraditions.Focusingonthefamily,JauberttriedtomakeaccuratedefinitionsaboutPersiansociety.Theindividualswhocomposethefamilywerethefather,themother,thechildren,thedomesticservant,andtheslaves.Thepaternalauthoritybeingmoreex-tendedamongthesepeoplethanEuropeansociety.Inparticular,thesituationofwomenwasthesubjectofJaubert’sassessments.JaubertwhocriticizesmisinformationbytherelationsofcertaintravellersfromEurope,likestupid-ity,meanness, and falseness, about orientalwomen stressed that such anopinionwouldbe ill founded.Healsostated thatorientalwomenwerenotexposedtoanypressurethattheyhadaspecialplaceinsociety.Afterfurtherdeterminationon the structureof oriental societies, Jaubert finally tried tomakecomparativeevaluationsbetweentheTurksandthePersians.73
AfterhissojourninPersiancapitalmorethanamonth,hehadagoodopportunitytoleaveTehran.Fath-AliShahusedtoleavethecapitalformili-taryinspectionofhisarmy.Forthisreason,theshahleftTehranforSoltaniyehonJune24,1806.Jaubertaccompanied to theshah’s retinue;butaviolentfever,causedbytheunhealthyconditionsofTehran,detainedhimatAliShahAbbas.Theshah’schiefphysician,Mirza-Chefi,receivedorderstotakeeverycareofhim.75WhenhewasstillillinAliShahAbbas,AdrienDupré,76sonofPierreDupré,consulofFranceinTrabzon,arrivedinPersiaandbroughtlatestnewsfromEurope.ThankstotheeffortofPersianphysiciansandtheregimethathefollowed,Jaubertrecoveredpartlyfromthediseaseandcontinuedhisjourney.Hearrivedat thecampatSoltaniyehonthe5thofJulyandrestedthereninedays.Inthisperiod,heassistedforfortydaysatthehuntingpar-tiesofFath-AliShah,andatthereviewsoftroops,employinghimselfduringthetimewiththepurportofhismission.Finally,heobtainedhisaudienceof
73 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.255-285.74 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.286-290.75 Édouard Driault, Napoléon’un Şark Siyaseti, Trans. Köprülüzade M. Fuad, Prep. SelmaGünaydın,Ankara:TTK2013,p.161.76 AdrienDupréalsowrotehisownworkonhismissioninPersia,seeAdrienDupré,Voyage en Perse, fait dans les années 1807, 1808 et 1809, en traversant la Natolie et la Mésopotamie, depuis Constantinople jusqu’à l’extrémité du Golfe Persique, et de là à Iréwan,TomeI-II,Paris:J.G.Dentu,1819.
TheshahappointedMehemedKhan,officerof thePersianarmy,asamihmandar for returnofJaubert toErzurum.WithAdrienDupré, the tatar,theservantsandthebaggage,JaubertdepartedfromSoltaniyehonJuly14.Hisroutewasnearlythesameasthatbywhichhecame.Thefirstday,theyreachedtoZenjanwheretheyspenttwojour.OnJuly23theyarrivedinTabrizwhere welcomed by Ahmed Khan. From Tebriz, after a four-day trip theyreachedtoHoy.Thence,theywenttoVan,thenpassedanarmoftheEuphra-tes,nearTuzla,whichtheycrossedwiththehelpofleatherbottles;andlastly,theAraxes,whichisinthesamemountainsastheTigrisandtheEuphratesandarrivedinErzurumonAugust19.OnAugust28,PierreDupréinformedtoRuffin,chargéd’affairsofFrenchembassyatConstantinople:78
Thenextday,JaubertdepartedfromKian,alargevillageaboutamileawayfromErzurum.ItwasnearAşkalethatJaubertmetJouannin,whowassenttohimbyRuffinasinterpreterofFrancemissioninPersia.79Jaubertar-rived inGümüşhaneonAugust23,wellknown town for theexploitationofconsiderablemineswhichareatashortdistance.FromGümüşhane,bythesummerroadofTrabzon-Erzurumtheyreachedonthe24thtoStavri,whichwasthefirstGreekvillagetobeencounteredonthewayfromErzurum-Trab-zon.WhenhewasinCevizlik(Maçka)hewrotetoPierreDupré,theconsulofTrebizond,alettertowelcomehimontheway.ThenextdayJaubertandhisretinuearrivedinTrabzonwhereJaubertsawtheBlackSeathatremindedhimtheRetreattheTenThousandsofXenophon.80
According toFrenchconsulDupré’scorrespondences,Jaubert residedin Trabzon nearly aweek.During his stay, hewas accompanied byDupré.
77 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.301-31078 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 28August1806.79 HenriCordier,«UninterprètedugénéralBruneetlafindel’ÉcoledesJeunesdelangues»,Mémoires de l’Institut national de France,38/2,Paris1911,p.340.80 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.325-333.
Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180690
Withtheconsul,heacceptedtheagentofGeorgiasentbySolomonKhan.81 Of course, Jaubert’s arrival at Trabzon triggered the jealousyRussian con-suls,Roubaudinthecity.OnhisreportdatedonSeptember7,Dupréinformedto theFrenchembassy thatafter thedepartureofJaubert,hewasworriedaboutsafetyofJaubert’svoyagetoConstantinoplebecauseofRussianshipsnearTrabzon.Eveninhislatercorrespondences,DupréstatedthattheRus-sianconsuldidnotpleasedJaubert’sreturnfromPersia,hisstayatTrabzonandhisdeparture,andreferringtothemütesellimofTrabzon,hetriedtopre-ventJaubertfromleavingthecity.82ForthejourneytoConstantinople,Duprécharteredasmallship,beşçifte, forJaubertandpassedhimPulathane, therealportofTrabzon.Interestingly,themisfortuneofJaubertdidnotleavehimfromonhisreturningjourney.Duetobadweather,hehadtowaitattheportofPulathane forawhile,and laterstormyweatherof theBlackSea forcedtheJaubert’sbeşçiftetostayatseveralplacesonthesoutherncoastsofthesea,asVonaandÜnye.Underthesecircumstances,however,wasfavourabletothemthattheshipanchoredintheharbourofKumcağız,notfarfromthemouthoftheKızılırmak.Astheseasonwasadvancing,theseabecamelessnavigablefromdaytoday.SoJaubertplannedtocontinuehisjourneybylandatleastuntilSinopandsenthisjanissarytoaskthemutesellimdeBafraforthepermission.Theanswerofthelatterwasthat,inviewofthepresenceoftheanarchy in theregion, itwasadvisable towaita fewdays.Under thesecircumstances,JaubertspentseventeendaysinKumcağız.83Asheplanned,JaubertarrivedinBafrabyland;becausetherewasnoshipintheharbour,hereturnedtoKumcağız.Finally,afteraweek’scompulsorystayinKumcağız,hecouldfindashiptotakehimtoSinoponSeptember30.84
81 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 8September1806.82 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 7September1806.83 Fourcade,FrenchconsulatSinopmentionedonJaubert’svoyagefromKumcağıztoSinoponhisreports,seeAMAE,CADC,CCC,Sinope,FourcadetoFrenchForeignMinistry,15October1806.84 Jaubert, op.cit.,pp.334-346.
Özgür YILMAZ 91
gion.85 Jaubert,whodeparted from İneboluonOctober15,passedAmasraandreachedOctober23atBartın.JaubertnextarrivedinEreğli,aninhospi-tablecountry,anddangeroustoEuropeans,ofwhichhepresentedhisread-erswithaninterestingaccountofAllierdeHauteroche,Frenchcommissionerwhocouldresideintownonlyafewmonths.Hefoundatthisplaceaforty-gunfrigatewhichintwodayscarriedhimtoTarabyawheretheFrenchambassa-dor,GeneralSebastiani,waswaitingforhim.86
When he arrived in Constantinople,MirzaMuhammadRiza,whowaschosenasPersianenvoytoNapoleon,hadarrived inthecapitalaroundthemiddleofSeptember1806.However,TalleyrandadvisedSebastiani tokeephim thereuntil theEmperor haddecidedon themost convenient place fortheirmeeting.87 Jaubert andMirzaMahmudRıza then took thedirectionofWarsaw,wheretherewasaNapoleonwhoknewhisglory.AfterthevictoriesofJenaandAuerstädt,theFrenchemperorenteredBerlinandtheninWar-saw,afterEylau,he fellbacktothecastleofFinkensteinwhere,at theendofApril1807, thathereceived insolemnaudiencethePersianambassadorwhohadpreviouslymetwiththeFrenchMinisterforForeignAffairsatWar-saw.OnMay4,1807,atreatyofFranco-Persianalliance,finalizetheTreatyofFinkenstein,consistingofsixteenarticleswassigned.88AfterthetreatyatFinkenstein,ourtraveller,JaubertsetoutfromDantzickonthe21stofJune,toreturntoFrance.
Conclusion
WecanevaluateJaubert’smissionfromdifferentaspect,whichwasaresultofFrenchattempttomakeanalliancewithPersiain1805-1807.First,itisnotpossibletosaythatJaubert’smission,whichreacheditsgoalbytheTreatyofFinkenstein,revealedalong-termpoliticalbenefitforFrenchforeignpolicy. Even, in order to finalize the Treaty of Finkenstein, on 10May1807GeneralGardanewaschargedtoanewmissiontoPersia,asministerpleni-potentiary,responsibleforregulatingthedetailsofthecooperationbetweenthetwopowers.However,GardanearrivedinTehraninDecember1807,sixmonthsafterthepeacetreatybetweentheFrenchemperorandthetsar,theTreatyofTilsitonJuly9,1807.ThisimportantFrenchdiplomaticshiftwouldnaturallyputthemissionofJaubertandGardaneinafalsepositionwhichul-timatelyresultedinaresoundingfailure.However,partlysuccessfulmission
85 Fourcade, French consul at Sinopmentioned on Jaubert’s voyage fromKumcağız to Sinoponhisreports.SeeAMAE,CADC,CCC,Sinope,FourcadetoFrenchForeignMinistry,15October1806;Jaubert,op.cit.,p.353.86 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.335-364;Jomard, op.cit.,p.141.87 Amini,op.cit.,p.112.88 AdityaDas,Defending British India Against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807-13,Woodbridge:BoydellPress,2016,p.37.
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