Period 8
Regina
Jassiem
Winston
Jodi
DianeTorey
Wasiu
Fredericho
Semaya
Rhema
Diamond
Jamireus
Fatoumata
Janaisha
Damarian
Auyatta
Tamesha
Briana
Desmond
Shoudeline
Kamilla
Jada
Keniya
TV/board
Donald
DO NOW
Look over the
skeletal muscle
hand out for
the quiz.
10 minutes
Marc
Selena Kimani
Amanda
Christina Malila
Adryene Armoni
Walid Trequan
Anthony
Victoria
Alexandria
Catchina
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
Distinguish between the two major groups of nervous
system organs.
Explain the general functions of the nervous system and
the cells comprising it.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system consists
of the brain, spinal cord,
sensory organs, and all of the
nerves that connect these
organs with the rest of the
body. Together, these organs
are responsible for the
control of the body and
communication among its
parts.
THE TWO SYSTEMS
Central Nervous System –
Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System –
Nerves
Together, these provide sensory
integrated and motor.
VOCABULARY QUIZ ON MONDAY
Neurons nerve impulse cell body dendrites
neurological cells CNS PNS sensory receptors
nervous system automatic nervous system myelin
oligodendrocytes astrocytes ependymal cells schwann cells
myelin sheaths neurilemma chromatophilic substance
multipolar neurons bipolar neurons ganglia sensory neurons
motor neurons nerves Somatic microglial cells
Effectors axons neurofibrils interneurons
Nodes of ranvier nuclei
HOW NERVOUS SYSTEM MAINTAINS HOMEOSTASIS
• Sensory (afferent neurons)
• Specialized receptor ends within skin
• Gathers information by detecting changes inside and
outside the body (a stimulus), the information goes back to
the brain via a sensory neuron axon.
• Monitor external factors such as light, sound and internal
environments such as temperature and oxygen level.
• The information is integrated into a signal and stored into
memory for future use.
• Motor (efferent neurons)
• Use peripheral neurons used to react to stimulus.
• Two systems of control.
• Somatic controls voluntary skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic controls effectors that are involuntary-
heart, blood and glands.
• Myelinated by Schwann cells.
• When damaged, their axons can regenerate
ACTION POTENTIAL
CFU
What are the differences and similarities
between the two major nervous system
subdivisions
NEURON STRUCTURE
Dendrites-
receptive
surfaces
Nucleus
Cell Body- contains
granular cytoplasm,
cell membrane,
mitochondria,
lysosomes, golgi
apparatus and
nerofibrils.
Nodes
of
Ranvier
Schwann Cell- myelin
sheaths wrapped around
the axon, many layers of
cell membrane
Schwann
Cell
Nucleus
Axon-
conducts
nerve
impulses away
from the cell
body
NEUROGLIAL CELLS
• 1. Microglial- Scattered throughout the CNS,
support neurons, phagocytize bacterial cells and
cellular debris.
• 2. Oligodendrocytes- align along nerve fibers,
myelin sheaths around axons within the brain
and spinal cord.
• 3. Astrocytes- commonly found between
neurons and blood vessels, structural support
and help regulate concentration of nutrients
and ions within the tissue. Special role in the
brain. Blood-brain barrier.
• 4. Ependymal- form an epithelia like membrane
to cover specialized brain parts. Cover inner
linings that enclose spaces within the brain and
spinal cord.
Neuroglial cells greatly
outnumber neurons and can
divide. Neurons do not
normally divide.
The peripheral nervous
system includes neuroglial
cells called Schwann cells.
They form a myelin sheath
around the axons.
NEURON CLASSIFICATION• Multipolar- many processes rising from the
cell body, only one continues out as an
axon. Most neurons of brain or spinal cord
are multipolar
• Bipolar- two processes arising from each
end of cell body. They look similar but one
is an axon the other a dendrite. Most
neurons of eyes, nose and ears are bipolar.
• Unipolar- a single process extending from
cell body that divides into two branches
but functions as a single axon. One branch
associates with peripheral process, the
other enters the brain or spinal cord.
Period 8
Regina
Jassiem
Winston
Jodi
DianeTorey
Wasiu
Fredericho
Semaya
Rhema
Diamond
Jamireus
Fatoumata
Janaisha
Damarian
Auyatta
Tamesha
Briana
Desmond
Shoudeline
Kamilla
Jada
Keniya
TV/board
Donald
DO NOW
Look over the
book pages
212-218 or
your notes and
hand outs for
the quiz. Turn
in vocabulary
homework.10 minutes
Marc
Selena Kimani
Amanda
Christina Malila
Adryene Armoni
Walid Trequan
Anthony
Victoria
Alexandria
Catchina
FUNCTION
Sensory neurons
carry impulse
information to CNS
interneurons. Then
motor neurons carry
impulse to the PNS
HOW INFORMATION PASSES FROM ONE NEURON
TO ANOTHER
Nerve impulse travel along complex
nerve pathways to a synapse
separated by a cleft. Communication
travels across the cleft. One neuron
(presynaptic) carries the impulses to
the receiving (postsynaptic) neuron.
Neurotransmitters carry the
message that is either excitatory
(turning the process on) or
inhibitory (turning the process off).
THE AXON SENDS THE MESSAGE THROUGH THE PRESYNAPTIC NEURON.
THE CELL BODY RECE IVES THE MESSAGE AT THE POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON.
THIS I S A ONE WAY TRANSMISS ION BY NEUROTRANSMITTERS . THE ACTION ON THE POSTSYNAPTIC CELL I S E ITHER EXCITATORY (PROCESS ON) OR INHIB ITORY (PROCESS OFF )
Resting Potential
Sodium and Potassium
diffuse into and out of
the neuron body through
the plasma membrane.
FIGURE 09.11
Nerve transmission can only happen when cell membrane
is polarized. Sodium K+ and potassium Na+ ions diffuse
from the area of high concentration to the area of low
concentration through open channels.
Potential Changes 1. Stimulation of a membrane can
locally affect its resting potential.
2. When the membrane potential
becomes less negative, the membrane is
depolarized.
3. If sufficiently strong
depolarization occurs, a threshold potential is
achieved as ion channels open.
Action Potential
1. At threshold potential,
membrane permeability to sodium
suddenly changes in the region of
stimulation.
2. As sodium channels open,
sodium ions rush in, and the membrane
potential changes and becomes
depolarized.
3. At the same time, potassium
channels open to allow potassium ions
to leave the cell, the membrane
becomes repolarized, and resting
potential is reestablished.
4. This rapid sequence of
events is the action potential.
5. The active transport
mechanism then works to maintain the
original concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions.
Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is
conducted as an action
potential is reached at the
trigger zone.
This spreads by a local
current flowing down the
fiber, and adjacent areas
of the membrane reach
action potential.
Impulse Conduction
1. Unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses over theirentire membrane surface.
2. Myelinated fibers conduct impulses from one Node of Ranvier to the next, a phenomenon called saltatory
conduction.
3. Saltatory conduction is many times faster thanconduction on unmyelinated neurons.
25
All-or-None Response
1. If a nerve fiber responds at all to
a stimulus, it responds completely
by conducting an impulse (all-or-
none response).
2. Greater intensity of stimulation
triggers more impulses per
second, not stronger impulses.
26
The Synapse
A. Nerve impulses travel from neuron to
neuron along complex nerve pathways.
B. The junction between two
communicating neurons is called a
synapse; there exists a synaptic cleft
between them across which the impulse
must be conveyed.
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Synaptic Transmission 1. The process by which the impulse
in the presynaptic neuron is
transmitted across the synaptic
cleft to the postsynaptic neuron is
called synaptic transmission.
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29
2. When an impulse reaches the
synaptic knobs of an axon,
synaptic vesicles release a
neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
3. The neurotransmitter reacts with
specific receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane.
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
30
Excitatory and Inhibitory Actions
1. Neurotransmitters that increase postsynaptic membrane permeability to sodium ions may trigger impulses and are thus excitatory.
2. Other neurotransmitters may decrease membrane permeability to sodium ions, reducing the chance that it will reach threshold, and are thus inhibitory.
31
3. The effect on the postsynaptic
neuron depends on which
presynaptic knobs are activated.
Neurotransmitters1. At least 50 kinds of neurotransmitters are
produced by the nervous system, most of which are synthesized in the cytoplasm of the synaptic knobs and stored in synaptic vesicles.
2. When an action potential reaches thesynaptic knob, calcium ions rush inward and, in response,some synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane and releasetheir contents to the synaptic cleft.
33
3. Enzymes in synaptic clefts and on
postsynaptic membranes rapidly
decompose the neurotransmitters
after their release.
4. Destruction or removal of the
neurotransmitter prevents
continuous stimulation of the
postsynaptic neuron.
Impulse Processing
A. How impulses are processed is dependent upon how neurons are organized in the brain and spinal cord.
B. Neuronal Pools
1. Neurons within the CNS are organized intoneuronal pools with varying numbers of cells.
2. Each pool receives input from afferentnerves and processes the information according to thespecial characteristics of the pool.
35
C. Facilitation
1. A particular neuron of a pool may
receive excitatory or inhibitory
stimulation; if the net effect is
excitatory but subthreshold, the
neuron becomes more excitable
to incoming stimulation (a
condition called facilitation).
D. Convergence
A single neuron within a pool
may receive impulses from two
or more fibers (convergence),
which makes it possible for the
neuron to summate impulses
from different sources.
Figure A
E. Divergence
Impulses leaving a neuron in a
pool may be passed into several
output fibers (divergence), a
pattern that serves to amplify an
impulse.
Figure B
Period 8
Regina
Jassiem
Winston
Jodi
DianeTorey
Wasiu
Fredericho
Semaya
Rhema
Diamond
Jamireus
Fatoumata
Janaisha
Damarian
Auyatta
Tamesha
Briana
Desmond
Shoudeline
Kamilla
Jada
Keniya
TV/board
Donald
DO NOW
Now due:
*Anterior and
posterior
muscle quiz
*Check recall
*vocabulary
10 minutes
Marc
Selena Kimani
Amanda
Christina Malila
Adryene Armoni
Walid Trequan
Anthony
Victoria
Alexandria
Catchina
NEXT QUIZ JANUARY 31
•Types of Nerves• A. A nerve is a
bundle of nerve fibers held together by layers of connective tissue.
• B. Nerves can be sensory, motor, or mixed, carrying both sensory and motor fibers.
•Nerve Pathways• A. The routes nerve
impulses travel are called pathways, the simplest of which is a reflex arc.
• B. Reflex Arcs
• 1. A reflex arc includes a sensory receptor, a sensory neuron, an interneuron in the spinal cord, a motor neuron, and an effector.
REFLEX BEHAVIOR
• 1. Reflexes are automatic, subconscious responses to stimuli that help maintain homeostasis (heart rate, blood pressure, etc.) and carry out automatic responses (vomiting, sneezing, swallowing,
etc.).
• 2. The knee-jerk reflex (patellar
tendon reflex) is an example of a
monosynaptic reflex (no interneuron).
• 3. The withdrawal reflex involves
sensory neurons, interneurons, and
motor neurons.
• a. At the same time, the
antagonistic extensor muscles are
inhibited.
42
Meninges
A. The
brain and spinal
cord are
surrounded by
membranes called
meninges that lie
between the
bone and the soft
tissues.
43
B. The outermost meninx is made up of tough, white dense connective tissue, contains many blood vessels, and is called the dura mater.
1. It forms the inner periosteum ofthe skull bones.
2. In some areas, the dura materforms partitions between lobes ofthe brain, and in others, it formsdural sinuses.
3. The sheath around the spinal cordis separated from the vertebrae byan epidural space.
44
C. The middle meninx, the arachnoidmater, is thin and lacks blood vessels.
1. It does not follow theconvolutions of the brain.
2. Between the arachnoid and piamater is a subarachnoid spacecontaining cerebrospinal fluid.
D. The innermost pia mater is thin andcontains many blood vessels and nerves.
1. It is attached to the surface of thebrain and spinal cord and followstheir contours.
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Spinal Cord
A. The spinal cord begins at
the base of the brain and extends
as a slender cord to the level of
the intervertebral disk between the
first and second lumbar vertebrae.
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3. Two deep longitudinal grooves (anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord into right and left halves.
4. Whitematter, made up of bundles ofmyelinated nerve fibers (nervetracts), surrounds a butterfly-shaped core of graymatterhousing interneurons.
5. A centralcanal contains cerebrospinalfluid.
B. Structure of the Spinal Cord
1. The spinal cord consists of
31 segments, each of which gives rise
to a pair of spinal nerves.
2. A cervical enlargement gives
rise to nerves leading to the upper limbs,
and a lumbar enlargement gives rise to
those innervating the lower limbs.
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49
C. Functions of the Spinal Cord
1. The spinal cord has two
major functions: to transmit impulses to
and from the brain, and to house spinal
reflexes.
2. Tracts carrying sensory
information to the brain are called
ascending tracts; descending tracts carry
motor information from the brain.
50
3. The names that identify
nerve tracts identify the origin and
termination of the fibers in the tract.
4. Many spinal reflexes also
pass through the spinal cord.
Brain
A. The brain is the largest,
most complex portion of the
nervous system, containing 100
billion multipolar neurons.
B. The brain can be divided
into the cerebrum (largest portion
and associated with higher mental
functions), the diencephalon
(processes sensory input), the
cerebellum (coordinates muscular
activity), and the brain stem
(coordinates and regulates visceral
activities).
52
C. Structure of the Cerebrum
1. The cerebrum is the largest portion of themature brain, consisting of two cerebral hemispheres.
2. A deep ridge of nerve fibers called the corpuscallosum connects the hemispheres.
3. The surface of the brain is marked byconvolutions, sulci, and fissures.
53
4. The lobes of the brain are named according to the bones they
underlie and include the frontallobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula.
5. A thin layer of gray matter, thecerebral cortex, lies on the
outside of the cerebrum andcontains 75% of the cell bodies inthe nervous system.
54
6. Beneath the cortex lies a mass of
white matter made up of
myelinated nerve fibers
connecting the cell bodies of the
cortex with the rest of the
nervous system.
55
D. Functions of the Cerebrum
1. The cerebrum provides higher
brain functions, such as
interpretation of sensory input,
initiating voluntary muscular
movements, memory, and
integrating information for
reasoning.
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2. Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
a. The functional areas of the brain overlap, but the cortex can generally be divided into motor, sensory, and association areas.
b. The primary motor areas lie in thefrontal lobes, anterior to the centralsulcus and in its anterior wall.
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c. Broca’s area, anterior to the primary motor cortex, coordinates muscular activity to make speech possible.
d. Above Broca’s area is the frontal eyefield that controls the voluntarymovements of the eyes and eyelids.
e. The sensory areas are located in severalareas of the cerebrum and interpretsensory input, producing feelings orsensations.
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f. Sensory areas for sight lie within the occipital lobe.
g. Sensory and motor fibers alike crossover in the spinal cord or brain stem socenters in the right hemisphere areinterpreting or controlling the left sideof the body, and vice versa.
h. The various association areas of thebrain analyze and interpret sensoryimpulses and function in reasoning,judgment, emotions, verbalizing ideas,and storing memory.
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i. Association areas of the frontal lobe
control a number of higher intellectual
processes.
j. A general interpretive area is found at
the junction of the parietal, temporal,
and occipital lobes, and plays the
primary role in complex thought
processing.
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3. Hemisphere Dominance
a. Both cerebral hemispheres function in
receiving and analyzing sensory input
and sending motor impulses to the
opposite side of the body.
b. Most people exhibit hemisphere
dominance for the language-related
activities of speech, writing, and
reading.
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62
c. The left hemisphere is dominant in 90%
of the population, although some
individuals have the right hemisphere as
dominant, and others show equal
dominance in both hemispheres.
d. The non-dominant hemisphere
specializes in nonverbal functions and
controls emotions and intuitive
thinking.
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63
e. The basal ganglia are masses of gray
matter located deep within the cerebral
hemispheres that relay motor impulses
from the cerebrum and help to control
motor activities by producing inhibitory
dopamine.
f. Basal ganglia include the caudate
nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus.
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
CFU
Why does information pass so quickly from
neuron to neuron? How do they achieve
this?
Saltatory
Conduction
A rapid sequence of
depolarization and
repolarization
E. Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
1. The ventricles are a series of connected
cavities within the cerebral hemispheres
and brain stem.
2. The ventricles are continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord, and are
filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
3. Choroid plexuses, specialized
capillaries from the pia mater, secrete
cerebrospinal fluid.
a. Most cerebrospinal fluid arises in
the lateral ventricles.
4. Cerebrospinal fluid has nutritive as well
as protective (cushioning) functions.
F. Diencephalon
1. The diencephalon lies above thebrain stem and contains thethalamus and hypothalamus.
2. Other portions of thediencephalon are the optic tracts
and optic chiasma, theinfundibulum (attachment for thepituitary), the posterior pituitary,mammillary bodies, and thepineal gland.
3. The thalamus functions in sorting
and directing sensory information
arriving from other parts of the
nervous system, performing the
services of both messenger and
editor.
4. The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by regulating a wide variety of visceral activities and by linking the endocrine system with the nervous system.
a. The hypothalamus regulates heartrate and arterial blood pressure,body temperature, water andelectrolyte balance, hunger andbody weight, movements andsecretions of the digestive tract,growth and reproduction, andsleep and wakefulness.
5. The limbic system, in the area of the diencephalon, controls emotional experience and expression.
a. By generating pleasant or unpleasant feelings about experiences, the limbic system guides behavior that may enhance the chance of survival.
G. Brain Stem
1. The brain stem, consisting of
the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata, lies at the base of the
cerebrum, and connects the brain to the
spinal cord.
2. Midbrain
a. The midbrain, located betweenthe diencephalon and pons,
contains bundles of myelinatednerve fibers that convey impulsesto and from higher parts of thebrain, and masses of gray matterthat serve as reflex centers.
b. The midbrain contains centers forauditory and visual reflexes.
3. Pons
a. The pons, lying between the
midbrain and medulla
oblongata, transmits impulses
between the brain and spinal
cord, and contains centers
that regulate the rate and depth of
breathing.
4. Medulla Oblongata
a. The medulla oblongata transmits all ascending and descending impulses between the brain and spinal cord.
b. The medulla oblongata also houses nuclei that control visceral functions, including the cardiac center that controls heart rate, the vasomotor center for blood pressure control, and the respiratory center that works, along with the pons, to control the rate and depth of breathing.
c. Other nuclei in the medulla
oblongata are associated with
coughing, sneezing,
swallowing, and vomiting.
5. Reticular Formation
a. Throughout the brain stem,
hypothalamus, cerebrum,
cerebellum, and basal ganglia, is
a complex network of nerve
fibers connecting tiny islands of
gray matter; this network is the
reticular formation.
b. Decreased activity in the reticular
formation results in sleep; increased activity results inwakefulness.
c. The reticular formation filters
incoming sensory impulses.
Cerebellum
1. The cerebellum is made up of
two hemispheres connected by a vermis.
2. A thin layer of gray matter called
the cerebellar cortex lies outside a core of white matter.
3. The cerebellumcommunicates with otherparts of the central nervoussystem through cerebellar
peduncles.
4. The cerebellum functions tointegrate sensory informationabout the position of body partsand coordinates skeletal muscleactivity and maintains posture.
Peripheral Nervous System
A. The peripheral nervous system (PNS)consists of the cranial and spinal nervesthat arise from the central nervoussystem and travel to the remainder ofthe body.
B. The PNS is made up of the somaticnervous system that oversees voluntaryactivities, and the autonomic nervoussystem that controls involuntaryactivities.
C. Cranial Nerves
1. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arisefrom the underside of the brain, most ofwhich are mixed nerves.
2. The 12 pairs are designated bynumber and name and include the olfactory,optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigenimal,abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear,glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, andhypoglossal nerves.
3. Cranial Nerves:
number, name, type,
and function.
D. Spinal Nerves
1. Thirty-one pairs of mixed nervesmake up the spinal nerves.
2. Spinal nerves are groupedaccording to the level from whichthey arise and are numbered insequence, beginning with those inthe cervical region.
3. Each spinal nerve arises from tworoots: a dorsal, (sensory), root,and a ventral, (motor), root.
4. The main branches of somespinal nerves form plexuses.
5. Cervical Plexuses
The cervical plexuses lieon either side of the neckand supply muscles andskin of the neck.
6. Brachial Plexuses
The brachial plexuses arisefrom lower cervical andupper thoracic nerves andlead to the upper limbs.
7. Lumbrosacral Plexuses
The lumbrosacral plexuses
arise from the lower spinal
cord and lead to the lower
abdomen, external
genitalia, buttocks, and
legs.
Autonomic Nervous System
A. The autonomic nervous system has the
task of maintaining homeostasis of
visceral activities without conscious
effort.
B. General Characteristics
1. The autonomic nervous system includes twodivisions: the sympathetic and parasympatheticdivisions, which exert opposing effects ontarget organs.
a. The parasympathetic divisionoperates under normal conditions.
b. The sympathetic division operatesunder conditions of stress oremergency.
C. Autonomic Nerve Fibers
1. In the autonomic motor
system, motor pathways
include two fibers: a
preganglionic fiber that
leaves the CNS, and a
postganglionic fiber that
innervates the effector.
2. Sympathetic Division
a. Fibers in the sympathetic division arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, and synapse in paravertebral ganglia close to the vertebral column.
b. Postganglionic axons leadto an effector organ.
3. Parasympathetic Division
a. Fibers in the
parasympathetic division
arise from the brainstem
and sacral region of the
spinal cord, and synapse
in ganglia close to the
effector organ.
4. Autonomic Neurotransmitters a. Preganglionic fibers of
both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions release acetylcholine.
b. Parasympatheticpostganglionic fibers arecholinergic fibers andrelease acetylcholine.
c. Sympatheticpostganglionic fibersare adrenergic and releasenorepinephrine.
d. The effects of these two divisions, based on the effects of releasing different neurotransmitters to the effector, aregenerally antagonistic.
5. Control of Autonomic Activity
a. The autonomic nervoussystem is largely controlledby reflex centers in thebrain and spinal cord.
b. The limbic system andcerebral cortex alter thereactions of the autonomicnervous system throughemotional influence.
NEXT QUIZ FEBRUARY 6
NEXT QUIZ FEBRUARY 14