Policy Statement : Grammar conventions are a required element of the California State Standards for English Language Arts; as such, the ELA instructors believe the instruction of grammar conventions ties directly into writing and should not be utilized as a separate teaching element. Therefore, it is the goal of the ELA departments in the district that grammar conventions not be taught in isolation: after grammar instruction, the best manner in which to assess understanding and eventual mastery is to ask students to complete a writing assignment in which the grammar conventions taught are reviewed and graded. It is recommended that students be held accountable on all written efforts for the conventions contained in this style guide at the grade levels assigned for each convention. Replacement style guides will cost $5 each. 1
Transcript
Policy Statement: Grammar conventions are a required element of the California State Standards for English Language Arts; as such, the ELA instructors believe the instruction of grammar conventions ties directly into writing and should not be utilized as a separate teaching element. Therefore, it is the goal of the ELA departments in the district that grammar conventions not be taught in isolation: after grammar instruction, the best manner in which to assess understanding and eventual mastery is to ask students to complete a writing assignment in which the grammar conventions taught are reviewed and graded. It is recommended that students be held accountable on all written efforts for the conventions contained in this style guide at the grade levels assigned for each convention.
Replacement style guides will cost $5 each.
This style guide is a product of the Snowline JUSD produced by the English Language Arts Departments.
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The Snowline Style Guide
Capitalization 3Periods, Question Marks, Exclamation Points 6Commas 7Quotation Marks in Dialogue 9Semicolon 10Colon 10Hyphen 11Dashes 11Parentheses 12Brackets 12Punctuating Titles 12Apostrophes 13Ellipses 14Parts of Speech 15Commonly used Personal Pronouns 17Action, Helping, and Linking Verbs 18Verb Tense 19Consistency in Verb Tense 20Active and Passive Voice 21Verb Moods 22Direct and Indirect Objects 23Phrases 24Clauses 25Comparatives/Superlatives 26Misplaced Modifiers 27Parallel Construction 28Sentence Structure 29Sentence Purpose 30Sentence Types 31Sentence Writing Errors 32Subject/Verb Agreement 33Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement 34No Excuse Words (includes homonyms) 37No Excuse Words (dead words) 38Snippets 39Style, Tone, and Voice 40Plagiarism Guidelines 42MLA Style Guide 45
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Capitalization
Rule 1: Capitalize names and initials.
George W. BushOprah Winfrey
Rule 2: Capitalize words indicating family relationships only when they are used as names or before names.
Aunt MaryUncle SamCan I eat some more cookies, Mom?My mom works at the store. (not substituting a name)
Rule 3: Always capitalize the pronoun I.
Can you believe I studied the notes?
Rule 4: Capitalize the names of religions, sacred days, sacred writings, and deities.
ChristianityJudaismthe BibleGood FridayGodAllah
Rule 5: Capitalize the names of nationalities, languages, races, and most ethnic groups, and the adjectives formed from those names.
GermanSpanishJewishWe ate Mexican food last night.
Rule 6: Capitalize geographical names of divisions of the world (Southern Hemisphere), continents (Europe), bodies of water (Atlantic Ocean), islands (Guam), mountains (Himalayas), other landforms (Sahara), regions (Central America), nations (Mexico), states (California), cities and towns (Phelan), roads and streets (Mango Street).
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Rule 7: Capitalize the names of planets and other specific objects in the universe.
MercuryBig DipperThe Sun (many suns not capitalized)
Rule 8: Capitalize all important words in the names of organizations, schools, stores, companies.
Serrano High School (high school by itself is not capitalized)Stan’s Beauty Shop
Rule 9: Capitalize the names of historical events, periods, and documents.
RenaissanceSpace AgeConstitution of the United States
Rule 10: Capitalize the names of months, days, and holidays.
OctoberMondayVeterans’ Day
Rule 11: Capitalize the names of special events, awards, and brand names.
Munchies ChipsWorld SeriesCaldecott Medal
Rule 12: Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence.
She claimed, “There is a cockroach in my soup!” Rule 13: Capitalize a proper noun.
I visited the Golden Gate Bridge.
Rule 14: Capitalize a person's title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the title is acting as a description following the name.
We heard President George Bush speak last night.George Bush, the president, spoke last night.
Rule 15: Capitalize any title when used as a direct address.
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Thanks for the ticket, Officer.
Rule 16: Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions.
My friend Mary traveled to the South last month.Go south three blocks and then turn left.
Rule 17: Capitalize titles of publications except for little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, when used internally. If these little words begin the title, capitalize them. Capitalize short verb forms such as Is, Are, and Be.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Rule 18: Do not capitalize names of seasons.
I love autumn colors and spring flowers.
Rule 19: Capitalize words that come from proper nouns.
I must take English and math. (English is capitalized because it comes from the propernoun England, but math does not come from mathland.)
Rule 20: Capitalize the names of specific course titles.
I must take history and Algebra 2.
Rule 21: Capitalize abbreviations
School starts at 7 A.M.School ends at 1:47 P.M.We won our independence in the year 1776 A.D.The Romans conquered the British Isles in 50 B.C.
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Periods, Question Marks, Exclamation Points
You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation marks, to finish a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her lunch. Turn right at the stop sign. Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese Danish.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you may end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation mark:
Look out below! Leave this house at once! I hate him!
Exclamation marks are rare in formal writing. Do not use them often, if at all.
You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who's on first? Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question. Indirect questions are simply statements and end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair. She asked if she could play pinball. The teacher asked who was chewing gum.
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Comma Usage Rules
1. Use a comma after an introductory element in a sentence. Introductory elements include sentences that begin with dependent clauses, two or more prepositional phrases, nouns of direct address, mild exclamations (yes and no), participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and nonessential appositive phrases.
During spring break at the river, my friends and I had a great time. (introductory element of two or more prepositional phrases.)
2. Use commas at the beginning and end of (nonessential) phrases and clauses that interrupt the main thought. These commas show that the information between them is extra information in the sentence. If the phrase can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence, it should be surrounded by commas.
Stephen King, my favorite author, writes horror novels. (nonessential) The author Stephen King writes horror novels. (essential)
3. Use commas to separate all items in a series or list.
Jane walked into her teenager's bedroom and found a half-eaten tuna sandwich, acollection of moldy socks, an empty soda can, and a pile of unopened textbooks.
4. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) that joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence.
I could call my boss and grovel for the day off, or I could assert my right to take a mentalhealth day.
5. Use a comma to introduce a quotation in a sentence.
Joanna repeated the medium's message, "You either must make peace with your brother,or you'll be doomed to repeat the same relationship in the next life."
"And I tell you, my fellow Americans," the politician exhorted, "the middle class will notbear the brunt of new taxes."
6. Use a comma to separate the day from the year in a date.
November 22, 2001
When the date is in a sentence and more of the sentence follows, you also need a comma after the year.
On February 18, 1954, my father received the Congressional Medal of Honor.
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7. Separate a city from a state with a comma.
Lackawanna, New York
When the city and state are in a sentence and more of the sentence follows, you also need a comma after the state.
Empire State College's administrative offices are located in Saratoga Springs, New York,on the same street as the famous race track.
8. Use a comma after an introduction to a personal, informal letter.
Dear Susan,Dear John,
9. Use a comma between equally modifying adjectives. Adjectives are equally modifying if the order can be altered without changing the meaning.
She wore a lovely, long, red dress. (equally modifying.She ate the delicious blueberry pancakes. (not equally modifying)
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Rules for Using Quotation Marks in Dialogue
1. A speaker's exact words (also called dialogue) must be surrounded by quotation marks.
“I love flowers,” said Jessie.
2. Opening quotation marks (example: “) are used to mark the beginning of the speaker's words, and closing quotation marks are used the mark the end of the speaker's words (example: ”).
3. Commas and periods are always placed inside the closing quotation marks.
“I like chips,” said Milly.
4. Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a dialogue tag.
Tyler replied, “Blue is my favorite color.”
5. If dialogue is split or separated, use quotation marks to surround each part that is spoken.
“Yes,” said Bobby, “I love cheese pizza.”
6. If a quotation is not split or separated, don't close the quotation until the speaker is finished. This could sometimes involve numerous sentences.
“Please write your name on your paper before you begin. Once you finish, bring your paper to the front of the room and place it on my desk,” said the teacher.
7. If the quotation is a question, use a question mark instead of a comma, but do not capitalize the next word.
“Is it time to go?” asked Sally.
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dialogue tag.
Other Punctuation
Semicolon use
Semicolons used in compound sentences
Use a semicolon to join the parts of a compound sentence when it is missing a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).
John ran a mile; Sally ran two.
Semicolons used with items in a series
When there are commas within parts of a series, use semicolons to separate the parts.
I have traveled to Sacramento, California; Portland, Oregon; Seattle, Washington; and Denver, Colorado.
Semicolons used with conjunctive adverbs
Use a semicolon along with a conjunctive adverb and a comma to clarify the relationship between two closely related complete sentences. Conjunctive adverbs include however, therefore, in addition, moreover, subsequently, consequently, instead, and additionally.
John ran a mile; however, Sally ran two.
Colon use
Colons are used to introduce a list of items.
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or preposition.
I want to visit the following friends: George, Sally, and Paul. (correct)The friends I want to visit are: George, Sally, and Paul. (incorrect)
Use a colon to tell the reader that a second complete sentence explains a closely related preceding sentence.
I made my point very clear: I will not tolerate late work.
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Use a colon to separate the place of publication and the publisher in an MLA works cited entry.
West, Gerald. How to Write Best Sellers. New York: Henry James Publishing, 1973.
Colon use in everyday forms.
Use a colon after the formal greeting in a business letter. Dear Sir:
Use a colon between the hour and minutes in expressions of time. 8:30
Use a colon to separate chapter and verse in the Bible. John 3:16
Hyphens
Use hyphens in compound words, especially compound adjectives that appear for the nouns they modify.
Self-confident Mother-in-law I just bought a dot-matrix printer.
Use hyphens in compound numbers. Twenty-two Eighty-seven
Use hyphens in spelled-out fractions.
One-half Three-fourths
Dashes
–Use dashes to indicate a sudden interruption in a sentence. (One handwritten dash is twice as long as a hyphen. One typewritten dash is one hyphen followed by another.)
I have found that there is one important thing—actually a few things—that you need to know.
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Use a dash to attach an extra thought to a sentence that is complete.
Sue called me yesterday with an important message—buy milk.
Use a dash after a series of introductory elements.
Watermelon, limes, and oranges—these are the fruits I really like.
Parentheses
Use parentheses around words that add information to the sentence or make the idea clearer.
Your vacation (nine weeks) will end in August.
Brackets
Use brackets around words that you add to or modify in quoting.
When Ann claimed that “[she] want[ed] to eat cheese,” we bought some.
Underlining, Quotation marks, or Italics for Titles
Underline the titles of long works. Consider putting a long line underneath things that take a long time to read or see. This includes books, magazines, newspapers, movies, and plays. When typing, italics can be used instead of underlining.
I read The Awakening this summer. I read The Awakening this summer.
Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works. Consider putting short quotes around things that take a short time to read or see. This includes the titles of short stories, newspaper articles, and song titles.
I found an interesting article called “The Reasons for Reading” in the newspaper yesterday.
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Apostrophes
The apostrophe has two main uses:
1) to form possessives of nouns2) to show the omission of letters
Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns (his, its) or for noun plurals (cats, dogs).
Forming possessives of nouns To make most nouns possessive, simply add an ’s
the boy's hatthe girl’s shirt
If the noun ends with an “s” and is singular and is only one syllable, add an 's.
James’s hatChris’s bike
If the noun ends with and “s” and is plural, add only the '.
The girls’ teamThe houses’ roofs
If the noun is plural but does not end in an “s” then add ’s
the children's game the geese's honking
If a compound noun is possessive, add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment
Showing omission of letters or numbersApostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:
don't = do not I'm = I amhe'll = he willcould've = could have (NOT "could of")’60 = 1960
who's = who isdidn't = did notshouldn't = should notshould’ve = should have (NOT “should of”)it’s = it is
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Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession -- they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:
wrong: his' book correct: his book
wrong: The group made it's decision.correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and “its” is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out = It is raining out.)
wrong: a friend of yours' correct: a friend of yours
Ellipses
Ellipses are used to mark omissions from quoted material. An ellipsis is made by three spaced periods.
In his autobiography, Galarza recalls, “It was easy for me to feel that becoming a proud American, . . . did not mean feeling ashamed of being a Mexican.”
If the quoted material that comes before the omission is a complete sentence, keep the endmark and add the ellipsis.
Galarza remembers that his teachers encouraged him and his classmates to share stories about their families and backgrounds: “Matti told the class about his mother’s down quilt, which she had made in Italy. . . . Encarnación acted out how boys learned to fish in the Philippines. I astounded the third grade with the story of my travels on a stagecoach.”
Ellipses are NOT used at the beginning or end of quotes. The omission is understood.
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It’s what you do! States an action or state of being.
Action Verb- what the subject of a sentence is doing: jumps, run, train
Linking Verb- expresses a state of being and links to another word in a sentence. It s NOT paired with an action verb: am, are, is, was, were, been, being
Helping Verb- added to main verb to express tense, or add emphasis: will, could, should, would have
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A person, place, thing, or abstract feeling/idea.
Common- General name of a place, thing, or idea: hill, ball, bread, love
Proper- Names a specific person, place, or thing: John, Congress, Ohio
Abstract-names an idea, quality, or a feeling: joy, beauty, love
Concrete-Names an object distinguished by the five senses: shoe, car, perfume, apple
Possessive –shows ownership or association to something: Lily’s ring, a day’s pay
Collective –Names a group of things: team, society
Singular- One person, place, or thing: cat, bird, dog
Plural- More than one of the noun: cats, birds, dogs
Words that replace nouns.
Possessive-shows ownership: my, your, our, their
Personal-shows distinction of a person: I, you, he, she
A word or phrase used to express strong feeling/emotion: Wow! Good Grief! Oh my!
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Words used to link words together.
Correlative Conjunction- a pair of conjunctions that work together: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also
Coordinating Conjunction- connects related words, groups of words, or sentences. FANBOYS for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Subordinating Conjunction- introduces a subordinate clause. after, although, as, before, since, whether, unless, until
Words that relate an object to another part of a sentence. (What you can do IN a cloud, ON a cloud, or THROUGH a cloud). A preposition always has an object (such as cloud).
in, out, on, off, over, under, above, below, despite, of through, at
Helping verbs help main verbs express action. When they are combined, it is called a verb phrase.
George has been working hard. Tomas and Sally have been dating for eleven years.
Common Helping Verbs
Forms of “be” be, am, is, are, was, were, been, beingForms of “do” do, does, didForms of “have” have, has, hadOthers (modals) could, should, would, may, might,
must, can, shall, will
Action verbs tells what its subject is doing. It can be a physical or mental action.
The dog ran after the ball.The boy thought about his homework.
Verb Tense
BE - Present Singular PluralFirst Person am areSecond Person are areThird Person is are
BE - Past Singular PluralFirst Person was wereSecond Person were wereThird Person was were
Normal Present tense –
3rd person add (s) Past tense –
add (ed) Future tense –
will + verb OR going to + verb Progressive –
*be* + verb (ing)
Perfect Present perfect –
have + verb (en) Past perfect –
had + verb Future perfect –
will have + verb OR going to have + verb
Perfect Progressive Present perfect progressive –
have been +verb (ing) Past perfect progressive –
had been + verb (ing) Future perfect progressive –
will have been + verb (ing) OR going to have been + verb (ing)
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Consistency of Verb Tense
IntroductionVerb tense is used to indicate a time frame to the reader. Consider the following examples:
The teacher will mark the essays.(The marking will take place in the future.)
The teacher has marked the essays.(The marking took place in the past and has been completed)
The teacher is marking the essays.(The marking is taking place in the present)
Problems occur when writers change tenses inappropriately within sentences, paragraphs, or complete works.
SentencesTenses within a sentence should be changed when there is a logical reason to do so.
The following sentences contain problems with verb tense.
INCORRECT
When she writes an essay, she will plan carefully.Because he didn’t understand the question, he leaves it out.The students liked that teacher before he fails them.
CORRECT
When she writes an essay, she plans carefully.Because he didn’t understand the question, he left it out.The students liked that teacher before he failed them.
In these sentences it makes no sense to shift between tenses. If you do so, you will confuse the reader.
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Active and Passive Voice
Writers use the active voice to emphasize the subject of a sentence. They use the passive voice to emphasize the object of the action.
When the subject of a sentence performs the action, the verb is active. When the subject receives the action, or expresses the result of the action, the verb is passive. The word passive means “acted upon.” The passive form of a verb consists of a form of “be” and the past participle (ed or en). Active verbs usually produce stronger, more concise sentences.
Jackie Robinson wrote an autobiography. (active)
An autobiography was written by Jackie Robinson. (passive)
Millions of women and children have been helped by Mother Jones’s activism.
HINT: When looking for the passive voice, be sure to look for prepositions that follow the verb like “by” or “with”. This is your key to identifying the passive voice.
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subject doing action verb
subject receiving action
form of “be”
form of bepast participle
past participle
preposition
Mood of Verbs
The mood of a verb indicates the status of the action or state of being it describes.
The Indicative Mood expresses a fact or asks a question.
Andrew fought to save a wooded wetland near his Massachusetts home.Didn’t he show courage in standing up to the real estate developer?
The Imperative Mood gives a command or makes a request.
Imagine a sixth grader circulating petitions.Clean your room!
The Subjunctive Mood expresses a 1) wish or condition that is contrary to fact or a command or 2) request after the word that.
If only I were able to fly like Superman.Teachers should demand that more young people be able to act on their principles.
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Direct and Indirect Objects
A direct object is a noun or pronoun which receives the action of the verb. It answers the question “what?” or “whom?” It usually follows the subject and verb.
Nothing can escape a black hole. I looked through the telescope.
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that receives the direct object of the sentence. The indirect object comes before the direct object in the sentence and answers the question “to whom” or “for whom?” or “to what?” or “for what?” Also, you cannot have an indirect object without a direct object in the sentence.
The Hubble telescope showed scientists an enormous black hole. Pairs of orbiting stars gave researchers the first clue.
In some cases, a sentence might have both a direct object and an indirect object.
The desert sky offers residents and tourists an abundance of beautiful constellations.
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Indirect objects
Indirect objects
Direct objects
Common Phrases
Prepositional PhrasesThe prepositional phrase includes the preposition and the object of the preposition as well as any modifiers related to either. In the following examples, the preposition is bold, and the prepositional phrase is underlined.
The flying saucer appeared above the lake before it disappeared into space . Christine discovered a pile of books hidden under the staircase . You should consider reading the notes before class .
Appositive PhrasesAn appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a noun or noun phrase that immediately precedes it.
My favorite teacher, a fine chess player, has won several state-level tournaments. The best exercise, walking briskly, is also the least expensive. The man who is dressed in red has your paycheck.
Gerund PhrasesBegin with a verb that ends in –ing and act as a noun (subjects or objects).
Cramming for tests is not a good study strategy. (subject) John enjoyed swimming in the lake after dark. (object) I'm really not interested in studying biochemistry for the rest of my life. (object)
Infinitive PhrasesBegin with an infinitive verb (to + verb) and act as adjective, adverb, or nouns.
Her plan to subsidize child care an award. (adjective modifies plan) She wanted to raise taxes. (noun, object) Juan went to college to study veterinary medicine. (adverb, why he went)
Participial PhrasesBegin with a verb that may end in –ing, -ed, or –en and always act as adjectives.
The stone steps, having been worn down, needed to be replaced. (modifies "steps") Working around the clock, the student finally finished his paper. (modifies "firefighters”) The pond, frozen over since early December, is now safe for ice- skating. (modifies “pond”)
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Clauses (Independent and Dependent)
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. All clauses have a subject part and a verb part. There are two types of clause:
Independent clause: This kind of clause can stand by itself; it needs no other parts to make a complete thought.
The kids in the cafeteria ate lunch at noon.Kids: subject partAte: verb part
Dependent (also called subordinate) clause: This kind of clause still has a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself; it needs another independent clause for the sentence to be complete. These types of clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.
When the kids eat lunch in the cafeteria at noonKids: subjectEat: verb
But this sentence still needs an independent clause with the dependent clause in order for the sentence to be complete. What happens when the kids eat lunch? That question needs an answer.
When the kids eat lunch in the cafeteria at noon, there is always a mess afterwards.
Sometimes it can be difficult to find the subject part of a clause, particularly a dependent clause when it begins with a relative pronoun (who, that, which, whom, whose).
Ralph is a busy man who works three jobs.Ralph: subject of the independent clauseIs: verb of the independent clauseWho: subject of the dependent clauseWorks: verb of the dependent clause
Commonly Used Subordinating Conjunctionsafteralthoughasas ifas long asas soon as
as thoughbecausebeforeeven thoughifsince
so thatthanthoughunlessuntilwhen
wheneverwherewhereverwhile
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Modifiers: Comparatives and Superlatives
The comparative form of adjectives and adverbs is used to compare two things. The superlative form of adjectives and adverbs is used to compare three or more things.
bad worse worstgood better bestwell better bestlittle less leastmany more mostmuch more most
Some helpful rules:
1. Most one-syllable words form the comparative and superlative by adding “er” and “est”.Neat, neater, neatest
2. Some two-syllable words form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding “er” and “est”; others do so by adding “more” and “most”.
Gentle, gentler, gentlestClearly, more clearly, most clearly
3. Words with more than two syllables and adverbs with “ly” endings form the comparative and superlative degrees by using “more” and “most”.
Expensive, more expensive, most expensive
4. To show a decrease in the qualities these words express, use “less” and “least”.Weak, less weak, least weak
When you add “more” or “most” or “less” or “least” to a comparative word (faster, smartest), it is called a double comparative. These are improper and should not be used. Look at the examples below:
INCORRECT CORRECTAlice is a more faster runner than Sally. Alice is a faster runner than Sally.She is the most smartest girl in school. She is the smartest girl in school
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Misplaced Modifiers
A modifier is a word or a phrase that describes something else. It should be placed as close as possible to what it describes. Otherwise, the meaning becomes unclear. Here are some examples of misplaced modifiers:
These examples make us ask simple questions like, “Why is the dog in Capri pants?” and “How did an elephant get in Groucho Marx’s pajamas?” These sentences should be arranged like this:
The young girl in Capri pants was walking the dog. I shot an elephant while I was in my pajamas.
Also, be watchful with placement of modifiers such as almost, even, hardly, nearly, often, and only.
In these examples, Mark neither ran nor ate. Better placement for these modifiers is
Mark ran around the yard almost twenty times. He ate nearly a box of treats.
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The young girl was walking the dog in Capri pants. “I shot an elephant in my pajamas.” – Groucho
Marx
Mark almost ran around the yard twenty times. He nearly ate a whole box of treats.
Parallel Construction
Background Information
Parallel construction means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. Single words should be balanced with single words, phrases with phrases, clauses with clauses; lists after a colon should also be parallel.
1) Words and Phrases
With the -ing form (gerund) of words Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling. Not parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
With infinitive phrases Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. Not parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and riding a bicycle.
2) Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must continue using clauses. Changing to another pattern—or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa)—will break the parallelism.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
3) Lists After a Colon
Be sure to keep all the elements of a list in the same form.
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Proofreading Strategies
Skim your paper, pausing at the words “and” and “or.” Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
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Sentence Structure
Every complete sentence is made up of two parts – the subject and the predicate. The complete subject includes all the words that tell who or what the sentence is about. The complete predicate includes all the words that tell what the subject of the sentence is or does.
A simple subject may only be one word like, “I” or “Jennifer.” A complex subject may be more than one word, like “Jennifer and I” or “The brown deer.” These are often called complete subjects.
I ate pizza.Jennifer ran to the store. Jennifer and I ran home.The brown deer drinks water from a stream.
A simple predicate (the main verb or verbs of the subject) can be only one word, like “sleep.” Or it can be more than one word, like “eats pizza.” Often, it will be longer like “had made dinner last night.” This is called the complete predicate.
I sleep.Jennifer eats pizza. My blanket keeps me warm.The alarm clock wakes us up.Aunt Sharon had made dinner last night.
Normally the subject comes before the predicate. Sometimes, like when a sentence starts with “here” or “there” and in questions, the predicate may come first.
There is a ball in the yard. (“is” is the predicate, “ball” is the subject.)
How are you today? (“are” is the predicate, “you” is the subject.)
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Sentence Purpose
Sentences can be used to make a statement, to ask a question, to make a request or give a command, or to show strong feelings and emotions.
Why is this important?
Writers use these sentences in order to express the way that people really speak. This adds a sense of reality to your writing when you can make use of a variety of these types of sentences.
Also the tone of your writing can be changed simply by making choices from among these sentence types. Try reading the following sentences using the punctuation that identifies the different types and purposes:
I have a good joke.I have a good joke!Have I got a good joke!Have I got a good joke?Tell me a good joke.Tell me a good joke!
The Four Kinds of Sentences
Kind What it does ExamplesDeclarative Makes a statement;
always ends with a periodI took a trip to Washington last year.
Interrogative
Asks a question; always ends with a question mark
What did you do in Washington?
Imperative
Tells or asks someone to do something; usually ends with a period but may end with an exclamation point
Show me your photos from your trip to Washington.Take me with you next time!
Exclamatory Shows strong feeling;always ends with an exclamation point
What a lucky person you are!
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Sentence Types
Being able to use a variety of sentence types correctly and smoothly will improve your writing. To do this, you must be familiar with the different types of sentences.
Simple: A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause. It must have a subject and a predicate.
George ran down the street. (simple subject, simple predicate)Sally ran down the street and chased the ball. (simple subject, compound predicate)
Compound: Joins two independent clauses together with a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) followed by a comma to make one sentence. The basic form is independent clause, FANBOYS independent clause. Don’t forget the comma before the FANBOYS.
John rides his bike to work every afternoon, and his brother picks him up on his wayhome every evening.
Complex: Joins one independent clause together with one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses to make one complete sentence. (Hint: A dependent clause will often start with subordinate conjunctions such as although, since, when, despite, in order to, because or pronouns like who, that, which.)
Although he loves to dance, David did not attend the school’s prom.
Despite the fact that she was tardy, her teacher let her in because she was crying.
(Dependent clauses are underlined; independent clauses are not.)
Compound-Complex: Joins two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses to form one sentence.
Researchers have studied couples who have contrasting personalities, and the results have been interesting.
Sarah is the girl who received the most votes in our class; however, the principal vetoed her as a candidate and elected John as president.
Because the veto was unfair, the students all signed a petition, and the school board overruled the principal’s decision.
(Dependent clauses are underlined; independent clauses are not.)
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Sentence Writing Errors
Fragment SentencesA sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
Susie went to the store.
This sentence tells us who (Susie), what (she went), and where (to the store). It is a complete thought. It sounds finished.
A sentence fragment does not express a complete thought.When I am ready to go.
This is not a complete thought because we have questions: What happens when the speaker is ready to go?
To correct this, we need to add to this sentence:When I am ready to go, I will let you know.
Run-on sentencesA run-on sentence is really the opposite of a fragment sentence: it is made up of two complete sentences that have been stuck together as if they were one sentence.
Randy walked home he needed to have dinner.
In this sentence there are two complete sentences stuck together as if they were one. This is called a fused sentence.
Sometimes writers think they can correct this type of error using a comma.
Randy walked home, he needed to have dinner.
This is called a comma splice, and it is not correct.
There are several ways to correct this type of run-on sentence:Randy walked home; he needed to have dinner.
(Use a semicolon between the two sentences.)Randy walked home because he needed to have dinner.
(Use a subordinating conjunction.)Randy walked home. He needed to have dinner.
(Made two sentences.)Randy walked home, for he needed to have dinner.
(Use a comma WITH a coordinating conjunction—FANBOYS.)
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Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement
A verb must agree with its subject in person and number: singular subjects (Joe) take singular verbs (runs); plural subjects (the boys) take plural verbs (ran).
1. When an indefinite pronoun is the subject of a sentence, you will need to discover whether the indefinite pronoun is singular or plural. (see page 33)
Everyone takes an evening walk. (Everyone is a singular indefinite pronoun, so it takes a singular verb.)
2. Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.The boy and his sister play basketball. The mittens and the hat are in the closet.
3. Compound subjects joined by either, or or neither, nor use the verb that goes with the second subject.
Neither her shoes nor her skirt matches her shirt.(skirt is singular and gets the singular verb matches)Either the girls or that boy was laughing at her.(boy is singular and gets the singular verb was laughing)
4. The subject is never part of a prepositional phraseThe ribbon on the doors is pretty.(ribbon is the subject, not doors) An army of fans was cheering loudly.(Army is the subject, not fans)
5. Questions can be restated as statements to find the subjectHow is Sam doing in math this year? (Sam is doing (well or poorly) in math this year. Sam is the subject.)What are the problems associated with smoking?(The problems associated with smoking are….. The subject is problems.)
6. There and here are never the subject of a sentence, so you will need to look after the main verb to find the subject to determine subject/verb agreement.
There are no simple answers. (No simple answers are there. Answers is the subject.)Here is the lost artifact. (The lost artifact is here. Artifact is the subject.)
There is more information about agreement on the following pages.
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Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
A basic introduction to pronouns and antecedents:
Joe drove Joe’s car to Joe’s house.
Naturally we don’t speak or write this way. So, we replace the main noun, Joe, with a pronoun.
Joe drove his car to his house.
“Joe” becomes what is known as the antecedent, while “his” becomes the pronoun that replaces “Joe”, so the sentence doesn’t sound so silly.
The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. A singular pronoun must replace a singular antecedent; a plural pronoun must replace a plural antecedent.
Joe drove his car.The boys drove their car.
Following are the nine pronoun-antecedent agreement rules
1. A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of the antecedent.
Joe, along with the other boys, drove his car home. The boys in the hallway work hard on their homework.
2. When the subject of the sentence is a singular indefinite pronoun, then the pronoun that replaces it needs to be singular as well. If the subject of the sentence is a plural indefinite pronoun, the pronoun that replaces it must be plural as well.
Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be either singular or plural.
Either Singular or Plural: some, any, none, all, most
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When you can’t count the item that is the object of the prepositional phrase, then the pronoun you replace the antecedent with will be singular.
All of the milk spilled from its container. (Milk is not countable.)All of the boys work in their classes. (Boys are countable.)
3. Compound subjects joined by “and” always take a plural pronoun.
Joyce and Sam studied their notes. 4. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the pronoun agrees with the antecedent closer to the verb.
Joyce and the girls studied their notes.The girls and Joyce studied her notes.
5. Collective nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on meaning.
The club wrote their individual ideas down to share.
In this case, the club is working as individuals, so the pronoun would be plural.
The club wrote its ideas down to give to the principal.
In this case, the club is working as a unit, so the pronoun would be singular. 6. Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular referent.
The Last of the Mohicans has as its theme the importance of loyalty.
7. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular pronoun. (news, measles, mumps, physics, etc)
The news takes its time relating some events.
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8. “Every” or “Many a” before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular pronoun.
Every book needs its title showing on the shelf.Many a student wishes he or she could pass English easily.
9. “The number of” vs. “a number of” before a subject
The number of is singular.
The number of boys in class increases its size daily.
A number of is plural.
A number of boys are offering their notes for others to use.
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No Excuse Words
POLICY: In all classrooms students will be held responsible for using all words on the No Excuse list correctly. All teachers will deduct points from student writing when these words are misused.
a before words that begin with a consonant an before words that begin with a vowela lot two words; avoid overuse all right two wordsaccept verb: to receive or believe except preposition: other thanaffect verb: to influence effect verb: to produce; noun: the resultall ready completely ready to go already before this time, by this timeapart to separate a part of a piece of a wholeamong used when speaking of two or more between used when speaking of only twoare verb: plural form of verb to be our third person possessive pronounby preposition: next to buy verb: to purchasebye part of goodbye cannot one wordcan’t contraction; means cannot cent a coinscent a smell sent verb: past tense of to sendchose verb: past tense of to choose choose verb: to selectcollege an institution of higher learning collage a group of pictures put togetherdesert a barren wilderness dessert food served after dinner here adverb: an area close by hear verb: to perceive with the earherd noun: a group of animals heard verb: past tense of the verb to hearwhole adjective: complete hole noun: a hollow placeknew verb: past tense of to know new adjective: recentknow verb: to realize no adverb: a refusallay verb: to place lie verb: to reclineit’s contraction for it is its possessive form of pronoun itlose verb: to misplace loose adjective: free, unrestrainedpeace noun: tranquility piece noun: a fragmentpast noun: historical passed verb: to go beyondquite adverb: fully quiet adjective: noiselessquit verb: to stop there adverb: a locationtheir possessive pronoun they’re contraction of they arereal adjective: actual really adverb: in truth (don’t use as an intensifier)seen past participle of to see; needs a helping verb scene noun: a settingthan conjunction used for comparison then adverb: at that time or next in timethrough to pass from one side to another threw verb: past tense of to throwto preposition: in the direction of too adverb: also or verytwo the number after one each other two wordsweather noun: condition of the atmosphere whether used to introduce possibilitieswho’s contraction of who is whose possessive pronounyour possessive pronoun you’re contraction of you are
which pronoun: used to refer to nonliving objects or animals, but not people
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No Excuse “Taboo” Words (Dead Words)
These are the words that are consistently overused by students regardless of grade level. They are no longer acceptable in formal writing. Teachers will deduct points from any formal writing assignment that includes these words.
nice ugly reallyfun mean verygood cute boringpretty beautiful cool (slang)funny bad gonna (slang)weird great a lot (slang)happy like (slang) awesome (slang)internet “chat” words (u, 2, r) this essay is about … I think …I feel … I believe … the theme is …big small ‘cuz or cause (slang)stuff thing(s) lotsfun
For synonyms of many of these words, visit http://www.phschool.com/iText/wag/bronze/backmatter/OW_index.html or http://thesaurus.reference.com/
Additionally, when checking a thesaurus, make sure any synonym you find is used correctly. For example, instead of “good” doughnut, please do not say “the benevolent doughnut.” A better substitution would be “the tasty doughnut.”
The Basic Rule of embedding snippets is to take your analytical sentence written in your own words and try to fit a piece of direct quote from another source into it in a grammatically correct manner. When you do this, you may have to change a verb tense or pronoun. When you do make those changes, you highlight them by putting the change in brackets.
The child “walk[ed] slowly out of [his] room” into the dark outdoors.
The original text said, “I will walk slowly out of my room . . .”
When choosing a snippet, be sure you select text that holds great significance as support for your point.
Not correct: When the character “walks down” the long, dusty road to find his lost “dog,” his life changes.
Better: When the “unfulfilled” character walks down the “long, dusty road to find his cherished lost dog,” he experiences a “terrific life change.”
Embedding snippets of quotes means using direct quotes but only smaller chunks rather than lengthy quotes. In other words, try to find pieces of two to ten words to use as quoted support, rather than the full text.
Limit your use of direct quotes to 5-10% of the total word count of your essay. Direct quotes should be succinct and clearly supportive of the analytical point each is intended to reinforce. Include a page citation for any direct quote you use.
When using a direct quote, indicate the number of the page on which the quote appears. Note the following format choices. Notice that the punctuation follows the parentheses.
The narrator describes the character of Talbot as "delicate and unhealthy" (Jones 20) from a “wealthy Eastern family” (Jones 22).She descended the stairs with a "feverish triumph" (Norton 232).
When omitting words from the middle of a direct quote, use ellipses, a series of three dots. You do not need to include ellipses at the beginning or ending of a quote.
Because he was dead tired, "the oiler . . . was not fond of rowing at this time" (Connor 253).
If the omission includes the end of a sentence, a fourth dot is needed as a period:
"The little boat. . . . seemed just a wee thing" (Connor 252).
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Style, Tone, and Voice
As we write, we make choices about the words we want to use to communicate our intentions.
STYLE: the way we adapt the language to suit the needs of our writing. Style is broken into four main parts:
The aim is the purpose behind our words.The attitude is the way we feel about our subject.The audience is the people who hear or read our words.The situation is the time and place.
When you write in your journal, you won’t really be thinking about your audience because it is personal. However, in an essay, your audience, your attitude, your aim, and the words you choose are the most important factors of your writing style. It is the most effective way to communicate important opinions, ideas, or emotions.
VOICE: Writers have distinctive voices when they write just as they do when they speak.
Voice in writing is the unique sound and rhythm of a writer’s language; it is the writer’s personal manner of sharing his/her ideas with the reader. Voice is what gives writing authenticity and allows the reader to imagine a real person speaking from the written page.
TONE: Tone is the attitude of the writer about his/her subject.
When you speak, you may express a happy tone of voice, an angry tone of voice, or any other number of attitudes. Writing expresses the same types of tones. If you have strong feelings about political issues, your tone in writing can express these feelings in the same way that your tone of voice expresses those emotions.
Some of the points to consider when writing with style, voice, and tone are the following:
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Diction: These are words we choose to use to express our attitudes, emotions, opinions that carry greater weight, meaning, and emotion than other words.
NOT GOOD: There were birds making noise. GOOD: Three red-breasted robins hopped about on the dew-laced lawn chirping a good-morning song.
Connotation and Denotation: Choosing the correct language also requires that you choose words based on their actual meaning and also the emotions associated with certain words.
He looked out the window. This doesn’t really express any emotional content.He peered cautiously out the window. This gives us a strong sense or feeling of fear.
The following Internet Web Sites can offer a great deal of help to writers attempting to create style, voice and tone: The Essay - Audience And Tone (U Victoria)
POLICY: The first time a student is caught plagiarizing he/she will receive a zero on the assignment and the students or legal guardians will be contacted. The second time a student is caught plagiarizing he/she will receive an “F” for the grading term.
To ensure that all students of the Snowline District maintain the highest levels of academic honesty, a list of definitions follows that should clarify any areas.
Plagiarism – presenting the words or ideas of another person requires proper acknowledgment; failure to do so is plagiarism. This applies to direct quotations, paraphrases or summarized ideas. To avoid plagiarism, make sure the MLA style for citing is closely followed. Other forms of plagiarism, or cheating, include submitting the same work to two teachers without permission from both teachers, working with other students without permission from the teacher, and any form of cheating (copying, sharing, stealing, or distributing answers for homework or exams).
Examples of Plagiarism, and of Appropriate Use of Others’ Words and Ideas
Here’s the original text, from page 1 of Lizzie Borden: A Case Book of Family and Crime in the 1890s by Joyce Williams et al.:
The rise of industry, the growth of cities, and the expansion of the population were the three great developments of late nineteenth century American history. As new, larger, steam-powered factories became a feature of the American landscape in the East, they transformed farm hands into industrial laborers, and provided jobs for a rising tide of immigrants. With industry came urbanization—the growth of large cities (like Fall River, Massachusetts, where the Bordens lived) which became the centers of production as well as of commerce and trade.
Here’s an unacceptable paraphrase that is plagiarism:
The increase of industry, the growth of cities, and the explosion of the population were three large factors of nineteenth century America. As steamdriven companies became more visible in the eastern part of the country, they changed farm hands into factory workers and provided jobs for the large wave of immigrants. With industry came the growth of large cities like Fall River where the Bordens lived which turned into centers of commerce and trade as well as production.
The preceding passage is considered plagiarism for two reasons:
The writer has only changed around a few words and phrases, or changed the order of the original’s sentences.
The writer has failed to cite a source for any of the ideas or facts. If you do either or both of these things, you are plagiarizing.
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Note that this paragraph is also problematic because it changes the sense of several sentences (for example, “steamdriven companies” in sentence two misses the original’s emphasis on factories).
Here’s an acceptable paraphrase:
Fall River, where the Borden family lived, was typical of northeastern industrial cities of the nineteenth century. Steampowered production had shifted labor from agriculture to manufacturing, and as immigrants arrived in the US, they found work in these new factories. As a result, populations grew, and large urban areas arose. Fall River was one of these manufacturing and commercial centers (Williams 1).
This is acceptable paraphrasing because the writer:
accurately relays the information in the original uses her own words lets her reader know the source of her information
Here’s an example of quotation and paraphrase used together, which is also acceptable:
Fall River, where the Borden family lived, was typical of northeastern industrial cities of the nineteenth century. As steam-powered production shifted labor from agriculture to manufacturing, the demand for workers “transformed farm hands into industrial laborers,” and created jobs for immigrants. In turn, growing populations increased the size of urban areas. Fall River was one of these hubs “which became the centers of production as well as of commerce and trade” (Williams 1).
This is acceptable paraphrasing because the writer:
records the information in the original passage accurately gives credit for the ideas in this passage
indicates which parts are taken directly from her source by putting those passages in quotation marks and citing the page number.
Plagiarism and the Internet
The World Wide Web has become a popular source of information for students’ papers, and many questions have arisen about how to avoid plagiarizing these sources. In most cases, the same rules apply as for a printed source: when you refer to ideas or quote from an internet site, you must cite that source.
If you want to use visual information from an internet site, many of the same rules apply. Copying visual information or graphics from an internet site (or from a printed source) into a paper is very similar to quoting information, and the source of the visual information or graphic must be cited. These rules also apply to other uses of textual or visual information from internet sites; for example, if you are constructing a Web page as a class project, and you copy graphics
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or visual information from other sites, you must also provide information about the source of this information. In this case, it might also be a good idea to obtain permission from the internet site’s owner before using the graphics.
Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism
Put in quotations everything that comes directly from the text—especially when taking notes.
Paraphrase, but be sure you are not just rearranging or replacing a few words. Instead, read over what you want to paraphrase carefully; cover up the text with your hand, or close the text so you can't see any of it (and so aren’t tempted to use the text as a “guide”). Write out the idea in your own words without peeking.
Check your paraphrase against the original text to be sure you have not accidentally used the same phrases or words, and that the information is accurate.
Terms You Need to Know
Common knowledge – facts that can be found in numerous places and are likely to be known by a lot of people.
John F. Kennedy was elected President of the United States in 1960.
This is generally known information. You do not need to document this fact.However, you must document facts that are not generally known and ideas that interpret facts.
According to the American Family Leave Coalition’s new book, Family Issues and Congress, President Bush’s relationship with Congress has hindered family leave legislation (6).
The idea that “Bush’s relationship with Congress has hindered family leave legislation” is not a fact but an interpretation; consequently, you need to cite your source.
Quotation – using someone’s words. When you quote, place the passage you are using in quotation marks, and document the source according to a standard documentation style.
According to Peter S. Pritchard in USA Today, “Public schools need reform but they'reirreplaceable in teaching all the nation's young” (14).
Paraphrase – using someone’s ideas, but putting them in your own words. This is probably the skill you will use most when incorporating sources into your writing. Although you use your own words to paraphrase, you must still acknowledge the source of the information.
Adapted from Whittier College Handbook and Indiana University Plagiarism Guidelines
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MLA (Modern Language Association) Style Guide
POLICY: The district has adopted the MLA format as the accepted form for all papers written within the district. The following guidelines should be followed when writing for the Snowline JUSD.
Format: Papers must be done on 8.5” x 11” white paper. The margins must be one inch on top, bottom, left and right. Paragraphs should be indented half an inch; set-off quotations (block quotations) should be indented an inch from the left margin. The paper must be typed, double-spaced, and be written in Times New Roman 12 pt. font. The body of the paper should be left justified.
Heading: MLA papers do not have a title page. Instead, on the first page, at the left-hand side, students type their name (first and last), teacher’s name, class title, and the date (day, month, year). This is also double spaced and will be on ONLY the first page.
A header should also be included. This is the student’s last name and the page number in the header of each page. This will be a half-inch from the top of the page.
The title should be on its own line and should be centered. The title will also be in Times New Roman 12 pt. font. It should not be bolded, italicized, or underlined.
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One inch margins on all sides.
Writer’s last name and page number.
Writer, teacher, class, date.
Proper citing of snippet.
Each MLA paper requires proper citation of information and quotations as well as a Works Cited page for research papers (or papers quoting from more than one source). The Works Cited page should be a new page, but must be numbered consecutively (i.e. if the last page of the essay is page 3, the Works Cited is page 4). Like the rest of the essay, the Works Cited page is double-spaced as well.
The Works Cited page should include ALL resources that were cited in the essay. Use in-text citations to avoid plagiarism. The following examples should be your guide. When in doubt, use the first word in the listing of the source on the Works Cited page.
Author's name in text Dover has expressed this concern (118-21).
Author's name in reference This concern has been expressed (Dover 118-21).
Multiple authors of a work This hypothesis (Bradley and Rogers 7) suggested this theory (Sumner, Reichl, and Waugh 23).
Two locations Williams alludes to this premise (136-39, 145).
Two works cited (Burns 54, Thomas 327)
Multivolume works (Encyclopedias)
References to volumes and pages (Wilson 2:1-18)
References to an entire volume (Henderson, vol. 3)
In-text reference to an entire volume In volume 3, Henderson suggests
Corporate authors (United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa 51-63)
When a work has no author, use the work's title or a shortened version of the title when citing it in text. (If abbreviating a title, omit initial articles and begin with the word by which it is alphabetized in the Works Cited list.):
… as stated by the presidential commission (Report 4).
Online source with numbered paragraphs
(Fox, pars. 4-5)
When citing poetry, use the line number rather than the page number for the first entry. Then just the number of the line.
… that death is much like a “strangely aching heart” (Frost line 11).
… “as sweet companions as might be had” (30)
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Citing Your Sources
Books -
Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. City of Publication: Publisher, Year.
Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York: Knopf, 1993.
Editor or Compiler
If the person named on the title page is the editor or compiler, rather than the author, add a comma then the abbreviation "ed." or "comp."
Carpenter, Allan, comp. Facts About the Cities. New York: Wilson, 1992.
Kreider, Jan F., ed. Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.
Boca Raton: CRC, 1993.
Two or More Authors List the names in the order they appear on the title page. Only the first author's name should be reversed: Last Name, First Name. Use a comma between the authors' names. Place a period after the last author's name.
Rowe, Richard, and Larry Jeffus. The Essential Welder: Gas Metal Arc Welding
Classroom Manual. Albany: Delmar, 2000.
If there are more than three authors, name only the first and add et al., or give all the names.
Randall, John E., Gerald R. Allen, and Roger C. Steene. Fishes of the Great Barrier Reef
and Coral Sea. Honolulu: U of Hawaii P, 1997.
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If the persons named on the title page are editors or compilers, add a comma after the final name, then the abbreviation "eds." or "comps."
Clute, John, and Peter Nicholls, eds. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York:
St. Martin's, 1993.
Second or Other Edition
If an edition is given, specify it by number (2nd ed.), name (Rev. ed.), or year (2004 ed.).
Castro, Peter, and Michael E. Huber. Marine Biology. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2003.
Corporate Author
Cite a book by corporate author when a group — such as an organization or association — rather than individual persons, is the author.
Accredited Standards Committee Z49. Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
Miami: American Welding Society, 1999.
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Growing Plants for Hawaiian Lei. Honolulu: Coll. of Tropical Agriculture and
Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, 2002.
Government Agency as Author
Give the name of the government first, then the name of the agency.
Hawaii. Office of the Auditor. Follow-up Audit of the Child Protective Services System.
Honolulu: State of Hawaii, 2003.
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Essay, Poem, or Short Story in an Anthology
Author of Story. “Title of Story.” Title of Book. Name of Editor. Edition (if given).
City of Publication: Publisher, Year. Page numbers.
Purcell, Arthur H. “Better Waste Management Strategies Are Needed to Avert a Garbage
Crisis.” Garbage and Recycling: Opposing Viewpoints. Ed. Helen Cothran. San
Diego: Greenhaven, 2003. 20-27.
Encyclopedia and Reference Books
Author of Article (if given). “Article Title.” Title of Book. City of Publication:
Publisher, Year.
Fagan, Jeffrey. “Gangs and Drugs.” Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol and Addictive
Author. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine Date: Page(s).
Abbreviate the months (except May, June, July). Give complete dates for magazines issued every week or every two weeks, written in this order: Day Month Year, e.g., 15 January 2000 If the article is on consecutive pages, specify the page numbers of the entire article, e.g. 16-20. Give just the last two digits of the second number, when possible, e.g. 188-89, but 196-200 If the article is not on consecutive pages — if, for example, it begins on page 27, then skips to page 30, and continues on page 32 — write only the first page number, followed by a plus sign: 27+. Do not give volume and issue numbers for magazine articles.
Talcott, Richard. “Great Comets.” Astronomy May 2004: 36-41.
If no author's name is given, begin with the title of the article.
“Qantas Looks to Airbus for Long-Range Aircraft.” Aviation Week and Space
Technology 5 Apr. 2004: 22.
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Newspaper Articles
Author. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper Date, edition: Page(s).
If the city of publication is not part of the newspaper's name, add it in square brackets: News and Observer [Raleigh, NC]. Give the complete date, but not the volume and issue numbers. Specify the edition of the newspaper, if one is given on the masthead. If the article is not on consecutive pages, write the first page number and a plus sign: B1+.
Daranciang, Nelson. “Why Puppies are Cute.” Honolulu Star-Bulletin 8 Apr.
2004, night final ed.: A3.
Web Sites
Complete publication information may not be available for a Web site; provide what is given.
Title of the Site. Editor. Date and/or Version Number. Name of Sponsoring Institution.
Date of Access <URL>.
Encyclopedia Mythica. 2004. 13 May 2004 <http://www.pantheon.org/>.
Document from a Web Site
Author. “Title of Web Page.” Title of the Site. Editor. Date and/or Version Number.
Name of Sponsoring Institution. Date of Access <URL>.
Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.”
SearchEngineWatch. Ed. Danny Sullivan. 24 Aug. 2004. 4 Sept. 2004
