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* Assoc.Prof.,GümüşhaneUniversity,FacultyofLetters,DepartmentofHistory,[email protected]

DIPLOMACY AS A SOURCE OF TRAVELOGUES: THE CASE OF PIERRE AMÉDÉE JAUBERT’S MISSION IN PERSIA IN 1805-1806

Özgür YILMAZ*

Abstract

Intermsofsourcesoftravelogues,itcouldbesaidthatdiplomaticrelationshaveaveryimportantplace in theemergenceof thiskindofwritingasseen in theearlyexamplesoftravelogues.AmongthetraveloguesontheEasterncountries,theEuropeandiplomat,am-bassadororhisretinueswrotean importantpartof them.Theseworkscanbeusedasadiplomaticsourcewithrespecttotheirwriters,aswellasbeinganunofficialtypeofliterature;theycontainmanyinterestingdetailsaboutthecountryinwhichtravellersjourneyedandre-sided.ThereisaveryrichtravelliteratureonPersia,andtheyconstituteanimportantpartofthesourcesofPersianhistory.Traveloguesincreaseespeciallyinthe19thcentury.However,consideringthedevelopmentsoftheearlyperiodsofthecentury,itcanbeseenthatthesesourcesaremoreimportantintermsofPersianexternalpolicy.Napoleon’sattempttoallywithPersialedtotheemergenceofsomeimportantsourcesaboutthisperiod.FocusingonJaubert’smissioninPersia,thispaperaimstomakesomedeterminationsabouttheimpor-tanceofdiplomaticmissionsintravelwriting.

Keywords: Jaubert,Travelogues,Diplomacy,France,Persia,Armenia.

Introduction

Thelongingfordistantplacesandcuriosityaboutunknownplacesthat inheritedin thenatureof thehumanbeingmakepeople to travel longer journeys, towritevo-luminoustravelbooks.Thiskindofwriting,whichwascreatedbydiplomats,writers,artists,scholarstravelingaroundtheworld,iscalledas“travelogues”ingeneral,showsaliteraryfeatureaswellasbeingahistoricalresource.1Travelliteratureisabroadgenreconsistingofdescriptiveaccounts,alsoknownastraveloguesoritineraries,tellingaboutanindividualoragroup’sencounterwithanewplace,peoplesandcultures.Traveloguescanpresentanaccountofacross-culturalortransnationalaspect,ortellabouttraveltoparticularregionsofacountry.2

Whenwelookattheriseoftheorientaltravel,wemustrefertotheOttomanEm-pire,whichbecameagreatpowerfromthe15thcenturyintheMediterraneanespeciallyaftertheconquestofSyriaandEgypt.3TheintenserelationswiththeEuropeanstatesandtheOttomandominanceoverthetraderoutesfrom1580shaveattractedmanytravellers

1 WinfriedLöschburg,Seyahatin Kültür Tarihi,Trans.JasminTraub,Ankara:DostKitabevi,1998,p.8.2 Özgür Yılmaz, “Osmanlı Şehir Tarihleri Açısından Yabancı Seyahatnamelerin Kaynak Değeri”, Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi,28/2,İzmir2014,pp.599-606.3 Gülgün Üçel-Aybet,Avrupalı Seyyahların Gözünden Osmanlı Dünyası ve İnsanları (1530-1699), İstanbul:İletişimYayınları,2003,p.16.

Diplomacy As A Source Of Travelogues: The Case Of Pierre Amédée Jaubert’s Mission In Persia In 1805-180666

totheOttomanlands.4Inthe18-19thcentury,aremarkableincreasewasseeninthequantitiesoftraveloguesontheOrient.Attheendofthe18thcentury,theestablishmentoftheBritishadministrationinIndia,theoccupationofEgyptby theFrench,and theBritish-Frenchcompetition led toanunexpected in-creaseinthenumberoftravelstotheEast.Moreover,thetravellerspublishedvoluminoustraveloguestosatisfyEuropeanreaderswhowerereadytoreadallkindoftravelliterature.Thisprocessplayedakeyroleintheemergenceofascientificdisciplinecalled“orientalism”.AsaproductoftheWest’sdefiningprocessof theEast,orientalismbecameameansofestablishingthewest-ernhegemonyovertheEasternculturesbytheendofthe19thcentury.TheEuropeantraveller’ssystematicstudyoftheEastledtosystematicabusesinculturalandpoliticalmatterstoo.5

Fromthe18thcenturyonwards,thewesternperceptionabouttheEasthasalsobeguntochange,andthewesterntravellershavefoundastableandidleeasternworldagainstthedevelopmentsinEurope.Inotherwords,amoredistinctiveOrientalconcepthasemergedintheeyesofthewest.Thiswastheresultofthepoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentsoftheperiodandtheinflu-enceofthedominantideologues.Colonialismandimperialism,whichreachedthezenithinthe19thcentury,changedthestructureoftraveloguesandtheim-provementoftravelconditionsthankstotherailwaysandsteamboatsduringthiscenturystrengthenedthetiesbetweentheeast-thewest.6Bytheendofthiscentury,becauseofthescientificdevelopments,thetravellerintheclas-sicalperiodhaslefthisplacetotheexpertsaccordingtotheirprofessionasgeologists,geographers,archaeologists,diplomatsandhistorians,andthustheyhaveproducedworksbasedonmoreimportantandscientificdata.

Therewasa close relationshipbetween travelsanddiplomacyasob-served in the emergence ofmany travelogues. Diplomacy and commercialinterests intertwined fromancient times,andembassiesbetween rulers todiscussmatters of politics and trade have generated informal travelogues,diaries,orlettersoutsidetheofficialreportssentbacktoambassadors’mas-ters.TheearliestrecordeddiplomaticmissionstookplacewhenthekingsofBabylonia,AsssyriaandEgyptsentenvoystonegotiatewithotherruler.Al-though little isknownaboutearliest trademissions,oneof thefirstwas inancientEgypt. In theChristianera,papalmissions to convert the “enemiesofChrist” oftenusedbymembersof religiousorders-DominicanandFran-

4 OnthistopicseeGeraldMacLean,The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580-1720,Hamshire:PalgraveMacmillan,2006;MicheleLongino,French Travel Writing in the Ottoman Empire: Marseilles to Constantinople, 1650-1700,NewYork:Routledge,2015.5 Fatma Acun, “Seyyah Söylemi ve Trabzon’a Gelen Yabancı Seyyahlar”, Trabzon ve Çevresi Uluslararası Tarih-Dil-Edebiyat Sempozyumu Bildirileri, (3–5 Mayıs 2001),V.I,Trabzon:TrabzonValiliği,2002,p.146.6 Löschburg,op.cit.,pp.112-118.

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ciscansand later theJesuits-asambassadors tomakecontactwithrulerswhosesubjectswereviewedonthebasisoftotalignorance,aslikelycandi-datesforconversion.Onthesecularandcommercialfront,themostfamousmedievalwesternerwhovisitedthecourtsofFarEastwasMarcoPolo.Nev-ertheless,outwardembassytrafficwasnotconfinedtoChristianEurope.Oneof thegreatestmedieval travellerswasthe14thcenturyscholar IbnBattutawho journeyed throughout Islamicworld.Another Islamic travellerwas IbnHaldunemployedbyNasridSultanMuhammedVofGranadaasambassadortoPedroCruelofCastilein1360s.IntheFarEast,theChinesecourtalsosentambassadorstoMalayPeninsulaforcommercialanddiplomaticmissionsin15thcentury.SomeofthemostimportantreportswerewrittenbyJesuitswhowereattachedoftenforalongperiodstothecourtsofforeignpowers.7

Moderndiplomacyemerged inRenaissance Italywhere theprincesofnation-statesofthecountryengageddeeplywithdiplomacythattheyinvolvedfrequentexchangesofambassadors.However,itcouldbesaidthatdiplomat-icactivitiesintensifiedafterthefallofConstantinoplein1453,byallianceat-temptof theByzantineemperorswithCatholicpowersofEurope.After theadhocperiodofthediplomacy,fromthemid-fifteenthcenturytheVenetiansopenedtheperiodofthepermanentdiplomacybyappointingcommercialrep-resentationsasbaylo,inotherwordstradeconsuls.OtherpowersofEuropefollowedtheVenetian’s’practiseandmaintainedpermanentpresenceinfor-eigncapitals.Forthisreason,thedevelopmentsofpermanentdiplomacycanbefollowedalsointheOttomancapitalfromthemid-fifteenthcentury.ApartfromthepowerbaseoftheMuslimthreattotheheartofEuropeandcentreofvasttradingempire,theOttomancapitalwasreallythefocusofthediplo-maticactivityfromthesixteenthcenturyonward.Somanyambassadorsandotherdiplomaticrepresentatives,besidestheirofficialreports,recordedtheirimpressionsastravelogues.8

Ambassadors and pilgrimswere themost important group of travel-lersduring the15-16th centuries.Otherservants,whowereworkingunderthepatronageofembassies,as interpreters,accountants,traders,religiousofficials,pharmacists,researchers,clergy,priests,orientalistsandarchaeol-ogists,chamberlains,prisonersandslaves,followedthem.TheypreparedsomanytraveloguesconcerningtheOttomanEmpireandcreatedaninterestingsourceofinformationonthehistoryofOttomandiplomacy,internationalaf-fairsandtheOttomansocialandeconomiclife.9

7 MartinJ.Manning,“DiplomaticandTradeMissions”,Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia,Ed.JenniferSpeake,NewYork:Routledge,2003,pp.339-341.8 Manning,op.cit.,pp.339-341.9 EsinYurdusev,“StudyingOttomanDiplomacy:AreviewoftheSources”,Ottoman Diplomacy Conventional or Unconventional?Ed.ANuriYurdusev,NewYork:Springer,2004,p.181.


AsforthePersianexample,itispossibletoseethecharacteristicsofthiscountryanditsdifferencesascomparedtotheOttomanEmpire.AsWannelstatedthat,intheclassical,ChristianorIslamicandmodernperiods,Persiahasbeenthe“other”adifferent,fascinatingchallenging,sometimesashostileareaofcultureandpolitics.Thewesterntravelliteratureapproacheditfromdifferentpointofview,becausethecountrywastotallyunknowntothewest.ThemasstravelliteratureonPersiawasmilitary,diplomaticandmissionary.Thisliteraturetendedtoduringtheperiodsofthecountry’spowerandexpan-sion.Theearliestwrittenaccountonthecountrygoesbacktosixth-centuryB.C.ThenextimportantseriesofwrittensourcesonPersiadatefromaftertheseventh-centuryArabconquest.TheMongolconquestofthecentralIslamicworldinthe13thcenturyinspiredaseriesofmissionstosecuremilitaryalli-ancewithPersiaandEurope.ThesearchforalliancewithPersiacontinuedintheOttomanperiodaswecouldseeinthecaseofRuyGonzalezClavijotoTa-merlanein1404.TheEuropeandirecttradewiththeIndianOceanhadalsoin-creasedthestrategicimportanceofPersia.Theriseoftheliteratemercantilemiddleclassandthespreadofprinting,aswellasthegrowingtasteforluxurytextiles,silks,andcarpetsgaveenormousboosttotravelwritingasseeninthe17thcenturyinPersia.Inthefollowingcentury,thecountrywasvisitedbywell-knowntravellersasPietroDellaValla,JeanThévenot,Tavernier,ChardinandDuMans.10However,theAfghandestructionoftheSafavidcapitalin1722,Persiawasplungedforalongperiodintopoliticalanarchy,civilwar,andeco-nomicandsocialinsecurity.Asaresult,therewerefewerwesternresidentsandvisitorstoPersiainthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcentury.11

Adirectoutcomeoftheperennialrivalriesamongthegreatwesternna-tionsintheearly19thcenturywasanumberofdiplomaticmissions,particu-larlyFrench, sent toPersia in thehopeof concludingagreementswith theshah.AmongthefirstFrenchmissions,somewerealsoengagedinresearchongeographical,economic,politicalandsocialaspects.TheirfindingsbroughthometothewesttherealizationthatPersiawasnotashighlydeveloped,noraspopulatedandrichassome17thcenturytravelogueshadledthemtobe-lieveasintheexampleofJaubert’stravelogue,andthemapsthatsometimesaccompaniedtheaccountsshowedaconsiderablepartofthecountryasbar-renanddeserted.12FromtheBritishside,manymoreBritishwroteabouttheirtravelsinPersiaduringthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury:armyofficersgoinghomeorreturningtoIndiafromleave,otherofficersonintelligencegathering

10 BruceWannell,“Iran/Persia”,Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia,Ed.JenniferSpeake,NewYork:Routledge,2003,pp.616-617.11 NaderNasiri-Moghaddam,“FranceVIII.Traveloguesofthe18th-20thCenturies”,Encyclopaedia Iranica,X/2,p.146.12 Op.cit.,p.146.

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missions,diplomatsandtheirstaff,membersofmilitarymissionsandofex-ploratoryexpeditions.13

ThehistoryoftherelationsofFrancewithPersiagoesbacktomedievaltimes. IntheearlymiddleAges,PersiawasperceivedbytheFrenchmostlythroughbiblical,Greek,andLatinsources.DuringtheCrusades,whichweresanctionedbythepapacyandlaunchedbytheFranks,allMuslimcountries,including Persia, were considered enemies of Christianity. The Mongol in-vasions,despitetheircalamitouseffects,permittedtherenewalofcontactsbetweentheeastandthewest,withFranceplayingaleadingpart.Europe’sforemostmotivationwastoChristianize theMongols,as ithadearlierbar-barianinvaders.DominicanandFranciscanmissionariesweresenttoIl-kha-nidPersia.MissionsandecclesiasticalseeswereestablishedatSoltaniyeh,Maraga,Tabriz,andTiflis.Christianmissionaryactivity,diplomacy,commerceandtravelcontinuedinthefollowingcenturies.IntheAqQoyunluperiod,theEuropeanstateswere trying toestablishpoliticalandcommercial tieswithTamerlaneandUzunHasanagainsttherisingOttomandanger.14IntheSafavidperiod,theOttoman-FrenchrelationspreventedtheFrenchfromestablishingdirectrelationswiththeSafavids.AlthoughitcausedthereactionoftheOt-tomangovernment,thefirstattempttoestablishdirectFranco-Persianwasmade in the reignofLouisXIII.DeshayesdeCourmeninwent to theSafevipalaceandsawtheshah,buthecouldnotgainaveryimportantachievementintermsofFranco-Persianrelations.15

However, despite this political failure,Catholicmissionaries settled inPersiaandtheFrenchCapuchinsactivitiesachievedtoestablishmentoftheFrench in thiscountry.Frenchmissionariesplayedan importantpartas in-formantsfortravellers,merchants,anddiplomats.Inthebeginningofthe18th century,French-Persianrelationwascarriedoutbysemi-officialmerchantasJeanBillondeCanserille,Jean-BaptisteFabre,MariePetitandPierre-VictorMichel.Inthisprocess,thefirstPersianembassyMuhammedRızawhowassenttoFrancereachedParisin1715tonegotiateanewPersian-Frenchtrea-ty.However,withthe fallof theSafaviddynastyshortlyafterwards in1722,theadvantageswerenotenforcedandtherewasnoincreaseinFrenchtradewithPersia.ShortlyafterthePersianembassy’sreception,LouisXIV’sdeathin1715coincidedwith thedeclineof theSafavids.Onceagain,France triedtofurtheritspoliticalandcommerciallinkswithPersiathroughtheenforce-mentoftherenewedtreaty.ButFrenchendeavourstoestablishrelationswithPersia remained cautiousand limited.Despite that, France tried toplayan

13 DenisWright,“GreatBritainVII.BritishTravelerstoPersia”,Encyclopaedia Iranica,XI/3,p.246.14 JeanCalmard,“FranceII.RelationswithPersiato1789”,Encyclopædia Iranica,X/2,p.127.15 RenéPillorget,“LouisDeshayesdeCourmeninetl’Orientmusulman(1621-1626)”,Cahiers de l’Association internationale des études francaises,27,Paris1975,p.67.


importantpartinpost-SafavidexternalpoliciesofPersiasometimesasame-diatorbetweenRussia,TurkeyandPersiasometimestoarrangeTurco-Per-sianallianceagainstRussia.CulturallinksbetweenFranceandPersia,thoughgradually developing throughout this period, suffered at times because ofrupturesindiplomaticandcommercialrelations.IntheSafavidperiodanditsaftermath,Franco-PersianrelationsremainedmostlyunderthecontroloftheFrenchambassadorstothePorte.16

Afterthisintroductionpartonthetravelliterature,theriseoftravelre-latedtotheEastandespeciallythebriefintroductionofFrenchrelationswithPersia,thefollowingsectionofthisstudywillfocusontheactivitiesofFrenchalliancewithPersia in the frameworkofNapoleon’seasternpolicyandwillexaminetheemergenceprocessofthePersianmissionofJaubertaccordingtosecondarysourceson this topic.Jaubert’s journey toPersiaandthe fol-lowingsectionsarebasedonJaubert’stravelogue,VoyageenArménieetenPerse,faitdanslesannées1805et1806,whichwaspublishedin1821.17 Inthiscontext,thecontentofthestudyisformedaccordingtoJaubert’sbook.Intheseparts,wewillfocusonJaubert’sjourneyontheOttomanandIranianlands,thedifficulties,whichhefaced,andtheimpressionofthetravellerontheOttomanandthePersiansides.ThemissionofJaubertbyFath-AliShahandhisobservationonPersia inmany respectsaresummarizedaccordingtoJaubert’sworkinthesection.Inthelastpart,thejourneyofthetravellerfromPersiatoFinkensteinisexamined.Asitwillbeseeninthetext,thestudyrevealed new findings about the difficultieswhich Jaubert faced in Bayezidfromthecorrespondencesof theFrenchConsulates inTrabzon.Tosumup,thestudyislargelybasedontheworkandimpressionsofJaubert.Itcanbesaidthat,intheframeworkoftravelliterature,theriseofOrientaltravelandtheFrenchattempttoalliancewithPersiainNapoleon’sreign,thestudyaimstomakebriefevaluationofJaubert’sworkonhisPersianmission.TheothersecondarysourcesandFrencharchivaldocumentsareused,thoughthestudyisbasedonlargelyJaubert’swork.

16 Calmard,op.cit.,pp.129-131.17 For the analysis of Jaubert’s travelogue in French see Nouvelles Annales des voyages,de lagéographieetde l’histoire,publiéesparMM.J.B.EyrièsetMalteBrun,TomeXIII,Paris:LibrairiedeGide,1822,pp.236-255;ForEnglishseeM.Jomard,“AnalysisoftheTravelsofM.AmedeeJaubert,inArmeniaandPersia,in1805and1806”,The European Magazine, and London Review,Vol.82,London:PhilologicalSocietyofLondon,1822,pp.137-143;Jaubert’straveloguetranslatedtoGermanin1822,seePierre-AmédéeJaubert,Reise durch Armenien und Persien: in den Jahren 1805 und 1806,Weimar1822;AndtoDutchin1823,seePierre-AmédéeJaubert,Reis in Armenië en Perzië, gedaan in de jaren 1805 en 1806,Amsterdam1823.

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1. The Background of Jaubert’s Mission: Napoleon’s Persian Policy

In the last yearsof the18th century, significant changeswere seen intermsofinternalandexternalpolicyofFranceandPersia.DespitethehostilityofCatherinetheGreatofRussiatowardsbothPersiaandtheFrenchRevolu-tion,theascendancyoftheQajarsinPersiaandthechangesbroughtaboutbytheFrenchrevolutionarygovernmentin1789didnotatonceleadtoanyclosertiesbetweenthetwocountries.Fromlate1795,PersiabecamepartofFrenchprojects againstBritish India.Napoleonhad viewedhis Egyptian campaign(1798-99)asafootholdtolaunchaconquestofIndia.18HeisalsosaidtohavecombinedwiththeTsarPaulIajointattackonIndia.FromtherenewaloftheFranco-OttomanrelationswiththeTreatyofParisinJune1802,19hesoughtin-formationonPersia.DiplomaticoverturestowardsaFranco-PersianallianceweremadethroughGeneralBrune,20FrenchAmbassadoratConstantinople.21 ThemainmissionofGeneralBrunewasnotonlydealdirectlywiththesultanandbeyondbuttoestablishthefirstrelationsofFrancewithPersia.22

FromOctober1803onwards,France’sinterestinPersiaintensified.Tal-leyrand,theForeignMinister,directedJean-FrancoisRousseau,23theFrenchcommissionerforcommercialrelationsinBaghdad,andhiscolleagueinAlep-po,Louis-AlexandredeCorancez.Themaindutyoftheseofficialswastopro-videdetailedinformationonPersia’sforce,itsdispositionsandthecharacterofrulersandtoprovideregularinformationflowfromthatcountry.Precise-ly inthisperiod,an importanteventoccurredthatPersiasoughtforhelpofFrance.In1804,GeneralTsitsianov,GovernorofGeorgia,seizedthePersian

18 IradjAmini,“NapoleonandPersia”,British Institute of Persian Studies,37,London1999,p.109;FormoredetailedinformationontheNapoleonicperiodofFranco-Persianrelations,seeIradjAmini,Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian Relations Under the First Empire,WashingtonDC:MagePublishers1999.19 Forthistreaty,seeComptedeSaint-Priest,Mémoires sur l’ambassade de France en Turquie et sur le commerce des Français dans le Levant,Paris:LibrariedelaSociétéAsiatique,1877,pp.523-537.20 Fortheambassador’smissioninConstantinople,seeP.Coquelle,«L’ambassadedumaréchalBruneàConstantinople(1803-1805)»Revue d’histoire diplomatique,XVIII/1,Paris1904,pp.53-73.21 JeanCalmard,“GardaneMission”,Encyclopædia Iranica, X/3,pp.292-297;BrunewasinstructedbytheFrenchgovernmenttocollectdetailedinformationondifferentOttomanprovincesandsenttoFrenchcabinet.Besides,BrunehadtomakeobservationsaboutPersia,seeHenriDehérain,“Lettres inédits de membres de la mission Gardane en Perse (1807-1809)”, Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer,TomeXVI,15,Paris1923,p.249.22 David Vinson, “« Napoléon en Perse » : la mission Jaubert (1805-1807) Entre expérienceviatique et contexte diplomatique,” Astrolabe, 20, Paris 2008, (http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).23 Rousseauwasthewriteroftheunpublishedmanuscriptunderthetitleof“Tableau général de la Perse moderne ou mémoire géographique et politique sur la situation actuelle de cet empire”,andwas another important source of information on Persia in this period. IreneNatchkebia,“UnrealizedProject:Rousseau’sPlanofFranco-PersianTradeintheContextofIndianExpedition(1807),” Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian, ed. U. Bläsing, V.Arakelova,M.Weinreich,Leiden:Brill,2015,pp.115-126.


fortressofGanjainAzerbaijanandwasabouttobesiegeErevanunderPer-sianpossession. In thiscase,Fath-AliShahapplied toassistanceofBritaininaccordancewiththetermsofthe1801Anglo-Persiantreaty.However,theshah couldnot see the supportofBritishassistance thathehadexpected.Therefore, Fath-Ali Shah did not have other option of asking for help fromtheFrench.24Fromthispossiblealliance,eachsidehadtheirownexpectation.Fath-AliShahhopedNapoleonmighthelphimrecoverGeorgia,whilethelat-terthoughtthatclosertieswithPersiamight facilitatethedefeatofRussiaandopenthewaytoIndia.25Fath-AliShahwrotealettertoNapoleonandgaveittoanArmeniancalledOssepVassilovitztohandovertotheFrenchambas-sadorinConstantinople.VassilovitzdeliveredtheShah’slettertoPierreRuf-fin,theembassy’sCounsellorandinformedhimofthesituationinPersiaandofthecharacteroftheshah.26

Inthisperiod,apartfromthearrangeFrench-Persianrelations,themostimportantoccupationsoftheFrenchembassyatConstantinoplewasthere-lationbetweenSelimIIIandNapoleon.UnderpressurefromtheBritishandtheRussians,SelimIIIhavingrefusedtoacknowledgetheimperialtitleofNa-poleon,theFrenchambassadorinTurkeydecidedtoquithispostinprotest.In such a diplomatic atmosphere, the French took a newstep and decidedtosendJaubert toConstantinople,nearBrune, to transmit thenewsofhiscoronationtoSelimIIIandtonegotiatetherecognitionoftheimperialfactbytheOttomansultan.AssoonasJaubertarrivedinConstantinople,hebeganto look forasuitable interviewfacility togive the letterof theNopoleon toSelimIII.AccordingtoJaubert,however,theincreasingRussianinfluenceafterBrune’sdeparture fromthecapitalpreventedhimtoreachthisopportunity.Finally,JauberthadanoccasiontomeetwithSelimIII inKağıthaneandhewaswell receivedbySelim III and conveyed the letter ofNapoleon. There-fore,hefulfilledthefirstpartofthemission.27However,themoreimportantandmoredifficultPersianmissionofJaubertwasbeginning.SuspectedtherealityofOssepVassilovitz’sletter,Napoleonwantedtoconfirmwhethertheletterwastrue.Aswecitedabove,Napoleon,whowantedtomakeamilitaryalliancewithPersiaagainsttheBritishandRussiansbymakinguseofthisop-portunity,chargedPierreAmédéeJauberttoexaminethesituationandmakepreliminarypreparationsforthetreatywhichwouldbesignedwiththeshah.

BeforeproceedingwithJaubert’smissionindetail,itisimportanttobeinformedabouthiscareerthathecangiveusanideaofwhyNapoleonchose

24 Amini,op.cit.,p.112;MustafaAydın,Üç Büyük Gücün Çatışma Alanı Kafkaslar (1800-1830), İstanbul:Gökkubbe,2008,p.118.25 FlorenceHellot-Bellier, “France III.RelationswithPersia1789-1918,”Encyclopaedia Iranica, X/2,p.131.26 Amini,op.cit.,p.112.27 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.3-4.

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Jaubert.HewasborninAix-en-Provence,3rdJunein1779.HestudiedTurk-ish,Arabic,andPersianlanguagesfortwoyears(1796-98)withSylvestredeSacyat theÉcoledesLanguesOrientales inParis,and thenwasappointedinterpreterwith the title “jeune de langues” at the French legation in Con-stantinople.Thenhetookpart,astheinterpreter,inNapoleon’sexpeditiontoEgypt(1798-99)andin1799,hebecametheseniorinterpreterintheserviceofNapoleon.Hetaughtfortwoyears(1800-01)attheÉcoledesLanguesOrien-tales,beforeaccompanyingFrenchtroopsin1802intheirexpeditiontoAlex-andriainEgypt.28OnhisreturntoFrancein1803,hewasappointedsecretaryinterpreterattheMinistryofForeignAffairsandprofessorofTurkishlanguageattheÉcoledesLanguesOrientales.Aswementionedabove,in1804,hewaschargedtoannouncetoSultanSelimIIIthatNapoleonhadbeencrownedem-peror. InMarchof the followingyear,hewassent toPersia toestablishanalliancewithFath-AliShahagainstEnglandandRussia.29

After returning to France from the Persianmission, Jaubert receivedmanyprivilegesfromNapoleonBonaparte:thecrossofchevalieroftheLé-giond’honneur,thetitleofChevalieroftheEmpireinMay1808,andtheposi-tionofMasteroftherequestsattheCouncilofStatein1810.DuringtheperiodknownasHundredDaysbetweenMarch8andJuly1815,Jaubertoccupiedthepositionofthe“Chargéd’affaires”ofFranceinConstantinople.ThatwaswhythenextFrenchregimedidnotappreciatehisservicesandhewasdis-missed.Afterwards,hedevotedhistimetolinguisticresearchandtoteaching.In1818-19,withgovernmentaid,heembarkedonanewtriptoTibet,fromwhencehesucceededinintroducingintoFrance400Kashmirgoats.HewasonceagainsenttoIstanbulbyKingX.Charlesin1830forthedeterminationoftheOttoman-Greekborder.30Jaubertspenttherestofhislifeinstudy,inwrit-ingandinteaching.Inthesameyear,hejoinedtheAcadémiedesinscriptionsetbelles-lettreswhileteachingastheprofessorofthePersianlanguageintheCollègedeFrance.In1834,hewasnamedpresidentoftheSociétéasiatique.In1841,hewasappointed“PairdeFrance”intheChambredesPairsinParis.HebecameChevalier of theLégiond’honneur (1845) andwaspresidentoftheSociétéasiatiqueuntil1847.HediedinParison28January1847andwasburiedinthePère-Lachaisecemetery.31

InSeptember1805andJune1806, theFrenchenvoyJaubertand the

28 Formore detailed information on Jaubert, see.M. Sedillot, “Notice sur P. Am. Jaubert,” inPierreAmédéeJaubert,Voyage en Arménie et en Perse, précédé d’une notice sur l’auteur, par M. Sédillot,Paris:E.Ducrocq1860,pp.I-XXVII.29 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam, “Jaubert, Pierre Amédée Émilien-Probe”, Encyclopædia Iranica, XIV/6,p.593.30 Semavi Eyice, “Jaubert, Pierre Amédée Jaubert,DİA, vol. 23, 2001, pp. 576-578 ; Jaubert,op.cit.,p. XVIII.31 Nasiri-Moghaddam, op.cit.,p.593.


army officer Antoine Alexandre Romieu were instructed to present lettersfromNapoleonto theshahofPersia.Whenwe lookatNapoleon’s instruc-tions in this regard, it can be seen that these twoofficers explain in detailhowtheyshouldgotoPersia.32WhenJaubertwaswaitingforhisjourneytoPersia,AlexandreRomieuarrived inConstantinopleonMay20,1805.Bothwerethereforechargedwithacommonmissionwithsimilarexpectationsandinstructions,butforsafetyreasonstheyhadtofollowdifferentroutes.More-over,Romieu,unlikehis “co-emissary”,a recognizedorientalistand formerchief interpreter of the Egyptian expedition, did notmaster any of the lan-guagesusedinthecountriestobecrossedand,apartfromhisshortexperi-enceintheIonianIslands,heknewverybadlytheorientalhabitsandcustoms.Despite thesecrecysurrounding themissionRomieu, theEnglishconsul inBaghdad,HarfordJones,wasquicklyinformedbyhisPersianintermediariesandhiscolleagueinAlep,Barker,triedtopreventRomieuandhisentouragefromreachingPersiancapital.Accompaniedbytheyounginterpreter,GeorgesOutrey,Romieusetouton15June1805 forTehranviaHalep,Urfa,Diyar-bakır,Mardin,Musul,Kerkuk,Hamedan,andQazvin.DespitedangerswhichcamechieflyfromthehostilityoflocalpopulationsandtheintriguesofEnglishagents,RomieuarrivedinTehranonSeptember25,1805.33

InthePersiancapital,Romieumettheshahandhisministers,andwrotecorrespondences and various diplomaticmemories. According to Amini, inhis correspondences, Romieu saw little interest in an alliancewith Persia.InRomieu’sopinion,theonlypointofsuchanalliancewouldbeontheonehandtopreventRussianexpansion,andontheothertoreservetheremainsoftheOttomanEmpire.34Interestingly,however,RomieudiedinOctoberthreemonthsafterhisarrival.Therewasamidrumoursthathehadbeenpoisoned

32 “ThepersonIintendtosendtoPersiaisAdjutantCommandantRomieu.HavehimgivethesameinstructionsasM.Jaubert,andlethimgoassoonaspossible?IfithappenedthatM.JauberthadnotleftConstantinoplewhenhearrivedthere,theywouldconcerttogether,andsetoutatagreatdistancefromeachother,andbydifferentroads.M.RomieumightwellpassthroughTrebisonde;butifheweretopassthroughBagdadaswell,heoughtnottosetoutatthesametimeasM.Jaubert,sothatifaccidentsshouldhappentoone,theotherwouldovercomethem.YouwillnotfailtoinformhimthattheprincipalobjectofhisjourneyistolearnofthesituationofPersia,andofthecourseofthegovernorswhoexistthere,provincebyprovince,andtorecognizetowhatextenthisforcesaremounted.Hemust,ifpossible,travelthebanksoftheAraxesandpushtotheRussianfrontiers.Hewilltakeinformationonpastevents,and,lastly,onallthatmayenablemetoknowthecountrywell.Hewillbeveryreserved,however,intalkingwiththeministersandtheEmperor(Fath-AliShah),hewillsaythatIwanttoenterintoacovenantwithhimandofferhimsuccor”. Vinson, op.cit.,(http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).33 DavidVinson,“«NapoléonenPerse»:lamissiondiplomatiqueRomieu:Un«lieudemémoire» viatique au début du XIXe siècle,”Astrolabe, 26, Paris 2009, (http://www.crlv.org/astrolabe/juilletaoût-2009/napolé-en-perse-la-mission-romieu).34 Amini,op.cit.,p.112;Vinson,op.cit.,(http://www.crlv.org/astrolabe/juilletaoût-2009/napolé-en-perse-la-mission-romieu);Calmard,op.cit.,pp.292-297.

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byagents in theserviceofEngland.Because,RomieuhadalreadyaccusedtheBritishconsul,Barker,inAleppoofhavingattemptedtoassassinatehimduringhistriptoPersia.35Thus,asthefirstdiplomatofNapoleontothecourtofPersiatoseekFranco-Persianalliance,Romieu’smissiondidnotrevealtheexpectedresults.Nevertheless,afterRomieu’sdeath,hisassistant,GeorgesOutreyreturnedtoFrancewiththenewsthattheShahintendedtosendanambassadortoParis.36

2. A Perilous Journey of Jaubert to the Persian Border

Afterthisinformation,letusreturnnowtothedetailsofJaubertmis-sion.AccordingtoJauberts’travelogue,“inordertoensurethesuccessofthejourney,itwasimportantthatthemotiveshouldnotbedisclosed.TheshahofPersiadesired it, and itwasknown that theSublimePortedidnotwishEuropean travellers topass through itsprovincesofAsia;Moreover, itwasreasonabletosupposethattheagentsofEnglandandRussia,employedintheOttomanEmpire,wouldneglectnothingtodefeatsuchamission,iftheyknewitsobject”.Forthesereasons,JaubertleftsecretlyParisonthe7thofMarch1805.HecrossedGermany,Hungary,andTransylvaniadiligently,andarrivedatBucharestonthe2ndofApril.HepassedtoNessebar,fromtherehetooktheroadtotheBlackSeacoastbySüzebolu,İğneada,andKıyıköy,whichex-posedhimtolessdangerthanthoseofEdirne.JaubertfollowedthisdirectiontoashortdistancefromConstantinople,andafterthethirty-fifthdayjourney,hearrivedonthe10thofApril intheOttomancapital. Aftercompletingthefirstpartofthemissionthere,JaubertbeganpreparationsforthevoyagetoPersia.M.Ruffin,counsellorof theEmbassy,assistedhim forpreparationsandJaubertconcertedwiththeArmenian,OssepVassilovitz,whohadbroughttheshah’sletterandhadwaitedatConstantinopleforananswer.However,itwasnoteasy todecidewhichroute tochoose for thevoyage.JaubertwhocontributedtotheanarchicenvironmentinAnatoliaandtheBritishentrancesinBaghdaddecidedtogotoTrabzonbyseaandthentoproceedtoPersiancapital.JauberthadtostayinConstantinopleformorethanamonthtogetthenecessarypreparations.Finally,accompaniedbytheArmenianguide,aTartarandaFrenchservantJaubertleftConstantinopleandaftersevendaysjourney,hereachedPhase(Faş)andfromtheretoTrabzon.37

Infact,Jaubert’spreferencewasnotinvainthatSinopandTrabzonwere

35 DavidVinson, “ «NapoléonenPerse» :genèse,perspectivesculturelleset littérairesde lamissionGardane(1807-1809)”,Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France,109/4,Paris2009,pp.882.36 P.Avery-G.R.G.Hambly-C.Melville(Ed.),The Cambridge History of Iran,vol.7,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991,p.380.37 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.5-6.


hostingtheFrenchconsulatessince1803.38Therefore,wecansaythatJau-bertshouldbeencouragedbythepresenceofFrenchofficialsattheseports.AthislandingatTrabzon,hehandedtotheFrenchconsul,PierreDupré,thelettersofrecommendation.InthisletterJaubertwasonlyqualifiedas“amer-chant”whotravelledforhisbusiness.ItisinterestingtosaythatPierreDupré’scorrespondencedoesnotincludeanyinformationonJaubert’svisittothecityandthepermissionfortravelfromthegovernorofthecityinthisperiod.39Itispossibletoexplainthissituationas follows:At that time, thatDupréhadaninfluentialcompetitor,Roubaud,whowasalsoFrenchcitizen,butwasinchargeofRussian interests in Trabzon.Dupréoccasionally blamedRubaudwhowas appointed later by theRussian government as consul in the city,forhisintriguesastoseizetheDupré’slettersandgethimoutofTrabzoninaccordancewithRussianpolitics.40ProbablybecauseoftheconfidentialityofJaubert’smission,DupréchosenottomentionFrenchdiplomatinhisreports.

JauberthadchosenaveryinappropriatetimetotraveltoPersia.TherewasacompleteatmosphereofchaosandturmoilinAnatoliaduringthisperi-od.TheturmoilcausedbytherebellionofTayyarMahmudPashahadaneffectontheeasternpartofAnatoliaaswellasonthecentralAnatolianregion.41 As forTrabzon,thegovernorofTrabzon,MemişAğawasatwarwiththeinhab-itantsof thecountry.Therefore,asJaubertstated inhis travelogue,MemişAğahadwarnedFrenchconsulDupréwho introducedJaubert tohimself.42 After threeor fourdaysstay inTrabzon,Jaubert took thepermission fromMemişAgatodepartthecity.HeleftTrabzonandarrivedinErzurumonJune19afteran8-daytrip.Jaubertdressed inArmenianclothesfor fearthathecouldberecognizedinthecity.HisguidehadassuredhimthattheinhabitantsofErzurumwere themost fanaticaland intolerantofmen.Butdespite thiscamouflage, Jaubertwas recognisedbyAhmedBey, intendantgovernorofthecustom-house,whohadreceivedmanycivilitiesfromtheFrencharmyinEgyptsixyearsbefore,afterhavingbeenstrippedofeverythingbytheArabs;

38 FormoreanddetailedinformationontheFrenchconsulatesintheseports,seeÖzgürYılmaz,“Güney Karadeniz’de Yeni Fransız Politikası: Pascal Fourcade ve Sinop Konsolosluğu (1803-1809)”, Cahiers balkaniques, 42, Paris 2014, pp. 223-268; Özgür Yılmaz, “Trabzon’da FransızVarlığınınİlkDönemleri:PierreJarômeDupré’ninTrabzonKonsolosluğu(1803-1820)”,Karadeniz İncelemeleri Dergisi,21,Trabzon2016,pp.87-120.39 FortheDupré’scorrespondences,seeAMAE,CADN,APD,Constantinople(Ambassade),SérieD,Trébizonde,Tome1-2;AMAE,CADC,CCC,Trébizonde,Tome1-2,(1801-1824).40 AMAE,CADC,CCC,Trébizonde,1,DuprétoTalleyrand,Trabzon,5July1806.41 For theTayyarMahmudPasha’s rebellion fromtheFrenchperspectives,seeYılmaz,Pascal Fourcade ve Sinop Konsolosluğu,pp.243-251;Yılmaz,Jarôme Dupré’nin Trabzon Konsolosluğu, pp.98-103.42 “Whatdoesthisinfidelwant?Doeshenotknowthattheroadsareimpracticable,anddoeshethinkmetobelievethattheonlylureofmediocregaindetermineshimtoriskhislifetoarriveafewhoursearlierinArmenia?Ifthedeclarationhemadeis“true,lethimtakepatience,ifitisnot,lethimgo;Ishallbeabletodiscovertheobjectofhisjourney”.Jaubert,op.cit.,p.9.

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fortunately,itwasJaubert,thensecretarytotheinterpreterwhohadtrans-mitted tohimthepapersof theFrenchgeneral.Jaubertwasquitewell re-ceivedbyAhmedBeyinawaythathehadneverexpectedandlearnedfromAhmetBeyhowhewouldleavethecity.ThankstoAhmetBey’shelp,JaubertwasabletomakehiswayfromErzurumonJune29.43EvenifhewasexposedtothethreatsoftheKurdishbandits,especiallyatnights,hewasabletoreachBayezid.

InBayezid,JaubertwascoldlywelcomedbyMahmudPasha,beyoftheregion,andthepashawasalsosuspiciousofthem.Indeed,thepasharetainedthe tartar andArmenian as prisoners. This latter, being put to the torture,confessedtheobjectofthejourney,andwassoonafterstrangled.Inthisway,thepasharealizedthatJaubertdidnotalso intendtogotoYerevan,buthewasaEuropeanwhowassenttothePersiancapitalwithhisvaluablegifts.Jaubert,obligedinhisturntomakesomeconfessions,wasreassuredbytheinsinuatingmannersofMahmudwhopromisedhimhelpandprotection,andevengavehimanescort,HalilAğa,toaccompanyhimtotheplaceofhisdes-tinationtoErivan.44

Accompanied by the Tartar and two servants Jaubert departedunderanescortofKurds,butdeprivedoftheassistanceofhisArmenianguide.Theescortsoon increased;everymoment freshsoldiersarrived.At length theycrossedtheriverwhichrunatthefootofMountArarat,andservedasafrontiertotheTurkishpossessions;theylandedandwhileJaubertwascongratulatinghimselfonhisarrivalinthePersianterritory,hewassuddenlysurroundedbytheKurds;oneseizedhiminthemiddleofhisbody,anothertiedhisarms,andathirddisarmedhim.Theyblindfoldedhim,turnedhisfacetowardstheground,andboundinthesamemannerhisservantsandtheTartar.Theythencarriedthemall intoasolitaryvalley.Somehoursafter,Jaubertandhisat-tendantswereconductedtoalonelycastle,whereMahmoudexpectedthem.MahmudPashapretendedtohavereceivedfromConstantinopleanordertoseizeJaubertandhisservants.Heafterwardscausedhimtobethrownintoafrightfulwithhisthreecompanions.45

Jaubertandhisthreecompanionsspentthreemonthsinthedungeoninverybadconditions.Thepasha,toavoidthereproachesofthePorteorthevengeanceofPersia,propagatedfalsereports;buthestillhesitatedtomakeanendofhisvictims.Suchwastheirhorriblesituation,whenallatoncetheplaguebrokeoutatBayezid,whichhadnotappearedfortwenty-fouryears.At

43 M.Jomard, “Analysisof theTravelsofM.AmedeeJaubert, inArmeniaandPersia, in1805and1806”,The European Magazine, and London Review,Vol.82,London:PhilologicalSocietyofLondon,1822,p.137;Jaubert,op.cit.,p.14.44 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.26-30.45 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.38-51.


thattime,BayezidwasdividedintoahighcityinhabitedbytheKurdishtribes,andeachoccupiedaseparatequarterandinthecity,inhabitedbytheArmeni-ans.Itwasintheupperpartthatthecontagioncausedthegreatestravages.ThealarmwasattheharemandMahmudPashaattackedbytheplagueandinashorttimehewasthevictimofthedisease.LastsuccessorwashissonAhmetBeywhowascondemnedtheprisonerstodeath.However,fortunate-lyAhmedBeywhowasstruckwiththecontagiondiedtoo.Atthismoment,therewas a development thatwould end Jaubert’s bondage. ThegovernorofErivanhadsentforhimtoBayezidacourierwhoinformedthattheshahof Persiawouldmenace the townwith thewholeweight of his vengeanceiftheydidnotrestorehimtoliberty.İbrahimBey,successorofAhmedBey,wrotetoConstantinoplefortheprisoner’ssituation.TheanswerofthePortesoonarrivedfromConstantinoplethatorderedİbrahimBeytosendJauberttothecampofYusufPacha.46Thus,Jaubertmiraculouslysavedfromanappar-entlyinevitabledeath.AccordingtoJaubert,hiscaptivitybeganonthe5thofJuly1805,andendsonlyonthe14thofMarchofthefollowingyear,thedayofhisarrivalatYusufPasha’scamp,inotherword,anintervalofeightmonthsandthirteendays.47

Itmustbepointedoutthatneitherthecurrent literaturenorJaubert’straveloguecontainanydescriptive informationaboutwhowastheoriginofthiscaptivityinBayezid.AccordingtoJaubert’swriting,thisseemslikeade-cisiontakenbyMahmudPasha’sowninitiative.However,inthisissue,wefindinterestinginformationintheconsularcorrespondencesfromTrabzon.Aswestatedabove,JauberthadcometoTrabzonwherehewasintroducedtolo-calauthoritiesasaFrenchmerchantbytheFrenchconsulDupré.But,inthecity,therewasanotherFrenchmerchantnamedRoubaudwhowastheRus-sianconsularcandidateandchargedwithtakecareoftheRussianinterests.Interestingly, in his correspondences, Dupréwas steady complained aboutRoubaud’shostilitytowardshimandlinkedJaubert’scaptivitywithRoubaud’sintrigues.InaletterofDuprétoRoussindatedonMay26,1806,FrenchconsulstatedthatJaubertbroughtalsoRuffin’slettertoRoubaud.WhentheJaubertgavethelettertoRobaud,herecognizedhimbecauseRoubaudhadseenhiminConstantinople.Although Jaubert told him that hewaswrong,RoubaudwhodeliveredthissecretmissiontoConstantinoplelearnedthetruthandin-formedRussianconsulinSinop.48BasedonDupré’scomments,itispossibletosaythatJaubert’sbondagewasareactionoftheRussiandiplomacy,whichdidnotwanttoseetheFrenchpresenceinPersia.

JaubertmovedfromBayezidonFebruary19tojoinYusufPasha’scamp.

46 Jaubert,op.cit.,p.63;Jomard, op.cit.,p.139.47 Jaubert,op.cit.,p.82.48 AMAE,CADC,CCC,Trébizonde,Tome1,DuprétoRoussin,Trabzon,26May1806.

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The impressionson the region,whichhehadobtainedduring this journey,wereincludedbytheauthorasaseparatesectiononhistravelogue. Inthischapter,hementionedtheKurdishpopulationintheregion.WhenwelookattheinformationofJaubertontheregion,heespeciallyfocusedonthedivisionoftheKurdishregioninthenorthandinthesouthandanotherdivisionoftheregionintotwoparts,oneofwhichiscomprisedinAsiaticTurkey,andtheoth-erinthePersianEmpire.HealsomentionedKurdishcustoms,theirexercises,theirlivelihoodmethods,andtheirnomadiclife.49

Jaubert,whodepartedBayezidwithacavalryescort,arrivedatToprak-kaleon22February.Afterahardjourneyfromhere,hereachedErzurumonMarch3.Jaubertstayedincomfortablyforawhilehere,alsohadtheopportu-nitytowritealetteraboutthesituationofhimselftotheFrenchconsulDupréinTrabzonafteralongtime.50JaubertwhodepartedfromErzurumarrivedatYusufPasha’scampinSuşehri.YussufPashaknewJaubertpersonally,havingseenhiminEgyptafterhisfatallossatthebattleofHeliopolis.HegaveJau-bert a very distinguished reception, in consequenceof having just receivednewsofthegreatvictorygainedbytheFrenchatAusterlitz.HepromisedtosendhimsafetohisdestinationandatthesametimecautionedhimagainstthepolitenessandagreeablemannersofthePersians,who,althoughsomuchthoughtofinEurope,aredeficientinfranknessandsincerity.Jaubert’svisittothevicinityofSuşehrihadalsoallowedhimtomakeobservationsabouttheregion.Jaubert focusedontheCanikregion inparticularandgavevaluableinformationabout thepeopleofCanik, theanarchicenvironmentprevailingintheregion,thestrugglebetweenTayyarPashaandYusufPasha,andYusufPasha’sactivitiesinordertoprovidelocaltranquillity.51

Afterseventeendays’stay,JaubertlefttheYusufPasha’scamponApril1,1806withanescortwhichconsistsoftwentymenofconfidence,command-edbyMustaphaAğa.After threedays’march, they arrived inErzincan, theancientSatala,upon theEuphratesnearoneof thechainsofTaurus.Fromthence,hearrivedfivedaysafterinErzurum.AvoidingtheroadtoBayezid,hedirectedhiscoursesouth,towardsHınıs,MalazgirtandVan.NearMalazgirt,JaubertmetwiththeYezidiswho,accordingtoJaubert,aKurdishtribe,areterribletotravellers, inhabit the footof themountain; theyworshiptheevilspirit,andconsiderrobberyandmurderlawful.JaubertarrivedinVanwhereFeyzullahPaşareceivedhimwithgreatdistinction;gavehimanescort;andbyoneofthoserevolutionssoveryfrequentamongtheTurks.Butthepashaperishedthreedaysafter,beingassassinatedbyarival.JaubertleftVanwith

49 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.66-78.50 ForthetheJaubert’s lettertoFrenchconsulDupré,seeAMAE,CADN,APD,Constantinople(Ambassade),SérieD,Trébizonde,JauberttoDupré,3Floréal14/14April1806.51 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.88-94.


anewescortentirelycomposedofKurdsonthe30thofApril,anddirectedhiscoursetowardsQotur,thelastvillageinTurkey.52

3. Voyage in the Persian Territory

JaubertarrivedinHoyonMay4,1806.Hewasabletolivecomfortablyinthecityafterheexplainedtheirmissions,althoughhefacedwithaverybadtreatmentatfirstinthecity.AccordingtoJaubert,apartofHoy’spopulation,whichwasapproximatelytwenty-fivethousandpeople,hadleftthecityduetointernaldisturbances.Thenextday,Jaubertvisitedthegovernorofthecity,HüseyinKhanwhowelcomedhimwithpolitenessandshowedhimaninter-est,whichperhapshismisfortuneshadinspired.JaubertwasconfrontedwithadifferentatmosphereinPersiansidelikepolitenessofmanner,healthoftheinhabitants,richnessandvarietyofcultivation,eleganceoflanguage.BywayofHoy-Marand,JauberthereachedtoTabrizwhereJaubertsawtheruinsoftheearthquake.InJaubert’swords,“ifChardin53weretorevisitit,hewouldnolongerknowit”.InTebrizJaubertwaswelcomedbyFath-AliKhanwholodgedJaubertinhismagnificentpalace,adeliciousresidence.54

Jaubert left Tabriz, full of gratitude for all thegood treatment hehadreceived there. Instead of going on towards Tehran, he travelled eastward,throughSaidabad,Serab,andArdebilinordertovisitthecampofAbbas-Mirza.According to Jaubert’s observation, in this country between Seidabad andErdebil,thehouseswerebuiltbelowthesoil,likeseveralpartsofArmeniaandGeorgiawhere the inhabitants lodgeunderground. The environsofArdebil,bettercultivatedthanthoseofSerabandChelebian,aboundinexcellentfruits.Thecity,whichwaslocatedsouthofthemountainrange,servedasaware-houseforgoodstransportedbycaravanstraveling fromTiflis,DerbendandBakutoTehranandIsfahan.So,thebazaarsofthiscitywerewellmaintained.AtErdebil,Jaubert,whohadresumedhisEuropeandress,becametheobjectofgeneralanddisagreeablecuriosity.55

OnhisarrivalatthecampoftheyoungPersianprince,AbbasMirza,onMay17,hewastreatedwiththegreatestdistinction.Abbas-MirzahadrecentlygainedsomeadvantageovertheRussians;buttherenownofthevictoriesoftheFrencharmies excitedhis admiration, andhewished tohavea faithfulaccountofthem.Byaskingthefollowingquestions,Abbas-Mirzawishedtoinformhimselfofeverythingremarkable:“Whatisthepowerwhichgivesyousogreatasuperiorityoverus?What is thecauseofyourprogressandour

52 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.95-128.53 ThefamousFrenchtravelerwhotraveledtoeastbetweentheyears1664-1677.JeanChardin,Voyages du chevalier Chardin en Perse, et autres lieux de l’Orient,Paris:LeNormant,1811.54 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.128-145.55 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.146-150.

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constantweakness?”JaubertcouldnothidehisconfusioninthefaceofthesequestionsandvoicedhispleasureofhearingfromthePersianprincessuchquestionsthatheneverheardinTurkey.TheyoungPersianprincewascuri-ousabouttheFrenchexpeditiontoEgypt,thebraveryoftheMamelukes,thelifeoftheferociousCezzarAhmetPasha.56

AfterspendingsixorsevendaysinArdebil,JaubertleftthecityforthePersiancapital.HereachedtoKhalkhalanddepartedfromthereonMay24,after twodays’marchhearrived inZanjanwhere tworoads that lead fromTabrizandArdebiltoTehranmeetin.JaubertandhisentouragetravelledintwodaysfromZenghiantoSoltaniyeh,wheretheyfindremarkableruins,notbyahighantiquity,butbytheimmenseextentoftheground,whichtheyoccu-py.ThisaspectofSoltaniyehwastheresultofcivilwars.BeyonditisthefertilevalleyofAbharwhichfollowsthedesertofKazvin;JaubertwasverypleasedwiththenatureofAbher,asmallvillageinhisrouteafterSoltaniyeh.InKazvinJaubertwasquitewellreceivedbyBabaKhan,wherehewitnessedabrilliantfeteinhonourofthebirthofthreeprincesoftheblood-royal:music,poetry,illuminations,flowers,dancing,andthemostdeliciousperfumesembellishedasplendidrepast.57HeonlyspenttwodaysinKazvin,andleftthatcityonthe2ndofJune.Afterthreedays’march,JaubertreachedtothePersiancapitalandenteredtothecitywiththeescortofanumerousandmagnificentcavalrythatFath-AliShahhadsenthim.58WhenJaubertarrived inTehran,anotherFrench emissary, Romieu had died in October 1805. Therefore, the Frenchstruggle to achieve thePersian alliance had interrupted about tenmonths.AlthoughRomieuwasofadifferentreligion,PersiansextremelyaffectedatthesightofthebodyofaFrenchwarrior,andtheyerectedforhimamonumentsurmountedbyacupola.59

4. Jaubert in the Persian Court

Afteradelayof15months,JaubertfinallyreachedtohistargetthatandthefirstaudiencegrantedtohimbytheShahofPersia.Inhistravelogue,Jau-bertmakesverydetaileddescriptionsofthisfirstreceptionceremony.Inhiswords,“Theyascendedbyhorse,precededbyanumerousandbrilliantcav-alry,andbyvariousslaves.Adoublehedgeofsoldiersseatedontheground,withagunonhisshoulder,borderedthestreets.Thespectatorsstoodbehind,theterracesofthehouseswerecoveredwithwomenandchildren.Thedoorof the imperialpalace, towhich thePersiancalledDar-ıSaadet,was likea

56 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.150-172.57 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.173-186;Jomard, op.cit.,p.141.58 Jaubert,op.cit.,p.198.59 Jaubert,op.cit.,p.295.


fortress,defendedbyalargeditchonwhichadrawbridgewasdropped.Afterpassingthebridge,theyenteredthefirstcourtyardofthepalace,whichisveryspaciousandsawtroopsthere,somepiecesofcannon,andwhitehorsesbe-longedtotheshah.Themane,tailandlegsoftheseanimalswerepaintedredontheorange.Then,theyreachedaseconddoor,builtofpaintedbrick,andsituatedattheentranceofadarkgallery,whichextendstothesalonoftheviziers”.Jaubertwasreceivedbytheteşrifatçıbaşıandtaken intothedraw-ing-roomwhereheencounteredwiththeVizierandtheministers.Whilehewaswaiting for thehourappointedby theastrologers for theaudience,hewasofferedthenarghilehandrefreshments. In thisceremony,Jaubertwaskept so faroff, thathe couldscarcely see the throneofFath-AliShah.Themasteroftheceremonieshavingannouncedhimtotheshah,hereplied,“youarewelcome”.60

Afterwhichavizierconductedhimtothehallofaudiencewherehesalut-edtheshahagain.TheletterthatJaubertwascarrying,enclosedinabrocadebag,wasthenpresentedtotheshahonagoldentray.TheGrandVizier,afterhavingdisplayedthisletter,readthetranslation,modulatinghisvoicetomaketherhythmofthephrasesfeel.Theshah,byapeculiarbenevolence,allowedJaubert to sit downwith thePersian opposite to him. The audience lastedmorethananhour,becauseoftheshah’sdesiretobepreciselyinformedoftheobjectofJaubertmission,orbecausehewaspleasedtobeabletoconversewithaEuropeanwithoutinterpreterassistance.Beforetheendofthisaudi-ence,Fath-AliShahorderedhimtoseethegardensofhispalace,afavourthatnostrangerhadenjoyeduntilthen.61

AfterFath-AliShah’sreceptionceremonyandthedescriptionofhispal-ace,Jaubertbeginstogiveinformationabouttheking’sadministration.Fath-AliShah,whoreignedoverPersia,wasabout fortyyearsoldwhenJaubertarrivedinTehran.Hewasofanelevatedstature,andofaverystrongconstitu-tion.HisphysiognomypresentsthecharacterofthatofthemenofTurkestan.Theshahwasaffable,generous;butseveretoexcess,andimplacableinhisanger.Heenjoyedquestioningherguestswhowereenvoys, travellers,anddervishes,who fromvariouspartsofAsia arrivedaily at his court.Hehada taste for literature,andcultivated itsuccessfully.JaubertalsomentionedpoliticalsituationofPersiaundertheadministrationoftheshah.WhenFath-AliShahascendedtothethrone,thePersianEmpirewasstillshakenbytheshocksofthedeathofTahmasKuluKhan.TheeasternprovincesofPersiadidnotobeyFath-AliShah’sreign.Inaddition,Hussein-Khan,hisbrother,seemedwillingtoraisethestandardofrevolt.However,despitethepoliticalsituationofthecountry,thegreatesttranquillityreignedthroughouttheempireunder

60 Jaubert,op.cit.,p.204.61 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.202-210.

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thereignof theshah,because theshah’sorderswereexecutedpunctually.In thissafetyenvironment, the traveller couldsafely traverseall the roads.ReferringheretotheanarchyenvironmentinAnatolia,JaubertstatedthatinthePersianterritorytherewasnolongeranyneedtofearasintheTurkishterritorybythehordesofArabsandKurds.Inadditiontothese,theshahhadestablishedcompletecontroloverthepalace.InPersia,thevizierswerenotinvestedwithalltheauthorityofthemonarch,astheywereatthebeginningofthiscenturyinTurkey.Onthecontrary,theshahdominatedeverythingbyhimself.Hisministerswereonlyentrustedwiththedetailsofaffairs.Inorderthathisministerscouldnot turnagainsthim,he tookcare tochoosethemonlyamongthemirzasortheulemas.62

JaubertalsotoldabouttheresidenceinthecapitalwherehelivedinthepalaceofMirza-Riza-Kulu.AgreatnumberofPersianlordsandArmenians,guidedbycuriosityandchieflybythedesiretodosomethingagreeabletotheshah,visitedinthecapital.Theministersgavebrilliantfestivals,whichalwaystookplaceatnight.ThecityofTehranwasbuiltonalowgroundatthefootofthechainoftheMountAlborz.MehmedKhan,in1794,determinedtofortifyTehranand toestablishhis residence in thatcity.Although theair,which itbreathesin,wasveryunhealthy insummer,andthatthesojournof Isfahanought tohaveseemedmoreagreeable tohim.The fortificationsof the cityseemedtohimverymediocreandthepalaceandgardensoftheshahcoveredaconsiderablesite;butthehousesofthegreathavenoappearance.ThePer-sians’preferringtoadorntheinsideratherthantheexterioroftheirdwellings,themosques,bazaars,andcaravanseraisofTehranwerestillintheirformerstate.However,thecity,atthetimeofJaubert’svisit,wasnotveryflourishing,andwhose inhabitantswerenotmore than thirty thousand.Thesoil of theneighbourhoodofTehran,bothontheeastandwestsides,isstonyandbar-ren;butthewaterswhichflowfromthemountainssituatedsomedistancetothenorthofthistown,wateringtheintermediateplain,makeitsusceptibleofsomecultivation.63

5. Sketches of Persia: Agriculture, Population, Economy, Army, Commerce and Traditions

Duringhissojourn,which lasted littleasmore thanamonth,Jaubertdidnotneglecttomakeobservationsaboutthecountry.BymakingextensiveevaluationsonPersiainmanyrespects,wefoundinJaubert’stravelogue“aportraitofPersia”atthebeginningofthe19thcentury.HefirsttouchedontheclimateofPersiainrelationtotheagricultureofthecountry.AccordingtoJau-

62 Jaubert, op.cit.,pp.211-215.63 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.291-293.


bert,theclimateofAsiaMinorandthatofPersiavaryaccordingtothedirec-tionofthegreatchainofmountains.Thischainstopstheclouds,whichcomefromtheMediterranean,andmakesthemfall inraininthenorthernpartofAnatolia.InPersia,themountainsextendtowardsthesouth-eastandtheynolongeropposeanybarriertothewestwinds,butallowthemtorununimpededtotheplateauofPunjabandtotheelevatedplacesfromwhichtheJihun,theIndus,and theGanges.Dagestan,Georgia,Shirvan,Armenia,partofKurd-istanandAzerbaijan,Georgia,Ghilan,MazenderanandtheprovinceofAsterAbadmust thereforebeconsideredasveryhumidcountries.Therefore, thesoilwasrichandfertile.However,inthesouthoftheTaurus,onthecontrary,itwasrarethatnovapourobscurestheair,whichconsequentlywasverydry.64

TheriversofPersiawhichreachtheCaspianSeaareextremelyrapid,whichproceedsfromtheconsiderablevolumeoftheirwatersandfromtheslopeoftheground;butthosewhichwatertheplainsofKashan,Qom,Isfahan,andShiraz,flowwithlessspeed,andastheymoveawayfromtheirsources,theydiminishinsteadofgrow.Whileonlyafewoftheseriverscanreachthesea,mostofthemdisappearinthemiddleofthesandyplains.Theinhabitantsofthesearidprovincessuccessfullyappliedtoirrigationbyundergroundaq-ueducts,whichknownasQanatinPersia.Oncethesoilhadbeensoakedwithwater,grass,wheat, rice,vegetablecrops,herbaceouscotton,shrubs, fruittrees,treestoprovideshade,suchasthewillow,thepoplar,theplanetree,theabalone,growinsight,andpresentaverdureallthefresher,themoreagreea-ble,asitcontrastswiththecolourofthesandofthedeserts.Prettydwellings,kiosks,mosques,andpalacesroseinthemidstoftheseimmenseorchards.However,thepopulationsometimeswereinfectedbyakindofvenomousrep-tiles thatescape fromthedesertandbreed in inhabitedplaces. Inaddition,thepopulationwasexposedanotherinconvenienceswhich,insummer,resultfromthescarcityofwater,air,andtheexhalationsofahumidcountry.That’swhy,theinhabitantsofseveralprovincesofPersiawasgenerallyofadiseasedcomplexionandspendagreatpartoftheirlivesindifferentplaces.65

As for thepeopleofPersia,Jaubertsaid thatbecauseofalmostcon-tinual disorders, thepopulation reduced to six or sevenmillionswhoweredispersed in thevariousprovincesof theempire.Besidethis, thepeopleofPersiaconsistedmainlyoftwodifferentsectswhichonethatofthenomadsinhabitsthemountainsortraversesthedeserts;theother,knownbythenameofTajik,livesinfieldsandwateredplaces,orresidesintowns.InPersia,onthecontraryofEgyptandArabia,thenomadwasnotreluctanttonaturalizehimselfinacity.Thefarmerembracedthekindoflifeandthepastoralhabitsofthenomads.TheMuslimsdidnotscrupletoprofessthemostcompletetol-

64 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.216-217.65 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.217-220.

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erationtowardsChristianswhowereresidedindifferentpartsoftheempire.Jaubert,whocomparedArabandTurkmennomadswiththatofPersian,pointoutthatthelatterwerequitedifferent.Theyweresubjectoftheprince,who-everreignsoverPersia,contracteveninthemidstofthecamps,gentlenessandpolitenessoftheinhabitantsofthetowns.ThePersiannomadspreferredthevastlands,thehighmountains,asabodingplacesmostfavouredbyna-ture.Theychanged theirplaces fromtime to time, tobreatheanewair, toexperience,sotospeak,ateverymoment,thefeelingoftheirindependence.Whentheinhabitantsofthetowns,indolentandeffeminate,tookuparmsonlyinapressingdanger,thenomadswerealwaysarmedandreadytofighttheirenemies.Thesenomadscreatedalsoanimportantmilitaryforcefortheshahasmercenarytroupes.Jaubertalsomentionedsomeofthemostimportantofthesenomadictribes,aswellastheplacestheylivein. 66

The class of Persian agriculturists, by their condition and the habits,holdsthemiddleclassbetweenthoseofthenomadsandthetownspeople.AcultivatorinPersiawasinabsolutedependenceonthegovernment.Heobeysandsufferswithoutmurmuring,aslongastheevilisnotcarriedtoexcess;butifthetrusteesofpublicauthorityoppresshimtoostrongly,hefledhisfields,abandonedthepaternalroof,andreturnedtotheclassofnomads.However,whenheresumedhislaboursandpursuedthemwithasmuchactivityasin-telligence,andwhennothingdisturbedhimintheexerciseofhisindustry,aPersiancultivatorcouldeasilyhaveenriched.Thisrichnesswasshowing inthemostmediocrevillagesofPersiaaslargeandbeautifulhouses,containingallthesuperfluitiesaffordedbyopulence.67

Jaubertdescribed the formationofPersian townsas follows:Whenachiefofapowerfulnomadtribecampedinafertilevalleytotakepossession,firstly he built houses asweak as the tents and indicated to each one thegroundheoughttocultivate,andheregulatesthekindofworkheisentitledtoexpectfromthosewhoaresubordinatetohim.Someplantgardens,othersdigreservoirs.Womenoccupythehousekeeping,kneadthebread,spinthewool,treadfeltsandweavecarpets.Iftheestablishmentthrives,ifthechiefinspirationofconfidence,merchantsattractedbythelureofgain,comeinalldirections.Thehutsaresucceededbydwellingsproper,convenient,butopenandairy.Afterthenmosques,bazaars,andfountainsareerected,andsoonthecampofpastorspresentstheappearanceofacity.68

AnotherissuethatJaubertreferredtowasthepopulationandeconomicsituationofPersia.LikeanyvoyageurwhovisitedPersia,Jaubertfirstlywasinfluencedbythedilapidatedimageofthecountry,whichwastheresultoffre-

66 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.221-230.67 Jaubert, op.cit.,p.230.68 Jaubert, op.cit.,p.231.


quencyofearthquakes.AnotherfactorofthisviewwasthePersiancustomsthattheyleavethepaternalhousewhentheymarryandbuildtheirhousesattheirwillasJaubertobservedinSoltaniyeh.Besides,accordingtoJaubert’sobservation,manyimportantPersiancitiesasTabriz,Isfahan,andHamadanwereinadeclinecomparedtotheirformerstate.Contrarytothetestimonyofthenativesources,Jaubertsaidthatthepresentpopulationandthereve-nuesofPersiawerenotasmuchsuperiorastheyexpressed.Fromdifferentsources,heevaluatedpopulationofPersiaas6,562.000.Asfortherevenuesoftheshah,theywerecomposedoftheproductsofhisdomains;royaltiespaidtohimbythegovernorsoftheprovinces;customsdutiesleviedondifferentgoods;tributeswhichitimposesonthechiefsofthenomadichordesandtheprincesofsomeneighbouringcountriesandpresentsthat,inordertoconcili-atehisbenevolence,makehimvariousgovernors,whetherrulersorforeign-ers,andespeciallythoseoftheAfghanprovinceofHerat. It isnecessarytoaddthissumhorses,cattle,felts,carpets,andotherobjectsgivenbythetribalchieftainsthatincreasedtherevenuesoftheshahtoseventytoeightymillionsoffrancs.Bytheserevenues,theshahwastomaintainhisarmy,topaytheexpensesofhispalace,andtogivetothoseofhissubjects,whohavedeservedthembytheirservices,considerablegratuities.Asforpublicestablishments,suchas colleges,mosques, fortifications, aqueducts, andbridges, they areforthemostparttheresponsibilityoftheprovinces,andconsequentlypoorlymaintained.Withacriticalapproach,Jaubertstressedthattheshahinsteadofemployingtheserevenuesinamannermoreusefultothecountryandtotheshahhimself,hewasthinkingonlyofaccumulatinghiswealth.Because,inJaubert’sopinioninthedespoticstates,thepublicinterestwascountedfornothing,andthatthewordsofpoliticaleconomy,wisdomofadministration,orderandforesightwereunknown.69

Ofcourse,anothercrucialobservationtopicofJaubert,whowassenttoPersia to seekalliancewith this country for thebenefitFrance,was thePersianmilitarypowerthathestudieditastheirdiscipline,theirpay,andtheirpresumednumber.ThePersian troops,whenon themarch, livealmostal-waysattheexpenseofthecountrytheytraverse.Theintendantsofthearmygavemayorsofeachvillage,recognitionofthecommodities,whichhadbeenconsumed.However,thismethodgenerallycausedthevillagerstobedam-aged.Persian troopswerearmed lightlyand inamannerquiteappropriatetomilitaryservice.As thearmy towentanexpedition in summer, theyof-tenwalkedbynight,bythelightoftorches,andbythesoundofnoisymusic.The places of encampment and residencewere assigned by the firmansoftheshah.Officerswhowereorderedtochoosesuitablepositionsandarrangeforfoodandforageweredespatchedbeforehand.Inthisway,tentsandother

69 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.233-240.

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necessitieswereprovidedbeforemilitary troopsarrived.As for thePersianarmy’sabilitytofight,Jaubertusedrathernegativeexpressionslike“Persianhadnoideaonwarandtheirtroopsretainednoorderasseenintheirmanneroffighting”.Moreover, thearmyhadnobarracks,nomilitaryhospitals,norstores for the supply of the army. Each cavalierwas obliged, bymeans ofthepay,rangedfrom120to140franc,whichhereceivesfromthesovereign,tosupplyhimselfwitheverything.Referring to theMalcolm’sbookonPer-sia70,Jaubertcalculated thenumberof thePersianarmyas254.000whichconsistedofguardsoftheshahandprinces;troopssuppliedbythenomadictribes;provincialmilitiasandvariouscorpsof infantry,cavalryandartillery,exercisedanddressedalmostEuropean.Inthiscontext,onthemodernisationofthearmy,Jaubert,whoalsotookintoaccountsubsequentdevelopmentsinthecountry,expressedthatthereweresomeobstaclestothemodernizationofthearmy,whichstemmedfromthereligionandthetraditions.71

PlacedbetweenEuropeandIndia,thePersiansimportedbyland,andatlittleexpense,theproductions,andweregenerallysatisfiedwithamediocregain,werehopingtoextendtheiraffairsbythismeans.Jaubertidentifiedthreemajorobstaclestothefurtherenrichmentofthecountryandthedevelopmentoftrade.Thefirstwasthemwasthepractise,whichallowedeveryonetobuyandsellforhisownaccount.Thesecondwastheaversions,whichthePer-sianshadalwayshadforthesea.Theyneglectedtheshortermaritimeroutesandpreferredthepassagefromthemostaridanddangerousdeserts.ThelackofmaritimecultureofthePersian,whichresultedofsuchanantipathy,wasdoubly fatal to thecountry,whichplacedbetween theCaspianSeaand thePersianGulf.Thethirdcausewasthelackofexchange.ThebillsofexchangeandthatofpapermoneywerenotunknowninPersia.However,despitetheseshortcomings,theindustriousgeniusofthePersians,andtheadvantageaf-fordedthosebythesituationoftheircountry,whichwasplacedbetweenthetworichestpartsoftheworld,combinedwiththesafetyoftheroadsofPersia,couldchancetheconditionsofthePersian.JaubertwhodescribedthetradepartnersofthecountryandtheproductswhichsubjectedtoimportandexportofPersia,referredalsotheproductsthatFrancecouldsell.72

Jaubert analysed themannersof theoriental in three chapters in histravelogue.Butitcanbesaidthat,thesechaptersnotonlybasedonhisobser-vationinPersia,butalsolongyearsthatJaubertlivedintheTurkishandtheArabicsociety.Hisorientalknowledge, thathehadstudiedTurkish,Arabic,andPersian languages for twoyears,allowedhimtoengagewith the local

70 JohnMalcolm,The History of Persia, From the Most Early Period to the Present Time,Vol.I-II,London:JohnMurray,1815.71 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.241-247.72 Jaubert, op.cit., pp. 248-254; Vinson, op.cit., (http://www.crlv.org/viatica/juilletaoût-2008/«-napoléon-en-perse-»-la-mission-jaubert-1805-1807).


populationdirectlyandcomparewitheachotheraswellasEuropeansoci-ety.Hestatedthatalthoughthegeographiesandoriginsaredifferent,Turk-ish,ArabandPersiansocietybelongtocommontraditions.Focusingonthefamily,JauberttriedtomakeaccuratedefinitionsaboutPersiansociety.Theindividualswhocomposethefamilywerethefather,themother,thechildren,thedomesticservant,andtheslaves.Thepaternalauthoritybeingmoreex-tendedamongthesepeoplethanEuropeansociety.Inparticular,thesituationofwomenwasthesubjectofJaubert’sassessments.JaubertwhocriticizesmisinformationbytherelationsofcertaintravellersfromEurope,likestupid-ity,meanness, and falseness, about orientalwomen stressed that such anopinionwouldbe ill founded.Healsostated thatorientalwomenwerenotexposedtoanypressurethattheyhadaspecialplaceinsociety.Afterfurtherdeterminationon the structureof oriental societies, Jaubert finally tried tomakecomparativeevaluationsbetweentheTurksandthePersians.73

6. Route to Finkenstein

Jaubert,whohadquitebadexperiencesinhisjourneytoPersia,didnotneglecttomakesuggestionsabouthiswaysoftraveltotheeastandgaveex-planatoryinformationontopicssuchaswhichdestinationsandroutesshouldbefollowedandhowtotravelthatwouldbeveryusefulforfuturetravellers.74

AfterhissojourninPersiancapitalmorethanamonth,hehadagoodopportunitytoleaveTehran.Fath-AliShahusedtoleavethecapitalformili-taryinspectionofhisarmy.Forthisreason,theshahleftTehranforSoltaniyehonJune24,1806.Jaubertaccompanied to theshah’s retinue;butaviolentfever,causedbytheunhealthyconditionsofTehran,detainedhimatAliShahAbbas.Theshah’schiefphysician,Mirza-Chefi,receivedorderstotakeeverycareofhim.75WhenhewasstillillinAliShahAbbas,AdrienDupré,76sonofPierreDupré,consulofFranceinTrabzon,arrivedinPersiaandbroughtlatestnewsfromEurope.ThankstotheeffortofPersianphysiciansandtheregimethathefollowed,Jaubertrecoveredpartlyfromthediseaseandcontinuedhisjourney.Hearrivedat thecampatSoltaniyehonthe5thofJulyandrestedthereninedays.Inthisperiod,heassistedforfortydaysatthehuntingpar-tiesofFath-AliShah,andatthereviewsoftroops,employinghimselfduringthetimewiththepurportofhismission.Finally,heobtainedhisaudienceof

73 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.255-285.74 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.286-290.75 Édouard Driault, Napoléon’un Şark Siyaseti, Trans. Köprülüzade M. Fuad, Prep. SelmaGünaydın,Ankara:TTK2013,p.161.76 AdrienDupréalsowrotehisownworkonhismissioninPersia,seeAdrienDupré,Voyage en Perse, fait dans les années 1807, 1808 et 1809, en traversant la Natolie et la Mésopotamie, depuis Constantinople jusqu’à l’extrémité du Golfe Persique, et de là à Iréwan,TomeI-II,Paris:J.G.Dentu,1819.

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leave,andreceivedmagnificentpresents.TheShahassuredhimthathemuchwishedtobe inamitywiththeFrenchnation;andpromisedtoreceivewithpolitenessallFrenchmen,whoshouldbeinducedtovisitPersiathroughcuri-osityorbusiness.77

TheshahappointedMehemedKhan,officerof thePersianarmy,asamihmandar for returnofJaubert toErzurum.WithAdrienDupré, the tatar,theservantsandthebaggage,JaubertdepartedfromSoltaniyehonJuly14.Hisroutewasnearlythesameasthatbywhichhecame.Thefirstday,theyreachedtoZenjanwheretheyspenttwojour.OnJuly23theyarrivedinTabrizwhere welcomed by Ahmed Khan. From Tebriz, after a four-day trip theyreachedtoHoy.Thence,theywenttoVan,thenpassedanarmoftheEuphra-tes,nearTuzla,whichtheycrossedwiththehelpofleatherbottles;andlastly,theAraxes,whichisinthesamemountainsastheTigrisandtheEuphratesandarrivedinErzurumonAugust19.OnAugust28,PierreDupréinformedtoRuffin,chargéd’affairsofFrenchembassyatConstantinople:78

“ItiswithgreaterjoythatIhavethehonourtoinformyouofthearrivalatErzurumofM.Jaubert.Hegavemenoticeofitbyapedestrianwhomhesentme,orderingmetocharteraship,inordertopassimmediatelytoyourcapital.Adisease,whichhehasundergone,andofwhichhe isnotentirelyrecovered,hasthestrengthtogoonshortdays.Ihope,however,tohavethepleasuresofreceivinghiminafewdays,hetestifiestomeallthesatisfactionwhichheexperiences,thearrivalofmysonwithhim”.

Thenextday,JaubertdepartedfromKian,alargevillageaboutamileawayfromErzurum.ItwasnearAşkalethatJaubertmetJouannin,whowassenttohimbyRuffinasinterpreterofFrancemissioninPersia.79Jaubertar-rived inGümüşhaneonAugust23,wellknown town for theexploitationofconsiderablemineswhichareatashortdistance.FromGümüşhane,bythesummerroadofTrabzon-Erzurumtheyreachedonthe24thtoStavri,whichwasthefirstGreekvillagetobeencounteredonthewayfromErzurum-Trab-zon.WhenhewasinCevizlik(Maçka)hewrotetoPierreDupré,theconsulofTrebizond,alettertowelcomehimontheway.ThenextdayJaubertandhisretinuearrivedinTrabzonwhereJaubertsawtheBlackSeathatremindedhimtheRetreattheTenThousandsofXenophon.80

According toFrenchconsulDupré’scorrespondences,Jaubert residedin Trabzon nearly aweek.During his stay, hewas accompanied byDupré.

77 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.301-31078 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 28August1806.79 HenriCordier,«UninterprètedugénéralBruneetlafindel’ÉcoledesJeunesdelangues»,Mémoires de l’Institut national de France,38/2,Paris1911,p.340.80 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.325-333.


Withtheconsul,heacceptedtheagentofGeorgiasentbySolomonKhan.81 Of course, Jaubert’s arrival at Trabzon triggered the jealousyRussian con-suls,Roubaudinthecity.OnhisreportdatedonSeptember7,Dupréinformedto theFrenchembassy thatafter thedepartureofJaubert,hewasworriedaboutsafetyofJaubert’svoyagetoConstantinoplebecauseofRussianshipsnearTrabzon.Eveninhislatercorrespondences,DupréstatedthattheRus-sianconsuldidnotpleasedJaubert’sreturnfromPersia,hisstayatTrabzonandhisdeparture,andreferringtothemütesellimofTrabzon,hetriedtopre-ventJaubertfromleavingthecity.82ForthejourneytoConstantinople,Duprécharteredasmallship,beşçifte, forJaubertandpassedhimPulathane, therealportofTrabzon.Interestingly,themisfortuneofJaubertdidnotleavehimfromonhisreturningjourney.Duetobadweather,hehadtowaitattheportofPulathane forawhile,and laterstormyweatherof theBlackSea forcedtheJaubert’sbeşçiftetostayatseveralplacesonthesoutherncoastsofthesea,asVonaandÜnye.Underthesecircumstances,however,wasfavourabletothemthattheshipanchoredintheharbourofKumcağız,notfarfromthemouthoftheKızılırmak.Astheseasonwasadvancing,theseabecamelessnavigablefromdaytoday.SoJaubertplannedtocontinuehisjourneybylandatleastuntilSinopandsenthisjanissarytoaskthemutesellimdeBafraforthepermission.Theanswerofthelatterwasthat,inviewofthepresenceoftheanarchy in theregion, itwasadvisable towaita fewdays.Under thesecircumstances,JaubertspentseventeendaysinKumcağız.83Asheplanned,JaubertarrivedinBafrabyland;becausetherewasnoshipintheharbour,hereturnedtoKumcağız.Finally,afteraweek’scompulsorystayinKumcağız,hecouldfindashiptotakehimtoSinoponSeptember30.84

WhenJaubertarrivedinSinop,Fourcade,Frenchconsulinthecity,wasabsentbecauseofhis journey toBafra,Vezirköprü,Havza,Ladik,MerzifonandAmasya.TheconsulreturnedtoSinopandmetwiththeFrenchdiplomatwhowasnotstillrecoveredfromthedisease.AccordingtoFourcade,JaubertwasplanningtocontinuehisroutetoConstantinopleby land;buthefearedalsodangersandintriguesoftheenemy,theRussia.BecauseofdangersoftheseaandRussianconsul’smanoeuvres,JaubertandFourcadedecidedtogototheportofİnebolubylandbytheencouragementoftheAghaofİnebolu.ProfitingtheJaubert’svisit inhisconsularregion,Fourcadegavehimsomeofthereportsthathepreparedfromtheexaminationhehadmadeinthisre-

81 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 8September1806.82 AMAE, CADN, APD, Constantinople (Ambassade), Série D, Trébizonde, Dupré to Ruffin, 7September1806.83 Fourcade,FrenchconsulatSinopmentionedonJaubert’svoyagefromKumcağıztoSinoponhisreports,seeAMAE,CADC,CCC,Sinope,FourcadetoFrenchForeignMinistry,15October1806.84 Jaubert, op.cit.,pp.334-346.

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gion.85 Jaubert,whodeparted from İneboluonOctober15,passedAmasraandreachedOctober23atBartın.JaubertnextarrivedinEreğli,aninhospi-tablecountry,anddangeroustoEuropeans,ofwhichhepresentedhisread-erswithaninterestingaccountofAllierdeHauteroche,Frenchcommissionerwhocouldresideintownonlyafewmonths.Hefoundatthisplaceaforty-gunfrigatewhichintwodayscarriedhimtoTarabyawheretheFrenchambassa-dor,GeneralSebastiani,waswaitingforhim.86

When he arrived in Constantinople,MirzaMuhammadRiza,whowaschosenasPersianenvoytoNapoleon,hadarrived inthecapitalaroundthemiddleofSeptember1806.However,TalleyrandadvisedSebastiani tokeephim thereuntil theEmperor haddecidedon themost convenient place fortheirmeeting.87 Jaubert andMirzaMahmudRıza then took thedirectionofWarsaw,wheretherewasaNapoleonwhoknewhisglory.AfterthevictoriesofJenaandAuerstädt,theFrenchemperorenteredBerlinandtheninWar-saw,afterEylau,he fellbacktothecastleofFinkensteinwhere,at theendofApril1807, thathereceived insolemnaudiencethePersianambassadorwhohadpreviouslymetwiththeFrenchMinisterforForeignAffairsatWar-saw.OnMay4,1807,atreatyofFranco-Persianalliance,finalizetheTreatyofFinkenstein,consistingofsixteenarticleswassigned.88AfterthetreatyatFinkenstein,ourtraveller,JaubertsetoutfromDantzickonthe21stofJune,toreturntoFrance.

Conclusion

WecanevaluateJaubert’smissionfromdifferentaspect,whichwasaresultofFrenchattempttomakeanalliancewithPersiain1805-1807.First,itisnotpossibletosaythatJaubert’smission,whichreacheditsgoalbytheTreatyofFinkenstein,revealedalong-termpoliticalbenefitforFrenchforeignpolicy. Even, in order to finalize the Treaty of Finkenstein, on 10May1807GeneralGardanewaschargedtoanewmissiontoPersia,asministerpleni-potentiary,responsibleforregulatingthedetailsofthecooperationbetweenthetwopowers.However,GardanearrivedinTehraninDecember1807,sixmonthsafterthepeacetreatybetweentheFrenchemperorandthetsar,theTreatyofTilsitonJuly9,1807.ThisimportantFrenchdiplomaticshiftwouldnaturallyputthemissionofJaubertandGardaneinafalsepositionwhichul-timatelyresultedinaresoundingfailure.However,partlysuccessfulmission

85 Fourcade, French consul at Sinopmentioned on Jaubert’s voyage fromKumcağız to Sinoponhisreports.SeeAMAE,CADC,CCC,Sinope,FourcadetoFrenchForeignMinistry,15October1806;Jaubert,op.cit.,p.353.86 Jaubert,op.cit.,pp.335-364;Jomard, op.cit.,p.141.87 Amini,op.cit.,p.112.88 AdityaDas,Defending British India Against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807-13,Woodbridge:BoydellPress,2016,p.37.


ofJaubert,whopublishedhistravelaccount,wasagoodexampleforFrenchdiplomatswhoaccompaniedtoGardane’sretinue.

Ofcourse,notallJaubert’straveloguefocusesonhisdiplomaticactivi-ties.Likemanyotherdiplomatsorofficialswhohaveperformedofficialdutiesandpreparedtheirworks,Jaubertdidnotprefertotalktoomuchabouthisdiplomaticactivities.Hedidnotprefertodescribetheofficialorformalsideof themission.However,he tried todraw“aportraitofPersia” fromdiffer-entpointofviewbypointingout to the readersomevery remarkablepas-sagesuponthemanners,religion,usages,andactualstateofPersiaatthebeginningofthe19thcenturywhenthecompetitiveenvironmentbetweenthegreatpowersflaredup.BasedonexperiencesofJaubert,onecouldmakealsosomecomparisonsbetweenthePersianandtheTurks. It ispossibletosaythat readers,whoreadJaubert’s travelogueandcomparepictureofTurkeyandPersiaattheperiod,wouldpreferthelatter.Since,theauthorpreferredtoreflectthePersiansidemorepositivelyinhischapters.Inhisword“whateverthe loyalty, franknessandhospitalityof theTurks,aEuropeantravellerwillalwayspreferthepoliteness,affability,andreligioustoleranceofthePersians.Consideredinrelationtomoralqualities,theTurksform,doubtless,amoreestimablepeople;butthePersianstakeit infinitely inallthatcontributestomakethecharmoflife”.

Asaresult,ifwecometothequestionofhowweshouldplaceJaubertandhiswork inotherFrenchtravelsto Iran,wecanfirstsaythatJaubert’smissionemitsanimportantexperienceforlaterFrenchtravellers.AlthoughtheIranianmissiondoesnotcreateveryimportantconsequencesforthere-lationsofthetwocountries,itconstitutesoneofthebestexamplesofwhatconditionsFrancewastryingtogaininfluenceinPersia,aswehavebeenalsosupportedbyFrencharchival documents.Apart from theRussian intrigueswhodidnotwanttoseeFranceinfluenceinPersia,therewasaconstanttur-moilinAnatoliaduringtheperiodandtheOttoman-FrenchrelationswasataveryslipperygroundbecauseofNapoleon’sreign.Underthatcircumstance,thefactthatJaubertcouldtraversedAnatoliaandreachedtothePersiancapi-tal,andsucceededtoreturntoConstantinopleunderunchangedpoliticalcon-ditionsmakeusconsiderJaubert’smissionsuccessful.

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Öz

Seyahatnamelerin Kaynağı Olarak Diplomasi: Pierre Amédée Jaubert’in İran Misyonu Örneği, 1805-1806

Seyahatnamelerinkaynaklarıaçısındanbuyazıntürününortayaçıkmasındailkörneklerdenitibarendiplomatikilişkilerinoldukçaönemlibiryerteşkilettiğisöylenebilir.ÖzellikleDoğuülkelerihakkındakiseyahatnameleriçindeAvrupalıdevletadamı,elçiveyamaiyetleritarafındanyazılanlarönemlibiryekûnteşkiletmektedir.Bueserleryazarlarıitibarıilediplomatikbirkaynakolarakkullana-bileceğigibiresmiolmayanbiryazıntürüolmalarıitibarıiledeilgiliülkehakkın-dapekçokilginçdetayınbulunabileceğieserlerdir.İranhakkındaçokzenginbirseyahatnameliteratürüsözkonusudurvebunlarİrantarihininönemlikaynak-larıarasındayeralmaktadır.Buseyahatnamelerözellikle19.yüzyıldabelirginbirartışgöstermektedir.Buyüzyılınbaşlarındakigelişmelerdikkatealındığında,budönemedenkgelenseyahatnamelerinİran’ınharicisiyasetiaçısındandahaönemliolduğusöylenebilir.BubağlamdaNapolyon’unİranileittifakarayışlarıbazıönemlikaynaklarındaortayaçıkmasınavesileoldu.BuçalışmaJaubert’in1805’tebaşlayan İranmisyonuörneğindeseyahatnameyazımındadiplomatikgörevlerinönemihakkındabilgivermeyeçalışacaktır.

Anahtar kelimeler: Fransa, İran, Jaubert, Seyahatnameler, Diplomasi,DoğuAnadolu.

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