DOCUMENT RESUME ED 354 858 IR 015 947 - ERIC · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 354 858 IR 015 947 TITLE...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 354 858 IR 015 947

TITLE Development Communication Report, 1992.

INSTITUTION Agency for International Development (IDCA),

Washington, DC. Bureau for Research andDevelopment.

PUB DATE 92

NOTE 98p.; For the 1991 issues, see ED 345 693.

AVAILABLE FROM Clearinghouse on Development Communication, 1815North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22209

($10 per year for readers in the industrializedworld; others free).

PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022)

JOURNAL CIT Development Communication Report; n76-79 1992

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Child Development; Clearinghouses; *Communications;

*Developing Nations; *Development Communication;Environmental Education; Foreign Countries; HealthEducation; Journalism; Mass Media; PreschoolEducation; Rural Environment; Urban Environment

ABSTRACTThe four issues of the quarterly newsletter contained

in this document focus on the use of communication technologies in

developing countries to educate the people about various social

issues as well as the field of development communication itself.

Environment and communication is the theme of the first issue, which

includes articles on environmental education, communication for

conservation, the urban environment, environmental journalism,

magazines about the environment for children, and communicating

through surveys. The second issues highlights communication and

health; topics addressed include lessons learned in health

communication, mass media entertainment for AIDS communication in

Zaire, innovations in counseling, safer birthing methods, training

videos, AIDS prevention, rural communication strategies, and mass

media and behavior change. Articles in the third issue discuss early

childhood development and development communication, including

communicating the challenges of the 1990s, early child development

programs, children as communicators, peasant children centers in

Ecuador, creative use of video in early child health and education in

Thailand, understanding child development, communicating with

parents, and materials development. The current status of development

communication is the focus of the last issue, including communication

planning, talking to development bankers, Project Saturn Global (an

educational, distributed satellite radio network), simplified

computer graphics technology, selecting allies for development

r-...mmunicationsand participatory communication for social change.

(ALF)

*** *4: **************************************** ** ************ ** ********4c

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOnce f Educattortat Rematch and imdrovament

EDU ATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

Thts cloCument has peen reproduced aswitty.° from the person or deganaabonongtnating

O Mmor changes have Peen mad* to mprovereproductIon ouaitty

Potnts of view or opinions stated in th.sclocu-men! do not necessarily represent officmOERI posthon or 00i1Cy

Development Communication Report1992/1-4

Numbers 76-79

Published by: U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentBureau for Research and DevelopmentOffice of Education

To Our Readers:This issue focuses on atheme both specific to

regions and activities, and universal in itscall to action: The Environment andCommunication. With the upcomi "g EarthSummit (the United Nations Conference onthe Environment and Development) thissummer and increasing think globally, actfocally campaigns, people across the globeare thinking about how we can work

I i 1 1 el "-so

together to sustain the environment.Building on DCR no. 65, this DCR looks atthe role of development communicationwith a particular emphasis onenvironmental journalism andcommunication strategies related to the ruraland urban environment. As the environmentis a huge topic, we have only scraped thesurface. Therefore, we invite you to pursuethe resources and networks listed within.

-The Editor

Environmental Education andCommunication: Pulling it All Togetherby Anthony J. Meyer

Worldwide environmental issuesranging from the hazardous wastein your backyard to ozonedepletion far away in the

atmosphere can threaten our planet andcompromise our quality of life. The positive

and negative effects or environmentalinteractions are just beginning to be betterunderstood and addressed. Within thiscontext, environmental education andcommunication have a remarkableopportunity to accelerate understandingand to mobilize national and communityparticipation in change. (continued on p. 2)

Communication for Conservation:Saving the Forest and the Golden Lion Tamarin in Brazil

by Lou Ann Dietz and Elizabeth Nagagat

he major threat to the survival ofendangered species worldwide isthe destruction of their habitat bypeople. To save the environment

and its inhabitants, the problem must betackled from all angles: by conductingresearch to understand the species and theirinterrelationships; by implementing long-

term management and protection of habitatand the key individual species; and perhaps

most imminently, by gaining the support ofthe people causing the destruction.The following paragraphsdocument how World WildlifeFund and its coalition ofsupporters changed behavior andis saving the habitat of theendangered golden lion tamarin.

Since 1983, the National

Li

(continued on p. 4)

No. 761992/1

Inside this Issue ...

SuPPeolee by the Orem of Education.Bureau for ROIONWell ertd OrmieementU.& Agency fOrkelf111111110111 Development

NONDevelopment

Communication Report

Development CommunicationReport, published quarterly bythe Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication,has a circulation of over 7,000.The newsletter is available freeof charge to readers in thedeveloping world and at acharge of $10.00 per year toreaders in industrializedcountries.

A center for materials andinformation on importantapplications of communicationtechnology to developmentproblems, the Clearinghouse isoperated by the Institute forInternational Research, inassociation with CreativeAssociates International andsupported by the U.S. Agencyfor International Development,Bureau for Research andDevelopment, Office ofEducation, as part of itsprogram in educationaltechnology and developmentcommunication.

The views expressed in theDevelopment CommunicationReport are those of the authorsand not necessarily of itssponsors. Original material inthe Report may be reproducedwithout prior permissionprovided that full credit isgiven and that two copies of thereprint are sent to the Editor.

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication1815 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 600Arlington, VA 22209 USATelephone: (703) 527-5546Fax: (703) 52 :' -4661

Michael Laflin, DirectorAndrea Bosch, EditorValerie Lamont,

Information SpecialistEarlington McLetchie,

LibrarianMariel Escudero, Production &

Circulation Manager

Development CommunicationReport is produced usingdesktop publishing under A.I.D.

contract DR-5831-Z-00-8(113-00.

Pulling it All Together,continued from p.1

Communication because it is the exchangeof information. In social programs, itseffectiveness depends on assessingaudience needs and taking into accountsocial, cultural and economic aspects of a

problem as well as on the quality ofeducational messages and materials.

Education because it involves learninglearning how to think about an issue and itssolution; how to acquire and refine skills

for solving problems; how to transfer whatis learned from situation to situation.

In social programs, communication andeducation together lead to increased publicparticipation in problem solving and inactivities which promote change. Theparticipation of many individuals over time

can lead to changed expectations forindividual behavior and institutional

practices.The process of communication and

education together might be thought of asthe "heating up" of a society around anissue through the "saturation" of allavailable channel of communication. In a

"hot" society, all channels ofcommunication and the processes ofindividual and social change reinforce a

message. From the perspective of designing

an education and communication program,this might be called the "saturation"approach to social change.

An American Example of"Saturation"

Over ten years, the U.S. went from a pro-

smoking society to one where smokingbecame socially taboo due to a "heating up"process. A decade ago, researchinformation about the link betweensmoking and chronic disease, particularlycancer and heart attack, was communicated

to health professionals in a hostileenvironment where smoking wasconsidered socially "in." But informationcampaigns by government and cancer/heart associations put smoking on the

public agenda. The result? Conversationsabout smoking increased withinhouseholds, doctors offices, and in

laboratories. Community organizationsbegan to take action. Schools and theworkplace joined in. Grassroots pressureforced municipal and federal regulations to

Development Communication Report, no. 76 U

be updated. As smoking became a "hot"issue, the U.S. became "saturated" withnegative information about the healtheffects and social horrors of smoking. Now,smoking in the U.S. is socially "out."

No smoking campaigns became acatalyst for change in attitudes andbehavior in health with "smoking" as aunifying symbol. Under the umbrella of"smoking", the rituals and behaviorsassociated with smoking were individuallyaffected by the saturation process.Therefore, other health activities related tosmoking also reaped the benefits.Extending the impact of saturation can beapplied to other contexts.

Today, a new global image is emerging -

an image which represents theenvironment and unifies people behind itscommon cause. The symbol of a "Green"earth and the color "green" is perpetuatingan environmental movement the result ofand an inspiration to environmentaleducation and communication efforts

everywhere.The evidence? In Europe, "Green"

political parties are gaining popularsupport. All over the world, "green" labelmarketing approaches are influencingconsumer behavior. Just as in the smokingexample, acting upon the unifying symbol

of "green" through environmentaleducation and communication has thepotential to strengthen programs andfurther heat up public consciousness.Environmental education andcommunication provides the opportunityto support policy change, institutionalchange and behavior change in highlysegmented audiences.

Stage 1: Setting the Public Agenda

Globally, the public is already talking

about the environment. Numerous singleissue environmental groups andeducational programs are already inoperation. At some point, major public

events including natural disasters, thethreat of cholera in a country or a globalactivity such as the United NationsConference on the Environment andDevelopment in Rio de Janeiro -- combine

with steadily increasing interest. Peoplebecome ready to talk about, think about

and support environmental activities.Membership in existing environmentalgroups increases, and new programs andopportunities for popular participationappear.

Stage 2: Engaging Key InstitutionsBuilding alliances and collaboration

among institutions creates a network. Leadinstitutions reach out to other institutionsrepresenting social processes education,work, religion and government andinitiate collaborative educational activities.For example, school systems integrate

Environmental Education and Communication ...

Sets a public agenda which generates widespread discussion, helps todefine issues and builds consensus for action;Legitimizes environmental policies and programs;Increases broad participation in decision making and action;Supports change in individual behavior and institutional practicesrequired to improve the environment;Cuts across single-issues to generate change in social norms andexpectations for safeguarding the environment; andAccommodates local agendas, national regulations and internationalagreements.

environmental modules within existingcurricula and initiate teacher training and youth eco-clubs. (See Salgado, P. 18) Community based actionincreasingly addresses local issues such as garbagecollection and industrial pollutants. Media coverageresponds more frequently and positively.

Stage 3: Establishirg a New EnvironmentalOrder

Governmental and non-governmental institutionsbecome the initiators of environmental education andparticipation becomes broader and more diverse.Specific target audiences begin to modify their rolewith regard to particular environmental problems.Community mobilization increasingly generatesdemand for appropriate regulatory 6ange.Expectations for appropriate individual and socialbehavior begin to change. Finally, "Green" positionsbecome "in," "non-Green" positions "out."

Ensuring Excellence: Applied ResearchExperience with development communication in

other sectors leads to optimism in reaching new levelsof excellence in combining environmental educationand communication. Perhaps the most importantelement in "pulling it all together," however, is tomaintain commitment to well tried applied researchprocedures.

Investigation of target audience characteristics(including socio-economic, gender and cultural)and attributes (attitudinal and behavioral) inrelation to local environmental issues providesinsight into an appropriate models of behaviorchange and effective educational strategies,messages and materials.Limited testing of innovative strategies devised forlocal situations will uncover refinements needed

for broader application.Comparison studies between the impact of differenteducational strategies with similar objectives will provide abasis for future strategic choices.Standardized indicators of impact and evaluation studies willprovide an assessment of the progress and impact ofprograms and, to some extent, the relative power of differentcomponents within the programs.Content analyses of mass media over time will provideprofiles of societies "heating up" on environmental issues.

Description of the differences between industrialized countryand developing country objectives, program content andimpact will provide a source of new insight about the processof social and individual change.In addition, applied research can also advance the state of the

art for environmental education and communication whenproperly field-tested. There are two major sources for suchinnovation:

( I ) the refinement of social change theory at universities andresearch firms;

(2) "creative" concepts with proved efficacy in other sectorssuch as the "enter-educate" approach (education throughentertainment) in the population sector.

This description of the potential and progress ofenvironmental education and communication is, in reality, a callto action. The "heating up" of societies on environmental issues istechnically within our reach through environmental educationand communication programs. It is up to us to develop thefunding, the research-based strategies and the communicationamong professionals about results, both successes and failuresrequired to make it happen.

Dr. Anthony Metier is a Development Communication Specialist in theOffice of Education at the U.S. Agencv for Development. Ile can be reachedat: AID, R&D /ED, SA-I8, Room n1 1A, Washingtmz DC 20523, USA.telephone: (70.3) 875-4782, fax: (,703) 875-4949.

Development Communication Report, no. 76

Golden Lion Tamarin, continued from p.1

Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution. TheFriends of the National Zoo, WildlifePreservation Trust International. the NationalScience Foundation, and the World WildlifeFund have supported the golden lion tamarinproject (GLT) in collaboration with Braziliangovernmental and nongovernmentalorganizations. The golden lion tamarin is atiny and beautiful endangered monkey thatlives in its lowland Atlantic Forest habitat inthe area of Rio de Janeiro. Brazil one of themost endangered tropical forests in theworld. The coalition recognized that thehazards of deforestation not only threaten thefuture of the golden lion tamarin and therainforest. but over the long term, the world.

Public support can be gained in two ways:by providing economic alternatives whichmaintain the natural ecosystem, or throughtargeted environmental education andcommunication programs. Using acombination of the scientific expertise of thebiologist and the technology andcommunication skills of the environmentaleducation specialist. The GLT project chose asocial marketing approach. A systems modelwas designed (see chart) to focus efforts onpriority problems. systematically suggestappropriate solutions. and provide acontinuous feedback loop.

Understanding EnvironmentalEducation

To understand concepts such as ecological

Process of Conservation Education

Building a Positive Relationship

interdependence. people need directexperience. Environmental education isone of the most important factorsassociated with positive attitudes towardsanimals. Research shows, for example.people express more immediate affectionfor animals who have human-likecharacteristics. Therefore, becauseprimates are somewhat related to humansin intelligence and often in their socialstructure, and, like other mammals,nurture and suckle their young, they aregenerally good entry points forenvironmental education programs aboutthe tropical rainforest. Once people beginto learn about the complexity of theenvironment, then their own impact can bereflected upon more easily.

To affe,..t change, people at all levels ofinfluence should be involved. The ruralpeasants, the public officials, thelandowners, and the entrepreneurs no

one set of people is responsible. Therefore.The GLT project not only took a multi-media approach, but targeted severalaudiences simultaneously.

Finally, finding the appropriate modeof communication is central toenvironmental education. In the GLTproject, surveying the rural communitysurrounding the forest produced anunexpected communication opportunity.While the local communities were largelyilliterate, did not have electricity or

telephones, and did not havean obvious forum for

Select,Define: Identify & Evaluate: Develop & Test Implement

problemspriorities

populationresourcessetting

Methods Activities

imssosanommmmu Evaluate& Improve

Development Communication Report, no. 76 S

environmental education.the GLT project educatorsfound that 80% of theresidents regularly viewedtelevisions powered by carbatteries and 99% listened toradio. These findingsenabled communicators todesign and begin deliveringinformation about thegolden lion tamarin to theiraudience. Without the indepth study of the area,WWF would have mostlikely misjudged this mediaopportunity.

The Means Define the Ends

By creating the systems model, the GLTproject staff was able to be guided throughtheir procedures systematically and tomake revisions as needed. Here's how.

Pnontizing and Strategizing

The teamwork of the biologist andeducator was of utmost importanceBiologists studying the ecology of thegolden lion tamann identified the majorthreats. While hunting and capturing forthe pet trade was a concern, habitatdestruction was the principal problem.Then, the biologists and educators togetherprioritized conservation objectives anddetermined which objectives could beaddressed through education.

The GLT Project planned to protectenough forest to sustain a geneticallyviable population of golden lion tamarins.They needed support from the public toprotect the habitat in the Pogo das AntasBiological Reserve as well as the supportof private landowners to protect forests ontheir land. Reducing the capture oftamarins for pets was the second objective

Assessing the Population, Resources,and Setting

Initial surveys assessing knowledgeand attitudes indicated that 41% of theinterviewed adults living within thehabitat of the golden lion tamarin did notrecognize the animal from a photograph.Most of the adults interviewed did noteven know the Pogo das Antas Reserveexisted. At the same time, much of thepopulation lacked pride in their localregion. For example, when asked whatthey would show to a newcomer, manyinterviewees said, "Nothing. All we haveis forest here." Creating pride in localnatural resources became an importantpart of the strategy.

This kind of information served as abasis for planning strategies andcapitalizing on interests the target popula-tion had in common with the conservationobjectives. Because interviews indicated nonegative attitudes towards the monkey,WWF used the tamarin to increase

awareness about the relationships ofwildlife, habitat, and the ecosystem.

The interviews also uncovered valuableinformation about the potential of thecommunication media and the targetaudience. As a result, the media efforttargeted illegal animal purchasers in Rioand Sao Paulo, government bureaucratsand politicians in Rio and Brasilia, and thepublic at large.

Building a Positive Relationship

Building relationships and solicitingparticipation within the community canmake the difference. At the beginning of theproject in 1983, GLT staff spent weeksconducting informal conversations withcommunity leaders. Soon, these leadersbegan to envision the reserve and theeducational program as a local resourceand a source of positive public attention.

MethodologyWith community input, the GLT project

selected methods which interested the localleaders and which seemed most likely tohave the widest results for the least cost.The golden lion tamarin was an obvioussymbol for forest conservation. To savetamarins, we must save forests; by savingtamarins, then, we can save all the elementsof their forest ecosystem. The choseneducational materials were multi-purpose,short, simple, and low-cost. Since almost noinformation existed in Portuguese on thelocal flora and fauna, WWF included as

The golden lion tamarin monkeywill die if its habitat is destroyed.


Golchn Lion Tamarin, continued from p.5

much up-to-dateinformation aspossible. Thisincluded not-

- yet-publishedresults of the

. ecologicalstudies

underway in the, Reserve. Since 41%

' of the local adultshad no formal

education, nonprintmedia were vital. All materials were

d and revised before final production.-terials produced by the tamarin project since 1983

ins press releases; video copies of news and otherprog, ails on local conservation; 30-second publicservice messages for radio and TV; educational posters;pamphlets; school notebooks with an educational storyon the cover; a slide collection for the reserve; slidetapeprograms; information packages for landowners; a logofor the Reserve which identifies all materials; an electricquestion/answer board; a travelling exhibit for localfestivals; T-shirts, stickers and buttons; and a coursemanual in teaching basic ecological concepts toelementary school children. Cost per product were alllow.

Implementing Activities

The project began work in one municipality, gainedmomentum and experience, and progressed to twoother municipalities with a total primary targetpopulation of 180,000 people. At the same time, theproject emphasized efforts to achieve mutual objectives.vith existing groups and maintain direct contact v aththe public through interns, volunteers, and five younggraduates of a local teacher-training high school. Theactivities continue to be developed and/or changed asthe need arises in the local communities.

First hand experience in the forest itself remains themost important activity. Educational field trips to theReserve are conducted for farmers, school groups, andfamilies. These visitors can see the tamarins in theirnatural habitat, and follow a guided nature trail whichencourages observation and discovery of the forest.

Recent activities include personal visits tolandowners to encourage them to register theirremaining forest as permanent private reserves. 11 theydo not already have wild golden lion tamarins on theirland, they qualify to receive captive-born tamarins ontheir land as part of the project's reintroductionprogram.


Evaluation/Findings

Evaluation is crucial. GLT preliminary results indicatedsignificant changes in knowledge and attitudes of localadults after two years of project activity.

The following are some examples of findings which mid-term evaluations proved to be among the most useful:

1 To save a species or habitat, the public must be able torecognize and relate to it.

1 In our educational activities, the habits of tamarins wereemphasized both to interest people and to communicatethe relationships of both the tamarin and human with theforest.

1 To understand which methods reached the most adults,interviewers asked where people had heard of thetamarin. The survey results reconfirmed the choice of oftelevision and radio as appropriate the communicationmedia.

1 Delegating responsibility to local people increasessustainability. Ten landowners have agreed to protecttheir forests to receive tamarins on their land. They, theirfamilies, and farm workers are actively involved inmonitoring the animals' progress. Twenty-one more areincluded on a waiting list. Other communities in the cityof Rio de Janeiro have also initiated their own AtlanticForest conservation activities.

Refinement

Continual evaluations improve the methodology. Theresults of the first formal evaluation of the program as awhole have enabled us to determine the cost-effectiveness ofindividual program activities. With this information, theteam can better decide which conservation educationactivities to continue in the region over the long term.

The work has only just begun. The GLT project haseducated the local public about the problems ofdeforestation. But widespread behavior changes require acontinued effort over the long-term. We need the action ofmany more people to guarantee the conservation of enoughforest for the golden lion tamarin and many other species tosurvive. We are convinced that it is a continued systematicteam effort including ecological research, habitat andspecies management, and building public support, whichwill assure that these endangered species and theirenvironment will have a future.

Lou Ann Dietz is the Senior Brazil Program Officer for the WorldWildlife Fund. Elizabeth Nagagata, a IlatiZT of Brazil and graduate-:tudent at Michigan State Universal', also works closeln with theproject. For imore ntination, contact WWF-Brazil Program, 125024th Street, NW, Washington DC. 200.37-1175, LISA. lel: (2021293-- 1800. fax: (202)293 -9211.

I

The Urban Environment:Communication Strategies to Prevent Occupational Illness and Injury

by Barry S. Levy

magining a sate and sustainableenvironment traditionallyconjures up visions of lush greenforests and lively animals,

agricultural abundance, clean air andgerm-free water. In these images, a majorpart of the environment and a source ofglobal degradation is commonlyoverlooked: the urban environment andindustry. Not only is understandingpollutants and urban environmentalhealth problems crucial to our globalsurvival, but because of rapidindustrialization, the workplace oftenthe center of industrial activity is thesite of unrecognized long-termenvironmental health hazards. With theexposure to massive urban pollution andenvironmental destruction in easternEurope and the exploration ofoccupational health issues around theworld, it is time to recognize theworkplace as an integral part of theenvironment and develop strategies toprevent serious long-term problems.

Workplace hazards that result inworker illness or injury are presentthroughout the world, but they aregenerally more prevalent and more severein developing countries for variousreasons: the import of hazardousmaterials and industries from developedcountries, the high unemployment rates'hat deter workers from complainingabout on-the-job hazards, insufficientnumbers of well-trained health and safetyprofessionals, inadequate health carefacilities and programs, inadequate lawsand regulations, and, perhaps mostimportantly, a lack of awareness andinformation about occupational andenvironmental hazards.

Two types 01 interventionstraditionally curb occupational andenvironmental health hazardseducation and communication strategies.and environmental change strategies.Relatively, the importance ofcommunication strategies in occupationalhealth et forts may he greater indeveloping countries. Whileenvironmental changes such as

engineering measures and the substitutionof hazardous nuterials or processes withsafer ones are crucial and must be

Isidered, sometimes common sensen, .cures are sufficient alternatives.Education and responsibility around thehandling and disposal of toxic chemicals,use of machinery, and other behaviororiented work activities, for example, candramatically reduce worker healthproblems.

Still, the best occupational healthprograms use a combination of bothstrategies. BY following simple guidelines,occupational health specialists andcommunicator; can combine their expertiseand create etkctive and sustainableenvironmental health programs.

Assessing Ccmmunication NeedsI3ecause

informationneeds differdepending onthe location,industry, andthe dynamicwithin theworkplace,assessingcommunicationneeds isimportantbeforedesigning, anintervention. Inmaw: places ineastern Europe,for example,while a lairnumber ofpeople aretechnicallytrained inoccupationalsafety andhealth and anindustry ma,already havean appointedhealthprofessional,the legal and

Poorhi desivred pesticide applicators and improper clothing.ndaner the health of workers.


Communication Strategies, continued from p. 7

Occupational Health Hazards:

Chemical hazards: pesticides, solvents and degreasers;inorganic dusts like asbestos and silica; organic dusts like graindust and cotton dust; and other chemicals ranging fromformaldehyde to vinyl chloride that can cause respiratory,neurological, skin, reproductive, and other acute reactions orchronic problems, such as cancer.

Physical and mechanical hazards: from safety hazards to loudnoise, vibration, and excessive temperature.

Biological hazards: a wide range of infectious agents frommalaria and schistosomiasis, which may be potential occupationalhazards to agricultural workers, to tuberculosis, hepatitis B, andAIDS, which are risks faced by health-care workers.

Psycho-social hazards: stresses from machine-paced work andshift work to cisease risks posed by the social disruption of peoplemigrating to k rge cities in search of jobs.

Farming

Pt- a 7- r

Diseases caused by exposure to pesti- tcides, cuts, bruises, backache andwater-related diseases like bilharzia.

Exposure to dangerous machinery, in-flammable materials, or chemicals suchas solvents or degreasers which caraffect the skin. eyes or lungs.

Kenuan magazine Mazingirapresented important occupationalhealth information in cartoon form.

management infrastructure tofacilitate change is not there.Therefore, the communicationneeds in many eastern Europeancountries consist of learning how todevelop, plan and administerenvironmental and occupationalhealth programs.

In most developingcountries, on the other hand,technical knowledge is alsolacking. Here, efforts may insteadinitially concentrate oncommunicating directly with theworkers, managers, andprofessionals using publicawareness campaigns. As workersmay have lower literacy, aneducational program that relies onvisual images or on dramaticpresentations of certain workplacesituations may be a more effectivetool.

Identifying StrategiesApproaches that begin with

training of trainers havetraditionally worked well and aresustainable beyond externalfunding. The process includesidentifying peer trainers andproviding them with the materialsand expertise to train others. Inmany cases, a designated person


then becomes the equivalent to the USsafety officer. As the preferred techniqueor the World Health Organization (WHO)

and the International Labor Organization(ILO), this approach is a featuredcomponent of a new multi-countryoccupational health program. Presently,for example, ILO and the Finnish Instituteof Occupational Health are organizingextensive Train the Trainer programs inmore than 20 countries in Africa and Asia.

Using the Mass Media

Use of the mass media is important tointroduce and -einforce informationprovided in other contexts. Publicawareness also increases the potential forimportant political support foroccupational health and safety programs.Over the last several years, for example,newspaper articles have begun to focus onenvironmental health at the workplace inKenya. This added exposure reflects thenew public interest in the topic, and pointsto the untapped opportunity of trainingjournalists to recognize environmentalissues..

Researching Legal SupportSupportive laws can strengthen the

occupational health effort. In the UnitedStates and certain other developedcountries, 'Right to Know' or HazardCommunication laws and regulations haveserved to ensure that information onpotential workplace hazards (primarilychemical hazards) is made available toworkers, health professionals, and otherswho need this information to protectthemselves. Similar laws and regulationsare beginning to be developed in somenewly industrialized and developingcountries.

Merging with Other CommunicationEffortsOccupational health and safety training

should be incorporated into themainstream of training at work, vocationaltraining programs, the training ofphysicians and other health careprofessionals, and environmentaleducation programs for the public. In oneexample in Kenya, occupational health

specialists worked with Mazingira, acolorful, w'ell-illustrated magazine forschoolchildren, to develop an issue on"Hazards Around Us". In stories, games,and other attractive means, the issuesensitized children to hazards in their ownenvironments and their parents' workenvironments. (See Children's Magazines,p. 12; see also, DCR no. 65, p.6)

Sharing ResponsibilityOccupational health training should

promote the concept and the practicalimplementation of shared responsibility.Realistically, industrial hygiene andworker safety can easily become a highlypolitical and economic issue. Includingrepresentatives with different objectivesboth in and outside the governmentbroadens and protects the programs. InKenya, for example, a six weekoccupational health and safety lurse wasdeveloped by 15 individuals representinga range of institutions and sectors ofsociety medical, law, and otherprofessional schools, research institutes,government consultation and enforcementagencies, nongovernmental organizations,business and labor organizations, andother groups. Participation buildssupport.

Communicating within a ContextTraining materials should be based on

actual workplace hazards that trainees arelikely to encounter. They should focus onlow-cost, practid,7ai and less technical aysfor workers and managers to reduce oreliminate hazards. For example, whilehighly toxic pesticides should be banned,long sleeved cotton clothing can reducethe amount of skin expcsure to less toxicpesticides and does not rely onsophisticated equipment. Communicatingthis type or message reaps results.

Finding ResourcesFinding professional resources to assess

the occupational health aspects of anindustry does not have to be difficult. TheInternational Labor Organization andWorld I health Organization both have listsof resources in developing countries.Ministries of Labor and universities oftenknow what assessment strategies are

succeeding elsewhere. Other resources alsoexist. For example, ILO has published abook, Low-Cost Ways of Improving WorkingConditions: 100 Examples from Asia by Dr. K.Kogi. With 143 illustrations and a "how to"approach, Dr. Kogi's ideas can be easilyintegrated into a successful environmentalcommunication effort.

True, communication strategies alonecannot prevent all work-related illnessesand injuries. But combined with othersolutions, they can significantly contributeto problem prevention.

For more information about occupationalhealth and saletu hazards and how these problemscan be addressed in developing countries, contact:Dr. Rarru Levi,. Director, Program forEnvironment and Health, Management Sciences

Health. -100 Centre Street. Newton. MA02158, USA. tel: (617) 527-9202, fax: (6)7) 965-2205. To order books from the ILO, contact:* ILOpublications, International Labor Office CH-1211Geneva 22 Switzerland.

orb-.

11.

. -Alb.111

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This worker risks his sight by welding without.tdequate cue 'Inflection.

Workplace

hazards that

result in

worker illness

or injury are

present

throughout the

world


Environmental Journalism:

Hope for the Future

by George Krimsky

"s ome of you have said we must have optimism about the future, buthow can I have any? Where can I find hope?"

The words, spoken haltingly, were met with a silence by anormally effusive audience gathered around a table in an ancientFlorentine orphanage.

Barbara Cieszewska, a reporter for the newspaper Rzecpospolita inKatowice, Poland, posed the question after telling colleagues aboutwidespread illness among children in her native district of Silesia theresult of unchecked industrial pollution.

It was not a question to be answered casually, but Charles Alexander,TIME magazine's senior editor for environmental news, broke thesilence. "There is never a situation without hope," he began.Apologizing for the presumptuousness of easy advice, he went on to saythat journalists have an enormously important role to play by offeringguidance about solutions, and campaigning for reform. His remarksunleashed a torrent of ideas around the room. They ranged from thespecific to the sublime, from an appeal for more information-packedpress kits to infusing Tom and Jerry cartoons with the ethics of globalsurvival. Cieszewska and her colleagues furiously took notes.

"Just five years ago, who would have believed that a group ofhardened journalists would be holding such a discussion?", exclaimedVarinda Tarzie Vittachi, former deputy director of UNICEF. "We haveseen that a great deal can change, can be accomplished, and can behoped for".

Seminars for journalists like this one on Children and theEnvironment held at UNICFPs International Child Development Centre(ICDC), March, 1991, in Italy, have begun to play a key role incommunicating information about the environment and developmentaround the world. Journalists still require assistance in improving thebreadth, quality and accuracy of their coverage. To that end,organizations like the Center for Foreign Journalists in Reston, Virginia,USA have designed environmental journalism seminars in LatinAmerica, Asia, North America and now, eastern Europe.

Urban growth and the destruction of natural resources have made theenvironment a target of worldwide concern. We must now look toglobal solutions. The goals of environmental journalism seminars aretwofold: to impart to journalists advanced information aboutenvironmental issues, problems, solutions, policies and research; and toimprove the professional skills and techniques necessary tocommunicate these issues effectively. What we need now are provenmodels for the most effective way of getting these messages across tojournalists, and, in turn, to the public.

George Krimsky is the Executive Director of the Center for Foreign Journalists.Portions of this article were also published in the UNICEF newsletter, First Call.For more information about environinental journalism or upcoming seminars,contact the Center for Foreign Journalists, 11690-A Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston,Virginia, LISA 22091. tel: (703) 620-5984 fax: (703) 620-6790.


10 Steps to

"Now more than ever, the general public isaware that without conservation of theenvironment and natural resources, a normallife will not be possible for our children andgrandchildren. For this reason, journalists andcommunicators have one basic rule: tofamiliarize people with the issues, to make themunderstand. It is not sufficient to make news, itis more important to educate".

Barbara D'Achille, Peruvian journalistand conservationist

Journalists provide a neededcommunication link to local people. Whatthey choose to report and how well theyreport it can translate into a change in theactivities and priorities of readers. Butenvironmental seminars also serve anotherfunction. If well organized, they have thepotential to bring together representativesfrom different social and political sectorsand concentrate upon a particularenvironmental issue. By involving thepublic through the media, the seminar canchange the priority given to theenvironment.

Seminars and conferences are notsynonymous. Seminars differ from thelarger, mainly informational sessions whichcompose conferences because they areparticipatory sessions dedicated to thesharing of ideas. Communication within aseminar is multi-directional and interactive.These ten steps spell out how lavpeople canorganize an interactive environmentalseminar for purnalists. and extend thebenefits to the larger community.

Step 1: Analysis and ReflectionAnalyze the communication and

environmental context of the seminar anddecide upon the objectives. A team ofplanners should choose the appropriatetheme based on the findings. Typicalfindings which indicate need for anenvironmental seminar include:

a) the public is not adequately informedabout particular themes;

b) journalists cannot engage the publicdue to limited information;

c) the mass media (press, radio, andtelevision) do not give sufficient space to

Organize a Seminar for Journalists

the environment or distortinformation; or

d) conservation organizationshave not vet established allianceswith the press.

Step 2: Definition of theTheme and the Topics

Include a well defined and singletheme followed by several relatedtopics of discussion. Searching forthe central theme involves probinginto the national context. What arethe most misunderstood topics? Themast controversial topics? What arethe most important topics for thearea receiving the least attentionthrough communication media?

Avoid purely academic, politicalor scientific perspective:language. Choose a ti-.eme which isopen to discussion among thejournalists.

Step 3: The Seminar ProgramLearn from patterns at other

wminars:An average amount of time for a

seminar of this type is 3 days 2

days of work and I day ofdiscussion, conclusions, and socialactivities.

Programs generally begin withbrief introductions or plenaryy,sion,-. by 1w main

organizations and are followed by around ot presentations from others.Breaking into smaller groupsusually in the afternoon) facilitates

the seminar style.Use a facilitator at each small

group who will encourageparticipation of all members andwill redirect discussions whenneeded. This person should besufficiently versed in the topic, butshould not be overbearing.

Write a specific agenda andinclude breaks for refreshments.Social activities should he included.The time spent socializing is primetime for discussing issues with

other participants.

Step 4: Identifying the ParticipantsTo insure the active participation of

the journalists, limit the number ofparticipants to no mire than 50. For thegreatest exposure an results, theselection process is crucial. Here are afew guidelines:

make a complete list of informationchannels in the region, includingtelevision, radio, and the press.

I identify the directors of those media.I identify 2 or 3 journalists in each

media through the directors whohave reported about the environmentin the recent past.

I send notices to everyone on the listdescribing the schedule of talks, thespeakers, dates and locations, andsponsoring institutions.

Step 5: Identifying thePresenters

Choose presentations based on thecentral theme and which build on theexperiences and interest of theparticipants.

Invite a diverse group, preferablyfrom various countries and specialities.Because the environment is a globaltopic, this will insure a more globalperspective.

Request mmuscrints ot pre,entationbefore the seminar itself, both forpublication and to spot unclear areas.

Step 6: Publicizing the SeminarAlthough the seminar is a closed door

event, involve the public. Contact thecommunication media, conservationinstitutions, NGOs, universities,government agencies, schools, andcultural organizations and open publicdiscussion about the issues.

Step 7: LogisticsRe-evaluate the planning process

regularly within the planning team. Thecoordination of transportation; hotel; the

location of the seminar with smallrooms for the groups to meet; therefreshments, secretarial workincluding materials distribution,photocopying, the equipment; andthe package of materials for theparticipants including participantlist, the program objectives, theagenda and pertinent publications all:should be arranged in advance. Ifparticipants are charged a fee for theseminar, or sponsors are found, costswill be more manageable.

Step 8: The Work PlanOrganizing the seminar will take

approximately 3 to 6 months. Createa timeline and work plan early onand revise it as often as necessary.

Step 9: The Actual SeminarPlan coordination of the event in

advance. One poison should act ascoordinator of the presenters andinstitutions, a second person shouldcoordinate the participants, and athird person or group should handlephotocopying, etc.

Step 10: Publicizing theResults

A collection of presentations,discussions and recommendationscan be easily compiled if videotaping

manuccripls were provided alongthe way and if there is a coherentplan for their use. Addresses forpeople to write for more informationshould be included and be madeeasily available.

Adapted from the guidebook "DiezPasos para Organizar un Seminariopara Periodistas" written by AlfonsoGumucio-Dagron fin ConservationInternational (CI). It is the first guidebookof a series entitled ComunicaciOn vMedio Ambiente published bu Cl. Formore information, contact ConservatumInternational, 1015 18th Street, NW.Suite 100, Washington DC 20036, USAtax: (202) 887-5188.


Learning about the Environment:Magazines for Children

4

ACTION in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Botswana, Rainbow in eastAfrica, Pied Crow in Kenya, Tortoise in Nigeria, Bolivia,Argentina, and Ecuador, and Green love in Liberia all have one

thing in common: they are among a new trend of magazines which supplyinformation about the environment to children.

Magazines with comic book format, narrative text, incorporate gamesand puzzles, and communicate about the environment are rapidlybecoming a staple in cost effective environmental education. Designed assupplements to school materials, these magazines present environmentalinformation in an understandable and fun manner. Many include teacher'sbooklets, posters, activity charts, community guides or radio programs tomaximize the message and all are designed to be adapted into a teacher'scurrent curriculum. The theory is that children will then teach their oftenless literate parents and subsequently, the community the environmentalmessages and the theory seems to be holding up in practice. Themagazines' histories suggest why.

The OUTREACH Network

'his issue of Action magazine was devoted towows children can protect the Zambezi riper.


In 1982, TheNew YorkZoologicalSocietycommissionedDr. JamesConnor to writea relevanttextbook foreast Africansecondaryschools.Researching thetextbook, Dr.Connor saw theimpracticalityt,f developing atextbook for thesecondary levelwhen moststudents dropout of formalschool duringor afterprimaryschool. FleurN'Gweno'smagazine,Rainbow, hadbeenavailable forchildrensince 1976,

but a 1981issue funded

by Canadiansupport entitled"WorldEnvironment DaySpecial" caughtConnor's eve.With supportfrom theTelevision Trustfor the Environment (TVE), Connorprovided the funding and theenvironmental information that N'Gwenoneeded for three more editions, totaling50,000 copies. OUTREACH became theumbrella network and expert onchildren's magazines for environmentaland health communication.

Pied Crow: OUTREACH'S firstMagazine

Targeted to the primary school level,Pied Crow was printed in Kenya and was asupplement to the original Rainbowmagazine. Entitled Pied Crow, themagazine became independent fromOUTREACH after one year and operatedunder the auspices of CARE-Kenya. Today,Pied Crow costs less than US $.20 per copyto produce, is 16 pages long, and consistsof articles, cartoons and illustrations bylocal artists. The issues cover a variety oftopics ranging from natural resources topopulation to AIDS.

Children are not the only recipients ofPied Crow. The magazine is sent to Districtand Provincial Education Officers, reacherAdvisory Centers and the NationalMuseum. Thousands more copies are soldto NGOs to support specific projects, suchas resource kits to serve as supplementarymaterials. The demand surprisedeveryone.

ACTION: For Environmental HealthThe second OUTREACH assisted

magazine, ACTION magazine, is achildren's health and environmentmagazine produced in Harare, Zimbabwe.It began in 1987 when a United NationsEnvironmental Programme initiativesought to develop support materials forenvironmental and health education inZimbabwe, Zambia and Botswana.

BEST MI AVAILABLE

nutes to cut down a tree that tookBut without trees people will not

J

Modeled on thePied Crowmagazinesproduced inNairobi, amulti-nationalteam with nocentral office,telephones or

equipment developed ACTION in theirspare time. According to its producers, theresponse was overwhelming.

The magazine now produces threeissues a year and estimates that it is readby up to 30,000 teachers and a millionpupils within the region. The print-run foreach edition has increased to 80,000enough to provide ten copies to everyprimary and secondary school in Botswanaand Zimbabwe. Up to 15,000 are sent toZambian schools. Copies are then sharedamong the children.

During its development, the magazineconsulted with Ministry departments,NGOs and concerned individuals workingin environment and health related fields.Topics are chosen in consultation withcurriculum development specialists inMinistries of Education, teachers andNGOs and the con' .:nts are finalized onlyafter a thorough ev.luation of a roughdraft by all concerned. Often the topics aretimed to fit with health or environmentalawareness campaigns. ACTION thereforecomplements and reinforcesenvironmental awareness groups, andresponds to local needs and issues. Topicscovered so far have included: food forhealth, trees and tree plantin, water andhealth, population, wildlife, health andhygiene, and AIDS. Copies of themagazine come out three times a year andare free in Zimbabwe, Zambia andBotswana.

Hope for Seeds: A Comic Book forChildren and Adults

Founded by Father Vincent Busch, thecomic book Hope for Seeds documents thedestruction of the ecology in thePhilippines to a more mature audienceand shows how local people can worktogether to combat destructive behavior.

Through the use of folktales and art, the stories offer a sense of culturalpride and responsibility for the land. Clad in tribal clothing, the ruralpeople grapple with ecological issues with the reader in Tagalog, English,Cebuano, Ilongo or simply through visuals.

A Growing Trend: Other Environmental MagazinesNow, children's environmental magazines are popping up all over.

Greenlove in Liberia and Tortoise in Nigeria, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuadorfocus on conservation. Both new, they use games, puzzles and contests astools for learning. Two new children's health and environment magazineshave started up in Francophone Africa: Alan is produced by the IUCNSahel Programme in Niger, and Kacheche is produced by the Zaire Institutefor the Conservation of Nature. FUNDACION DE VIDA SILVESTREARGENTINA is putting together a cc ildren's health and environmentsection to run once a month in the Sunday section of LA NACION. InBolivia, CIEC hasjust produced LAHORMIGA (TheAnt) in color. Formore information orto find out aboutchildren's magazinesin your area, see theaddresses blow orcontact OUTREACH.

For a moreliterate clientele,OUTREACHorganizes biweeklyinformation packets.Still presented in aeasy-to-read style,OUTREACH nowcompiles selectedarticles written allover the world.

And OUTREACHis planning tobroaden itscommunicationsefforts even further.Plans are underwayto expandOUTREACH into anintegrated radio, TVand print approachin Southern Africafunded by TVE andWorld Wide Fund forNature. The surveyshowed thatrecipients were

continued on p. 20The intormal cartoon style positincht introducesenvironmental health issues.


Willingness to Pay:Communicating through Surveysby Jeff Hughes

S urveys have a long history of being important communicationtools. Recently, Willingness to Pay (WTP) surveys have beenused in water and sanitation projects to open lines ofcommunication between planners and project beneficiaries. If

done properly, the surveys can provide planners with a clear vision ofwhat types of projects people want and are willing to pay for.

Uncovering "Demand"An expensive public standpipe water system in Haiti has never

attracted many users. A WTP study revealed that the community forwhich the system was designed had a very low WTP for standpipewater. At the same time, the population expressed a high WTP forpiped water delivered to their houses an option that planners hadpreviously dismissed after judging it to he too expensive.

Throughout the world, many people rely on water vendors forhome delivery of water, yet very few water agencies have accurateinformation concerning the extent of vendor service. If people arepresently paying a high price for home delivery of vended water, it iseasy to assume that a less expensive, but more inconvenient

"improved" publicstandpipe systemwill not attract asignificant numbersof users. Without aWTP survey,however, it may bedifficult to predict.

Many ambitiouswater and sanitationprojects have failedbecause there 1,vaslittle demand for theservices theyprovided. Accurateinformationconcerning demand,or 'the economicbenefit usersassociate with aservice' can helpplanners avoiddesigning projectsthat people are notwilling to pay for.Often in

.

_.t

A Somali refugee collects water for theEthiopian health center where she helps out.

environmentalprojects, plannersperceive servicessuch as water and

sanitation as basic rights something that should be providedwhether people are willing to pay for it or not. This "top down"

approach is not sustainable because poormunicipal governments cannot be relied onto fund expensive water and sanitationsystems long term, and donororganizations, while able to make animportant contribution, can only provide afraction of the required ongoing cost. Thealternative incorporating communityinput through the use of the WTP surveytechnique not only enhancescommunication and participation, but alsoleads to services which can be more easilyintegrated into the local social andeconomic system.

Designing a WTP SurveyRelying on user revenue to support

systems requires designing systems andquestionnaires, which uncover what peoplewant and are willing to pay. Surveysshould always be designed cooperativelyby survey specialists, and a variety of localpeople ranging from municipal officials toanticipated survey respondents. A WTPsurvey seeks direct information' about:

the existing situation - what servicesare available, their effectiveness, and theneed;

user perceptions of services;the users' socio-economic status; andWillingness to Pay quantitative

estimates of what individuals orhouseholds would pay to have access toparticular service.

If designed properly, a WTP survey cannot only provide information on whatpeople are presently using, but also theirattitudes concerning water and sanitationservice. WTP questionnaires can andshould contain questions seekinginformation about which types of systemsusers like and dislike and the attributes thatthey consider most important waterquality, water cost, or distance to the watersource.

Assets and LiabilitiesWTP surveys allow users to speak their

mind and give planners and officials theopportunity to listen. As an excellentcommunication tool, they can get projectdesigners into the field to discuss issueswith their clients. Experience shows that


planners and officials are routinelysurprised by what they learn from a WTPsurvey. One Ghanaian water officialduring a recent WTP survey stated "I hadno idea people felt like this". Insights fromincreased communication routinelychange stubborn perspectives and can leadto new creative approaches.

Over the last 10 years, there has beensignificant progress in developing amethodology for administering WTPsurveys by economists. During the lastfew years, the surveys have evolved fromresearch studies to operationalcomponents of field projects. All prove

that the face to face interaction allows WTP to providemany of the benefits associated with increasedcommunication. Still, it is much easier to run a poorWTP study than a good one survey questions mustbe carefully designed using proven techniques tominimize the amount of biased information. Afternumerous research studies, experts have identifiedcommon obstacles in acquiring unbiased informationand have developed methods to minimize their effects.Therefore, it is important to consult a trained specialistwhen designing a WTP questionnaire.

Despite some of their weaknesses such as shortterm expenses and time needed in development, WTPsurveys have a variety of important benefits andshould be considered as a valuable communication tool

for planning. WTP surveysare a method of formalizingthe communication betweenplanners and projectbeneficiaries. In decidingwhether the benefits of acommunications improvingendeavor such as a WTPsurvey are worth the extrainvestment, planners needonly look at the range ofunsuccessful projects hiwhich user demands andattitudes were notincorporated into the projectdesign the question thenbecomes, can plannersafford not to make theinvestment and not to listento the people?

-

With clean running water, these Indian women noticed less

illness in their families.

Jeff Hughes is anEnvironmental Engineer whospecializes in international urbanenvironmental management. Hecan be reached at University ofNorth Carolina, InternationalPublic Health Programs Office,210 North Columbia Street,Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8060,USA. telephone: (919) 966-3751,fax: (919) 966-7646.


Gold in the Garbage:Media Support for Indonesian Scavengers

by Manfred Oepen

Rivers and canals clogged by plasticbags, smoldering piles of garbage onthe streets and unofficial dumpsites invacant compounds are a common sight

in many developing countries. In Indonesia,major cities suffer from water and air pollutioncaused by 'wild' dumping and burning of waste.There is a group of people counteracting thisdisaster, driven not by ecological consciousness

but by dire

.3

4,

straitsscavengers.

The posi-tion of thoseruralmigrants inthe informalurban sectoris contro-versial as theyare regardedas criminals,tramps, oreven untouch-ables byofficials andthe public.However,scavengers

serve important functions. Environmentally, theyshoulder part of the ecological costs ofdevelopment through recycling waste. As theyare self-employed, the state saves the economic..osts of social security payments. And the rawmaterial from recycled waste turns to gold for theformal economy as it has a yearly value of US S50million in Jakarta alone.

The scavengers' problems lie in their insecurelegal and social status. Together with a lack ofovert productivity and economic dependency,they are easy targets for harassment, eviction,corruption and exploitation from middlemen, theprivate sector and local authorities. And thescavengers have traditionally been denied accessto local decision-making, loans, education, publicservices and the media their contributions leftunrecognized.

1

VAIZA.A#61EL-- -

these performers use a makeshift stage for their drama.

An Integrated Media ApproachSome people did recognize the needs att./

contributions of the scavengers, however. The


"Scavenger Development Program",financed by Deutsche Gesellschaft furTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) andsupported by the Indonesian Home AffairsDepartment has been in operation sincemid-1991. Implemented by NGOs in threemajor cities, Jakarta, Bandung, andSurabaya, the program uses an integratedmedia approach to promote the welfare ofthe scavengers, foster their social andcommunication competence, and heightenawareness about waste management,recycling and the plight of the scavengers.The integrated media approach plans toaffect change at various political, economicand social levels bv:

lobbying for policy changes toimprove their legal status;

improving their public image andsocial status;

increasing their productivity and thevalue-added of recycled products throughincreasing bargaining power;

enhancing their participation in localdecision-making;

developing appropriate technologieswithin the context of an urban IntegratedResource Recovery System: and

educating the public about theenvironment.

The strategy chosen aims to be not'about' or 'for' the scavengers, but 'with'and 'by' them. The process of change isdesigned to occur internally within thescavenger population by increasing theirself confidence and ability to commandrespect and resources, and externally,within the broader urban population bycommunicating with people about thelives, hardships and contributions of thisscavenger community.

Street Theater of the Scavengers

Theater can at any time, at any place,and almost at any cost, be staged once theprincipal techniques and concepts havebeen acquired. When linked to lobbyingand development activity at the local level,the power of the performance increasesdramatically.

Looking closely at this example, thescavengers' structural poverty wasconnected to a lack of bargaining power,that is, a lack of the ability to articulate the

key factors of daily life needed for activeparticipation in the social, political andeconomic sphere. The scavengers live in aculture of silence' they have learnedfrom experience that it is safer to keepone's mouth shut as long as housewives,policemen, shopowners or city officials aremore powerful and regard them asoutlaws. However, when their own viewsare translated into a medium, like theater,that is informative and entertaining to thepublic at the same time, communicationworks. Given this chance, the scavengersare able to communicate with people whootherwise would not even take notice ofthem.

The training necessary to achieve thiscommunicative competence is organizedby community media activists from a localNGO. The storylines not only concentrateon problems, but also on solutionssuggested and assistance needed by thescavenger groups. The scavengers do theresearch for the scripts on their own. Theirown life stories, humor and or 3 games,local idioms and other forms of interactionbecome outlets for criticism and eve-opening insights in a form sociallyacceptable to an audience of neighbors andlocal officials from the communities wherethe scavengers live and work. Often,theater performances become a starter fora more continuous dialogue. Always, theperformances increase awareness.

Exposure Programs for Journalists

Radio and press journalists from malorregions are then invited for one-dayworkshops where 'hard facts' on thescavengers are covered. Afterwards, thejournalists are exposed to the real life ofthe dump shacks, waste processingworkshops, and self-initiated scavengercooperatives and schools. Very often, first-hand experience and discussions with thescavengers result in more positive articlesand features about their role in society andtheir environmental contribution.

Political DialogueAlso on the regional level, exposure

programs, seminars and political dialogueare held with officials, private businesses,and banks and donors partially using

media produced in cooperation with themso the scavengers can lobby for a better legal,economic and social status.

National TV SeriesOn the national level, a series of 13 episodes

on the scavengers' living conditions and theirecological and economic contribution to societywill be broadcast on the new EducationalChannel (TPI). The programs are produced bythe same NGO that does the theater training.The scavengers participate in scriptwriting,directing and acting which results in anunusually authentic series. The partlydocumentary, partly dramatized episodes alsoshow the considerable gains by the scavengersin their newly established competency andcross-cultural communication skills. At thesame time, commentators in the series suggestways to help the scavengers recycle waste forecological and economic reasons.

Through the integrated media project, thescavengers have gained bargaining power intheir living situations and at their jobs. Thecommunication process the mediating NGOssupport provides this non-privileged groupwith access to small and large media, and todecision making institutions in the politicaland economic sphere. Evident throughincreased recognition outside their owncommunities, the scavengers have gained selfesteem and confidence in themselves,competence in formulating their problems andneeds and, ultimately, respect and rights fromother groups of society. The public is alsobenefiting from the project. Whereas the publichad perceived the scavengers to beintellectually crippled, now, two dailynewspapers in Surabaya and Jakarta and aradio station in Bandung have begun regularcolumns or programs to recognize thecomplexity of the informal sector. The successbelongs to the use of the media deliverysystem. Not used as an exercise of power andpersuasion with scavengers as passive targets,the informative, educative and entertainingcapacity of the media could not just givepeople a voice, but work for everyone to makeit heard and understood.

Manfred Oepen is a private consultant based inGermann who specializes m communal/communication. For further information, contact himof Kleine Recite 3, 3002 Wedemark 2, Germain/.

telephone and fax: +49 5130-79-803,

Theater

can be staged

at any time,

at any place,

and almost at

any cost once

the principal

techniques

and concepts

have been

acquired.


The "Mexicanization" of Project Learng Tree

by Rafael Salgado

Like the majority of countries inthe world, Mexico is strickenwith serious environmental

problems. But with semi-dry regions in thenorthern part of Mexico and temperateforests, jungles, and humid tropics in thesouth, Mexico is as diverse ecologically asit is culturally. Therefore, environmentalprograms must be catered to the regionand the culture to be successful.

ProtecciOn de la Fauna Mexicana(PROFAUNAL has fought misconceptionsand apathy in Mexico throughenvironmental education programs forthirteen years. A Mexican non-governmental organization, PROFAUNAalso has its own philosophy. It believes ifprograms are structured so that variousfactions of society are able to provide

What is Project Learning Tree?An environmental education program sponsored by the American

Forest Foundation and the Western Regional Environmental EducationCouncil, Project Learning Tree has been implemented by teachers in theUSA, Canada, Sweden, Finland, and now, Mexico. PLT helps students todevelop an advanced knowledge base and problem solving skills to makepositive decisions and take action to preserve their environment.

PLT does not disrupt the individual teacher's style. Instead, PLTpresents ways to include information about the environment in science ormath exercises, in language studies, in music, art or almost any othersubject. This multi-disciplinary approach preserves the integrity of theclassroom and takes little additional time from the teachers.

Within PLT, the environment is perceived from several angles, eachoffering int ,rmation about how the student can understand z'd make adifference. The subtitles of the two manuals (preschool through US gradesix, and grade 7 through grade 12) reflect the diversity and progression oflearning:

I environmental awarenessI diversity of forest roles1 a cultural context1 societal perspectives on issues1 management and interdependencies1 life support systems1 lifestyles

Interest has been generated by what's going on in Mexico and foreigninterest in PLT is higher than ever. In response, PLT is in the process ofdeveloping new materials which will better respond to the needs ofprograms outside the U.S.

Development Communication Report, no. 76 M

input and become expert communicators,information spreads quickly and peoplesupport the decisions that are made. Tosupport this philosophy, its professionalstaff receive extensive courses oncommunication and the environment bothin Mexico and the USA. Its volunteer staffcomes from the specific region ofinstruction and includes preschool,elementary, high school and collegeteachers, natural resource managers,government officials, students, andcommunity participants. As integral partsof their communities, they help adapt theenvironmental programs to fit particularaudiences and the chosen educational level.Then they teach the environmentalcurricula to their colleagues and theirstudents.

Despite their efforts, PROFAUNA wasnot initially recognized by governmentagencies and local organizations in Mexicobecause they accepted American (gringo)materials. But PROFAUNA believes that itis a grave mistake to ignore theenvironmental education programs thatother countries have researched andimplemented for years simply bcause of anexaggerated sense of Mexican nationalpride. Instead of duplicating cost and effort,practitioners in the field should transformand guide imported programs so they areconsistent with the national and regionalcultural identities. Why not merge theexpertise of proven environmental projectswith cultural priorities and socialorganizations? With the "mexicanization-of Project Learning Tree, PROFAUNAproved that this methodology is not onlycost effective, but it is implementable.

Today, PROFAUNA's strategy isrecognized nationally by otherenvironmental organizations andgovernment agencies. Internationally,Project Learning Tree, PROFAUNA'schosen environmental education program,is gaining renown for the hard work of itsvolunteers and its Mexican success. Insouthern Mexico where the project is new,qualms may still be heard about the"gringo" environmental project. But in thenorth where the project has matured,Project Learning Tree is working.

Finding an Adaptable ProgramPROFAUNA wanted to expand its

technical base and develop a broadenvironmental education program inNorthern Mexico As an initial measure, ateam was chosen to travel to internationalworkshops and explore environmentaleducation packages

Consistent with PROFAUNA's strategy,the team was chosen from the people whowould contribute the most throughout theprocess of "mexicanization". They includednatural resources managers knowledgeableof current problems in Mexican naturalresources; employees of governmentagencies to lend legal support; teachersbecause they are the implementers ofactivities and understand the world ofchildren; and students, the final recipients of

this program.Within a year, PROFAUNA discovered

Project Learning Tree (PLT). The programwas selected as the best choice for severalreasons:

it was the most popular and the easiestto adapt because of its simple, multi-disciplinary style.

the activities went beyond the initialappreciation stage of environmentaleducation and into an understanding offactors that affect the environment, and alevel of knowledge about what can bedone to protect and sustain theenvironment.PLT did not treat environmentaleducation as a separate discipline, butrather as activities which could bereadily integrated into a teacher'spersonal curriculum.

MexicanizationWhen the workshop participants

returned to Mexico, they translated, tested,adapted and evaluated (mexicanized) theAmerican program. Summer pilot coursesfor children were organized to field testparticular activities. The teachers whoparticipated in the workshop also tested theprogram in their own classrooms. After ayear and a half, the Project Learning Treecurriculum became accessible throughPROFAUNA.

Never dormant, the adaptation process

BEST COPY AURAE

continues indiverseareas inMexicoBecause allthe PLTresourcesare still notin print inMexico dueto limitedeconomicresources,instructorsreceive apackage

ith certainPLTactivitiescompiled byPROFAUNAwhich they share among themselves. Throughtheir own initiative, the activities areimplemented into their curricula.

Project Learning Tree WorksAdapting Project Learning Tree has been

successful in Mexico. Even, year for the pastsixteen years, the city of Saltillo, Coahuila inNorthern Mexico has sponsored Tree Day. Onthis day, school age children are supposed toplant thousands of trees around the city. If all

has gone as planned, today Saltillo would havemore trees than any other Mexican city.However, it did not. This year a new tactic wastried. PROFAUNA volunteers organized anevent in the center of the city for children fromdifferent schools who received special trainingin certain PLT activities. At the end of theactivities, the children were given the trees sothat they would plant them upon returning toschool. The results were positive. A surveytaken eight months later revealed that morethan 80% of the planted trees survived. Thechildren who participated in PLT activities,followed through.

Project Learning Tree also affects theparents and community. For example, on thelast day of the first summer education coursefor children, parents were invited to the finalclass activity. One of the parents stood up coldtold a story. "Our family is used to goingcamping every year", he said, "but this year it

a,

A

These primary school teachers are learning about theenvironment so they can better inform their students.

tcotalnued on p. 20)


The "Mex!canization", continued from p. 19

was different. Two weeks ago, we packedour equipment and traveled to themountains. Once there, we searched for thebest and cleanest site we could find, but itis difficult to find a clean place becausetrash 's everywhere. The following dayAfter enjoying a beautiful day with nature,we were pleasantly surprised to see ourson picking up the trash that we hadaccumulated and were going to leave there...and then the trash other people had leftbehind before us. When I asked him whyhe was doing it, he explained to me all thathe had learned about the effects trash andgarbage have on the trees, animals and on

Magazines for Children, continued from page 13

Tropical Rainforests Contain:half of the world's species90% of primates66% of all known plants40% of birds80% of insects

RATS

satisfied and demand for more tools likeOUTREACH and its children's magazineswas high.

ConclusionsBy no accident, these children's

magazines are working to promotecommunication about the environment andhealth. Strategically, they have filled a nichethat environmentalists and communicatorshave long recognized and have gone onestep further. Here are some of the reasonsfor their success.

The informal cartoon style approach is ahome. positive way to introduce development

issues. The nonthreatening comiccharacters and thought provoking gamescan introduce information withoutstepping on political, ethnic or socialtoes. Because the games are interactive,they initiate the participation of thechildren who can, in turn, spread theinformation to their potentially lessliterate parents and community.Supplying schools with supplementarymaterials can be a cost effective way toprovide information and integrate it intoa formal or nonformal educationalformat. Comparatively, revisingcurriculum or other large scale projects

Devr:lopment Communication Report, no. 76

people. I learned a great lesson from myyoung son that day and I hope that parentswill have the same opportunity to learnabout the importance of nature and theenvironment through pros ems likeProject Learning Tree." Tht 3e examplesregularly affirm the success of theprogram. For this family and for manyothers, Project Learning Tree works.

Rafael Salgado is a Program Director atCAL-Wood Environmental Education ResourceCenter in Colorado, USA and a member ofPROFAUNA. For more information, contact:PROFAUNA, APDO Postal 486 Centro Saltillo,Coahuila, Mexico. tel: 841 2 3557.

can prove cumbersome and costly.The focus on primary school ratherthan secondary school involves morepeople more quickly. Not only is thescience curriculum more flexible at theprimary level, but far fewer childrenhave dropped out.The participation of the Ministries andlocal NGOs not only increases supportand accuracy, but it also promotescooperation among environmentalefforts.

Partudiv adapted 'coin "Case .StuaiesEnvironmental Education and Communication"by Mona Grieser, 1991. For more information onOUTREACH, contact UNEP at Informationand Public Affairs, PO Box 30552, Nairobi,Kenya; ACTION, Steve Murray, 20 SamoraMache! Avenue, PO Box 4696, Harare,Zimbabwe, Tel: +707942, fax: +795750:TORTOISE at NCF, PO Box 74638, 5 MoseleyRd, lkoyi, Lagos, Nigeria: 230, Agadez, Niger,Tel: (277)440340: Kacheche, Programme,!'Education Virunga, B.P. 106, Coma, Nord-Kivu, Zaire: or Hope for Seeds, Fr. VincentBusch, c:o audit'', Publications. LIP Box 4,Quezon City 1101, Philippines. See DCR no. o5,p. b for information on Mazingira Magazine inKenya.

Readers' Page

Letter to the Editor:Readers, this issue we received a special request from the newly opened eastern block

a request to be in closer contact with the rest of the world. If any of you are interested in

corresponding with Gorlov, or would like a pen-pal in another discipline, please let us

know. Thanks for contributing, Gorlov!

Dear Foreign Comrades,

Best wishes from Samara, a Soviet town on the Volga river. I am

a medical surgeon who teaches at the medical institute. All my life,

I have wanted to learn English, but the process has gone slowly as we have few

resources. I read in a journal that you reply to development communicationrequests from all over the world. It is wonderful.

I would like to have a pen-pal, especially one within the medical field with

whom I can exchange opinions on medicine and events in my country. I await an

answer. Best wishes!Gorlov S.A.

a! A 1767440351 Samara USSR

What's New, What's Coming

New Publications

Communication for Development in theMira I ''Ori Tlicortj and PraenCeby Srinivas R. Melkote, Sage Publica-tions Inc., 1991. pp. 292, (2455 TellerRoad, Newbury Park, CA 91320 USA)

Srinivas Melkote provides a concisehistorical review of the field ofdevelopment communication, and acomprehensive discussion of internationaltheory and practice since the 1940s. Hediscusses how the role and perception ofcommunication has evolved and examinesthe need for a constructive use of cultureand indigenous communication systemsfor and by beneficiaries.

This book is excellent for students,practitioners, and seasoned professionalsin the field of developmentcommunication. It contains charts and case

studies to guide the reader through theoryand a broad range of ethical questions.Finally, an innovative persnective isoutlined in practical language.

Africa Media Monograph Series: Videofor Development (no. 8) by Matthijs deVreede, African Council for Communi-cation Education, 1992. pp.98 (P.O. Box

47495, Nairobi, Kenya. tel: +216135;telex: 25148 ACCE KE)

This book analyses the opportunitiesfor using video for development projectsin developing countries and tries to helpsolve several of the difficulties whichprevent video technology from being moreeffective. Introducing video as anextension of the culture and people whouse it, the author spells out how to writescripts, produce, and use video for training

0

Call for Papers

The Eighth ACCEBiennial Conferencewill be held in Cairo,Egypt in October, 1992on "Communicationand the Environmentin Africa: Challengesfor the Future". Thesub-themes include:CommunicationResearch andEnvironmental Issues;Media and theEcology;Communication,Child Survival andDevelopment; andMedia Training andEnvironmental Issues.Full papers should besubmitted to: TheACCE ExecutiveCoordinator, P.O. Box47495, Nairobi, Kenyaby June 30, 1992.

The 15th AnnualPacificTelecommunicationsConference plannedfor January 17-20, 1993in Honolulu, Hawaiiis announcing its callfor papers. The themewill be theconvergence oftelecommunicationsand informationtechnology and topicsinclude political andsocial issues,economic issues andtechnological issues.For information,contact PTC, 2454South Beretania Street,Suite 302, Honolulu,Hawaii 96826-1596USA. tel: (808) 941-3789; fax: (808) 944-4874.


What's New, What's Coming, continued from 21

Indigenous Press

Publicaciones Etnicas(Ethnic Publications), aleading indigenousorganization in Mexico,has recently created itsown magazine Etnias toserve as a platform forcommunication aboutindigenous issues. Alongwith other indigenousgroups, they are alsoorganizing the firstinternational meeting ofthe indigenous press tocoincide with the 500thanniversary of the arrivalof the Europeanconquerors. For moreinformation about eitherthe international meetingorEtnias, contact GenaroBautista, Etnias, Madero67-611, Col Centro,Mexico 06000, DF. tel: (5)576 50 99.

CorrectionThe telephone number forTechnoserve given to getinformation about theInternational DevelopmentComputer Users Networkin the last issue shouldhave been: (203) 852-0377.Sorry for anyinconvenience!

and communication, and forcommunicating with people. Practicaland easy to read, this book is availablefor US$10 + US$16 for postage.

Conferences and Seminars

ECO-ED will hold the "WorldCongress for Education andCommunications on Environment andDevelopment" October 17-21, 1992 inToronto, Canada. Many partner eventswill take place October 15 and 16. ECO-ED plans to bring together keystakeholders including educators,communications professionals, NGOs,business and labor representatives, publicofficials, scientists and others to discusssustainable development andcommunications. Sponsors include UNEducational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO), and theInternational Chamber of Commerce incooperation with UN EnvironmentalProgramme (UNEP). For moreinformation, contact ECO-ED at 191Niagara Street, Toronto, Canada M5V1C9. telephone: (416) 860-1772 fax: (416)860-0380.

The Institute for InternationalCommunications (IIC) will hold itsannual conference in Montreal, Canadafrom September 9-11, 1992, at the FourSeasons Hotel. Topics include the role ofcommunications in the 90's; the role of thecommunications industry in pursuit ofeconomic, social and cultural objectives;and social and economic implications ofnew technologies. Contact: IIC, TavistockHouse South, Tavistock Square, LondonWC1H 9LF. telephone: 071 388 0671. fax:071 380 0623. telex: 24578 IICLDN G

The Course Developer in DistanceEducation (ICDE) will hold its 16thWorld Conference from November 8-13,1992. Entitled "Distance Education for theTwenty-First Century", the conference is

Development Communication Report, no. 76 a

situated at the Sukhothai ThammathiratOpen University in Bangkok, Thailand.The cost is US $425 for members, $470 fornon-members before June 30, and $510 fornon-members after June 30. Contact: 16thICDE World Conference, SukhothaiThammathirat Open University, Pakkred,Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand. tel. (662)573-5849, fax: (662) 573-5890.

The Centre for Distance Learning willhold an intensive 3 day ICDEpreconference workshop for coursedevelopers and instructional designersfrom November 6-8, 1992, in Bangkok,just prior to the ICDE conference. Coursesare geared to practitioners and use smallgroup activities. The cost is US $300.Contact: Centre for Distance Learning,Monash Distance Education Centre,Churchill, Victoria, Australia, 3842. tel: 6151 226 277. fax: 61 51 226 578.

As a follow-up to the UNCEDconference in June, "I Latin AmericanCongress for Communication ResearchWorkers" will be held August, 1992 inSao Paulo, Brazil and will focus on thetheme "Communication and Free Trade".For more information, contact: ALAIC,ECA-USP Building, Av. Prof. LucioMartins Rodrigues, 443, Bloco A-Sala 3,Ciudade Universitaria, 05508 Sao Paulo,SP, Brazil.

News in Crisis will be the theme of acolloquium organized by theInternational Catholic Association forRadio and Television (UNDA) inBrussels, Belgium from May 25-27,1992. The purpose is to raise questionsabout the role of journalism in modernsociety and during crisis. JeanDondelinger, European Commissionerfor Audiovisuals, Information,Communication and Culture will openthe workshop. There will be translationin English, Spanish and French. For moreinformation, contact UNDA, rue del'Orme 12, 1040 Brussels, Belgium. tel:+(2) 7349708; fax:+ (2) 7347018.

Audio-Visuals

Audio-visuals for the Environment, TheInternational Centre for Conservation Education(ICCE) Services, Greenfield House, Guiting Power,Chelterham, Glos GL54 5TZ, UK. telephone: (0451)850777 fax: (0451) 85075

ICCE has developed a collection of audiovisualmaterials which provide information about theenvironment in interesting and innovative ways.Ranging from global warming to population,pollution, wildlife preservation, coastal ecosystems,and conservation and religion, the collection presentsissues clearly. All materials list the level of instruction(primary, secondary, or general), and the language ofthe text and audiovisual (English, French, German orSpanish). Videos are in VHS, Beta or PAL formats.Prices range from UK L 3.75 to UK L 20. Catalogues areavailable at the above address.

New Publications

"Women, Poverty and Environment in LatinAmerica" by Michael Paolisso and Sally W. Yudelman,International Center for Research on Women, 1717Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 302, WashingtonDC, 20036 USA. telephone: (202)797-0007 fax: (202) 797-0020.

This 1991 report explores the ways by whichwomen in the region contribute to protecting naturalresources and the environment. This report identitieshow local organizations are supporting women'senvironmental efforts. It offers specificrecommendations for donor support in solving tiedual problems of persistent poverty andenvironmental degradation in Latin America byenhancing women's environmental roles andcommunications networks. Cost: US: $2.00 for firstthree copies, 5.50 for each additional; international: US$3.50 for first three publications, 5.75 for eachadditional. Available in Spanish.

Coastal Resources Management: A Guide to PublicEducation Programs and Materials, by Michele H.Lemav and Lynne Zeit lin Hale, Kumarian Pres, Inc..030 Oakwood Avenue, Suite 119, West Hartford, CN(10110-1529 USA. 1989.

This guide explains how to design and implement apublic education program. It provides a convenient listof materials on coastal resources, tells where to obtainthem, and shows which ones are available free. T'book reviews individual materials according to tl- eir

Resources

appropriate audience, the languages in which they come, thecost (if any), and how they can best be used. The book is welldesigned for the practitioner looking for diverse materials tohe used internationally. Many of the materials come fromdeveloping countries and are specific to a coastal region. 57 p.

In addition, free papers about The International CoastalResources Management Project are available in Spanish andEnglish from The University of Rhode island, CoastalResources Center, Publications, Narragansett Bay Campus,Narragansett, RI 02881, USA, telephone. (401) 792-6224, tax:(4011 789-4670. This project is funded by USAID in cooperationwith University of Rhode Island, USA; Coast ConservationDepartment, Sri Lanka; Direccion General del MedioAmbiente, Ecuador; and Office of the National EnvironmentBoard, Thailand.

Just Stir Gently: The Way to Mix Hygiene Education withWater Supply and Sanitation, Technical Paper Series tf29, byNlarieke T. Boot, International Water and Sanitation Centre,P.O. Box 93190, 2509 AD The Hague, The Netherlands,telephone: 31(0)70 33 141 33, tax: 31(0)70 38 140 34 (1991)

This "how-to" manual explores the relationship betweenwater supply and sanitation projects and hygiene educationand offers concrete ways to integrate them into projectformulation, planning and management. The book links thetechnical aspects of sanitation and user practices in acomprehensive way so that it can be used cross-culturallyrather than being culture or region specific. The process ofbehavioral change, the organizational integration of educationand community participation, phases and approaches tohygiene education, lx-orkplans and budgets, and the role ofcommunication are all covered extensively.

The Pesticide Code Monitor by Gretta Goldenman andSarojini Rengam, Pesticide Action Network. P.O. Box 1170.10850 Penang, Nlalaysia. tel: 00-4 '870271 tax: bu-4 877443(1989)

This resource book for tr"iners provides information aboutmonitoring harmful pesticides and organizes trainings forcommunity activists. US $10. Other communication materialson pesticides are available from the same address.

Periodicals

Connect: The UNESCO-UNEP Environmental EducationNewsletter, 7 place de Fontenov, 75700 l'aris, France.

The Connect newsletter has published four issues 'early insix languages since 1975. The newsletter covers articles,international conferences and publication listing aboutenvironment education. It is available in French, Spanish,Russian, Arabic, Chinese and Hindi. Connect is tree.

J Development Communication Report, no. 76

UNCED: An Environmental Education Opportunity?An Interview with John Kirk, Organizer of Earth Rest Day

The United Nations Conference for the Environment andDevelopment (LINCED ), otherwise known as the Earth Summit isLiking place this i.ear in Rio de Janeiro from lune I 12. People from

around the world will be discussing the future of this planet. Whatdoes it morn to have t: summit?

This global summit means that world leaders from over 160countries will gather together to discuss the breakdown ofnatural systems which support life and the steps that need tobe taken to repair the damage to planet earth. This is no easytask and there w."1 be many apparent contradictions,confusion and heated debate. UNCED is a call to governments,business, peoples and individuals to exercise responsibility forthe planet as a whole.

Whit can we talk about the environment in global terms?We must talk about the environment in global terms

because actions taken in one part of the world can adverselyaffect life thousands of miles away. It is time all of us realizethat earth is, in truth, a global village. We must takeprecautions to protect and enhance life in all segments of thatvillage.

How is this conference difference than others before it?It is the largest summit meeting in the history of the world.

In addition to the meetings conducted by the heads of state,there will also be a Global Forum running concurrently in Riode Janeiro and there will be over 10,000 individualsrepresenting over 150 different organizations such as women'sgroups, indigenous people, and the Third World Congress.They will be discussing environmental problems from theirown particular vantage points and they hope to have theresults of their meetings included in the final deliberation ofthe official delegates.

10,1/ rs LINCED an environmental education strategy in itself?Any conference is an education strategy. That is its

puroose. But UNCED is different. It is also a global,:ommunication ettort. Four PREPCOMs, or preparatorycommittee meetings, with delegates from all over the worlddetermine the major issues to be reviewed and discussed bythe world leaders at UNCED. At and around the conference,environmental issues will be addressed through differentavenues. For example, I am the Sabbath Coordinator for theUN Environmental Sabbath/ Earth Rest Day which takes placethe first weekend in June. Its purpose is to call upon religiousleaders throughout the world to share with theircongregations information concerning environmentaldegradation and the immorality of destroying the earth. Othergroups will address environmental issues through otherforums the workplace, government, the need for grassrootsactivity.

Me Earth Charter is said to build consensus aroundenvironmental issues. What is it?

The Earth Charter is a constitution for the world. It reviewsand discusses the type of behavior that is necessary in order

for people to sustain the globe. Representatives from differentcountries discuss and sign it.

Whit is consensus building a powerful part of environmentaleducation and action? How can people emulate this process in theircommunities?

Worldwide, people's actions interrelate and produceresults which impact on all of us. Today, we are aware thatparticipation builds commitment. A consensus building toollike the Earth Charter allows people to participate in theprocess and show (or not show( their support. As acommunication tool, it spreads information about theenvironment, the responsibilities of everyone, and askspeople to sign their commitment for change. A similar'Community Charter' or local Earth Charter can effectivelybuild consensus anywhere with small or large groups ofpeople.

Mani, developing countries have complained that UNCED is

;eared towards the needs and solutions of the industrialized worldthat consensus is not possible.Much of the distrust of the consensus process by the South

is based on economic factors rather than environmental ones.Because of the gross exploitation of the South by the North inthe past, the South does not want to be left behind or blamedfor all environmental problems. But this does not have topreclude the consensus building process. Hearing differentperspectives is vital to the process.

The environmental education activities related to LINCED areenormous. Can non describe Some of the various activities?

The G'obal Forum, the PREPCOMs and other groups planto publicize their results. Also, summary reports, videotapesof certain activities, and in some locations, extensive satellitecoverage on Ted Turner's Cable News Network (CNN) willkeep people informed. Numerous newsletters, compilationsof articles and sessions will be available. The EcoNetelectronic mail network will also carry ongoing informationand electronic conferences (see DCR #75 for informationabout EcoNet).

Other conferences and seminars will also result fromUNCED. The Eco-Ed conference (see p. 22) will be the largestenvironmental meeting ever with 4000 delegates from over 50countries talking specifically about environmental education.

Dr. John Kirk is the Director of the New Jersey School ofConservation, the largest resident environmental field center operatedby a universal/ in the world. For more information about theEnvironmental Sabbath, contact him at- jersey School ofConservation, Montclair College, R.D. 2, Box 272. Branchville. NJ(7826, USA. tel: (201) 948-4646, tax: (201) 948-5131. For a list ofresources or other information, contact The UNCED Secretariat at 160route de Florissant, Case Postale 80, CH-1231 Conches, Switzerland.tel: (41 -22) 7S9 1676, fax: (41-22)789-3536, E-mail: cdplunced; theLINCED Liaison, c\o UNDP, PO Box 30218, Nairobi, Kenna,(254-2) .3.33 930/520 600, fax: (254-2) 520 7241520 711: or Network'92: Patois Wilson, 52 Rue des Paquis, CH-1201 Geneva, Switzerland.

. I

To Our Readers:After over a decade of innovation and evalu-

ation in the field of health communication, this issue of theDCR focuses on Communication and Health: What's New,What's True? Research results, trends and case studies are rep-resented to show the diversity of what has been learned, whatremains good practice and future challenges for developmentcommunicators. Not lust for those m health, this issue will in-form practitioners from all fields who use communication.

-The Editor

I

HEALTHCOM:Lessons from 14 Years in Health Communicationby Mark Rasmuson, Holly Fluty and Robert Clay

nce a misunderstood and mis-trusted add-on to public healthprograms, health communica-

tion has now been widely embraced by gov-ernments and private voluntary organiza-tions, by international donors and UnitedNations agencies, by universities, epidemio-logical research organizations, and non-gov-ernmental organizations throughout the

world. Now after fourteen years of experi-ence and some very convincing evaluations,one multi-million dollar health communica-tion program reveals the lessons learned,lessons reconfirmed, and the insight gainedabout the future challenges of communica-tion and development.

In 1978, the U.S. Agency for Internationalcontinued p.2

Mass Media Entertainment for AIDSCommunication in Zaireby Julie Convisser

he use of popular entertainmentto convey messages of healthand sexual responsibility is rap-idly becoming one of the most

innovative and effective behavior changeapproaches in health communication today.The methodology is not new; entertainmenthas been a forceful communication tool aslong as people have sung and performed foreach other. But now, health communicatorsare recognizing the power of entertainment

and the mass media for health pro-motion. And the beat plays on...

Nowhere has AIDS hit harderthan in east central Africa. In Zaire,the HIV or AIDS virus is officiallyestimated to be carried by 6% to 8%of those who live in major cities andover 3% of the rural population.Unofficial reports show the rates tobe much higher. In the absence of avaccine or cure, communication

continued p. 6

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Information Specialist ". .

Earlington McLetchie,Librarian

Marie' Escudero,Circulation Manager

Development CommunicationReport is produced usingdesktop publishing under AIMcontract DR-5831-Z-00-8028-05.

Lessons Learned, cont'd from p. 1

Development launched an innovativeresearch-and-development project in twocountries, Honduras and The Gambia.Called the Mass Media and Health Prac-tices Project, the purpose of this effort wasto explore how a systematic communica-tion approach could help teach rural vil-lagers an emerging new health technol-ogy: oral rehydration therapy (ORT).

From this modest beginning, A.I.D.'sinvestment in health communication hasgrown into a sustained 14 year $50 milliondollar program implemented by the Acad-emy for Educational Development knownas Communication and Marketing forChild Survival (HEALTHCOM).HEALTHCOM has provided technicalassistance to the child survival programsof more than 35 countries, and played aglobal leadership role in health communi-cation and social marketing. Over theyears, two key research and developmentobjectives have been maintained: (1) con-tinued refinement of an effective commu-nication methodology, and (2) rigorousevaluation of the methodology's applica-tion in specific countries.

The 5-step methodology pioneered bythe initial project in Honduras and TheGambiaAssess, Plan, Pretest, Deliver,and Monitor(Figure 1) has gone throughmany twists and turns through the years.While the process has been delineatedvariously by those working in differentdevelopment technologies, at the heart ofthe process is one central concern theconsumer comes first. HEALTHCOMtakes this priority seriously and programdecision making systematically reflectsthe consumer's perspective in programplanning through formative research, test-ing of communication materials, andmonitoring of program effects.

Between 1985 and 1991, the Center forInternational Health and DevelopmentCommunication (CIHDC) at theAnnenberg School for Communication,University of Pennsylvania conducted 10major pre- and post-intervention surveystudies of HEALTHCOM programs ineight countries. The results of these stud-ies afford a wealth of information abouthealth communication. This article sum-marizes some of the most important ofthese lessons and challenges.


Lessons LearnedLesson 1: Health communication works.

HEALTHCOM's programs have demon-strated definitively that health communica-tion can work in the broadest sense toincrease immunization coverage, use ofORT, consumption of vitamin A capsules,and improve breastfeeding and otherhealthy practices.

I In four out of six sites whereHEALTHCOM supported immuniza-tion programs relative coverage ratesranged from 25 to 85 percent.

I In Lesotho, the communication programhelped boost ORT use from 39% to 60%and any treatment of a diarrhea casefrom 58% to 75%.

I HEALTHCOM's media campaign inJordan contributed to an increase from38% to 56% of mothers who initiatedbreastfeeding within six hours aftertheir child's birth.

1 In Central Java, Indonesia, vitamin Acapsule consumption increased from24% to 40% in districts with a healthpost following a one year communica-tion effort.

Lesson 2: It doesn't work by itself.

Communication by itself is rarelyenough to change health behavior. Peoplemust have the opportunity to perform arecommended behavior and the environ-ment must be able to sustain the behaviorchange. Elements such as access to an im-munization service, access to oralrehydration salts (ORS) or condoms, and/orphysicians and nurses who support healthypractices must be considered. InHEALTHCOM's experience in Ecuador, forexample, immunization rates were dramati-cally improved as a result of a combinedservice delivery/ communication approach,whereas the use of oral rehydration saltswas improved only temporarily by commu-nication in the absence of a continuous sup-ply of ORS. In Jordan, increases in earlyinitiation of breastfeeding following a com-munication campaign were much higher inpublic hospitals, where physicians andnurses supported early initiation, than inprivate hospitals where they often did not.

28 LEST COPY AVAILABLE

Lesson 3: It does more than createdemand.

The creation of demand and motivationfor higher use of health services have beenimportant functions served by health com-munication programs. But they have notbeen the only functions served. Communi-cation programs have had important posi-tive "side effects" beyond their principaldemand creation objectives. In the Philip-pines, for example, HEALTHCOM's com-munication campaign on measles did indeedsignificantly increase measles immunizationcoverage. Yet it also had a positive effect onthe timeliness of measles immunization, andboosted coverage rates for other immuniza-tions as well.Lesson 4: It works differently for differ-ent interventions.

Different health interventions requiredifferentcommuni-cationstrategies

someinherentlymore diffi-cult thanothers.

- 4e- Jr If

Teaching ;

how to mixan oralrehydrationsolution inthe home isa thornkcommunication challenge than informingparents where and when to go for theirchild's next immunization. Even for thesame intervention, the communication is-

sues vary depending on the "maturity" ofthe program and the special problems itencounters. HEALTHCOM has found, forexample, that increases in immunizationcoverage are easier to achieve through com-munication in programs with relatively lowcoverage rates at the start th:.n in programswith higher laces. Moving a program from70% to 90% coverage, which often meanstargeting hard to reach groups like the urbanpoor, is harder than boosting rates from 40%to 70% using a standardized informationalcampaign approach.

Channel % Exposed Effect of Exposure I Channel Effect

(a) (b) (a) x (b)

Clinic 22% 18.1% 4.2%

Outreach 16% 20.1% 3.2%

Radio 60% 13.6% 8.2%

Lesson 5: It may not work as dramaticallyas public health officials expect.

Public health officials often have unrealisti-cally high expectations of how communicationcan help a health program, setting short-termgoals of 80 per cent immunization coverage or60 percent adoption of a new health technologylike ORT. Such goals can inadvertently set upcommunication planners for failure and disap-pointment.Lesson b: Interpersonal channels are

important.

A longstanding tenetof development commu-nication theory and prac-tice is that interpersonalcommunication is vitalin motivating behaviorchange. HEALTHCOM'sresearch results confirmthat tenet. In Swaziland,for example, CIHDC'sresearch found that clinicstaff and outreach work-ers were more effectivechannels in increasingknowledgeable use of

ORT than radio. Each type of interpersonalcontact was associated with a 20% greater like-lihood of appropriate use of ORT, while heavycontact with the radio was associated withabout a 13% greater likelihood of appropriateuse.Lesson 7: But so are the mass media!

In the Swaziland example cited above,health workers reached only 22% of the popu-lation and outreach workers only 16%, whileradio reached nearly 60% of the population.Thus, even though it was less effective per con-tact, because radio could reach many morepeople, it was more effective overall. By onecalculation (table), CIHDC concluded, 8.29

0

3

continued p. 4


Lessons Learned, cont'd from p. 3

more of the entire population was using ORTappropriately as a result of exposure to radio,while only 3.2% resulted from contact with inter-personal sources. CIHDC's other evaluationstudies supported this finding: in the 16 interven-tions they studied, exposure to mass media mes-sages was sharply associated with the level ofprogram success. Of the 6 programs operating inenvironments where only light exposure to massmedia was achieved, only 2 were consideredsuccessful. Of the 9 programs which achievedhigh media exposure, 7 were associated withsubstantial change in behavior.Lesson 8: It needs to be sustained.

HEALTHCOM's programs have consistentlydemonstrated a clear correlation between differ-ent levels of communication programming andrises and falls in the practice of new behaviors.The fact that some level of communication needsto be maintained in order to sustain new behav-iors is old news in the world of commercial mar-keting and advertising Coca Cola keeps onspending millions in advertising even though itis the market leader. Unfortunately, it is anotherfact not always well appreciated in the publichealth community where another mistaken ex-pectation is that once a communication programhas helped boost a new health product or prac-tice, it is there to stay.Lesson 9: It must be multi-disciplinary.

Effectivehealth com-munication isa mix of sci-ence and art

a blend ofsolid con-sumer re-search and

4,

,41highly cre-ative design.It continuesto be influ-enced bymany otherdisciplines.Marketinghas beenparticularlyimportant inproviding anoverall plan-ning frame-work which

Development Communication Report, no. 77 4.1

includes supply elements as well as de-mand. Social and behavioral psychology,anthropology, and epidemiology have alsobeen influential. In practice, health commu-nication requires the collaboration of a teamof program managers, researchers, and com-munication professionals each contribut-ing their special expertise.Lesson 10: It is difficult to institutional-ize in developing countries.

Good health communication requirescapable well-trained professionals and re-sources for critical activities like formativeresearch, media production, and programmonitoring. While policy makers in manydeveloping countries are now embracingthe potential of health communication toimprove public health programming, Minis-tries of Health, often strapped financially,are still lagging behind in committing theresources necessary to enable trained healthcommunicators to effectively practice theirprofession.

Challenges for the FutureThe final three lessons underscore two of

the major challenges which face health com-municators in the future: (1) How can healthcommunication programs best be designedfor developing countries to support mul-tiple interventions over the long term at anaffordable price, encompass strategies andresources for both sustaining behaviorchanges achieved in the past, and targetnew behavioral challenges as required? (2)What more can be done to enhance the pros-pects for institutionalizing an effectivehealth communication capacity in develop-ing countries? Three strategies currentlybeing followed by the HEALTHCOMProject are:

to strengthen health communicationcurricula in developing country traininginstitutions;

to develop streamlined methods of re-search and planning which can be moreeasily adopted in developing world settings;and

to conduct communication cost studieswhich will demonstrate to policymakers thecost-effectiveness of health communication.

Another challenge is posed by shiftingepidemiological patterns in much of thedeveloping world. As patterns of morbidity

3

How to Conduct Focus Groups:Researching Group Priorities Through Discussion

How many' finks hive health projects failed because project designers-did not1111.1111.11111.111111MINEunderstand the priorities and beliefs of a community? Conducting focus groups

is one way to open up dialogue with-community members and uncover hidden

and mortality shift more in the direc- beliefs and agendas. .tion of the "lifestyle diseases" charac- Focusgroudiicussions enhance the project process for several reasons.

teristic of industrialized countries (e.g. They give diverse community sub-groups the opportunity to express concerns-heart disease), health communication, and have a:voice befOre the-project begins..They stimulateimulate ideas and-Conversation

as a key influence on health behavior, which may not emerge durn7 ta one-on-one interview: And they allow project

becomes ever more important. But it monitors tol:aye ibairelhigefinformation to Which they can lateirefer to see if

also becomes more difficult motivat- grolip.Oitus4s orP,##1104. veVfolved-ing a prevention behavior which has Beliefs. are noralWayit0;iliii*Iicrosa icornMunitY: Mothers of Sitiiirchil-

no immediate positive consequence is dren mar have a different interpretation of oral therapy than women

inherently harder than motivating a who do-nothave childien:fictory workers may appreciate the implications of

treatment behavior which cures an n poliiitantt difrereutlythan religious IeEiders.:spie focus grouR43;ivesan out-

illness. This challenge calls on health the ability to:UncferkandimPortant differenceSand come to somL3-Ccmclu-.

communicators to sharpen communi- lions aboUt overalrattitudes.' 4 ,

cation strategies. In environmentswhich are cluttered with thousands ofcompeting messages, effective healthcommunication programs will need todevelop strategies which:

Target specific audience segments.Account for where people are on

the behavior change spectrum, fromawareness through intention, trial, andadoption.

Offer people a genuine opportu-nity to behave in a new way.

romote benefits people want.Mitigate barriers to new behav-

iors.Appeal to the emotions as well as

the intellect.

Mark Rasmuson is the Vice-Presidentfor Health Programs, Asia Region, for theAcademy for Educational Development(AED) and a senior advisor for theHEALTHCOM Project. He was Director ofHEALTHCOM from 1985-92. Holly Flutyis the Cognizant Technical Officer forHEALTHCOM and Robert Clay is theChief of the Health Services Division, in theOffice of Health, Agency for International 11 i,1 ;

Agtft 'Development. For more information aboutHEALTHCOM, contact AED 1255 23rd k_

St., NW, Washington D.C. 20037. tel:11.

(202) 862-1900, fax: (202) 833-6617; or theOffice of Health, Bureau for Research andDevelopment, USAID, Washington D.C.20523-1817, tel: (703) 875-4526, fax: (703)875-4686. For additional information aboutthe evaluation results, contact RobertHornik, CIHDC, Annenberg School forCommunication, University of Pennsylva-nia, 3620 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA19104-6220 USA (215) 898-7057, fax:(215) 898-2024.

discussionthat the data .4ected is meaningful, it is imp;iiint-tO have

i_discUSSioit outline and to focus. the groups upon particular areas of concern.Here are other gtridelines on hOw to make focus groups effective aakeep-ses-sions consistent across distinct sub - groups:'

Each session should last between 60-90 minutes

I. Groups should consist of 8-10 participants1 Sub-groups should represent the diversity within the community.1 Sessions should inspire a sense of openness and comfort (for example, begin-

ning with songs or stories)1 Topics of discussion should be consistent across groups.1 Groups should be designed so that individuals are minimally inhibited (forexample, if farmers are dependent on middlemen, they may not be as candid ifmiddlemen are present)

1 Questions should be carefully designed to not reveal a facilitator's bias

1 Discussions should be focused and facilitated, but should not direct thegroup to "right" or "wrong" condusions

1 Information shared within the groups should be kept confidential. Membersshould discuss this point.

While they may not provide all the data needed to make qualitative comparisons,focus groups can be an excellent mechanism to learn about a community and thepositions of its sub-groups. Quick, easy and informative, they may reap unex-pected results.

BEST COPY AVAIAKE

e

-1

This focus group in Malawi begins with songs.


Entertainment, cont'd from p. 1

Zaire acting troupeexplore AIDS preventionthrough drama

fa.:--Ag9kv:-

ille4141M.

strategies stressing prevention are the only op-tions open to a country like Zaire.

In 1988, Population Services International (PSI)launched an AIDS mass media project in collabo-ration with the Zairean government's NationalAIDS Program and with funding from the U.S.Agency for International Development (USAID).The project was created as a complementary ef-fort to the PSI Condom Social Marketing Projectin Zaire.

Two expatriate communication specialistsemployed by PSI acted as project directors andwere matched by two counterpart specialists fromthe Zairean National AIDS Program. They weresupported by a local technical production andresearch staff. Through collaboration with otherZairean organizations, they designed a compre-hensive national media campaign utilizing televi-sion, radio, print materials, drama and life music.

Strategy: Young and UrbanWhile Zaire's urban citizens are more suscep-

tible to AIDS, they also have the greatest access tothe media. The country's 11 regional capitals arelinked by television satellite and an estimated 13million urban residents have access to TV sets.This, combined with patterns of AIDS prevalence,led project leaders to first target young Zaireansin the cities.

Youth aged 12-19 were selected first for theirproportionately large group size, their high-riskbehavior and evidence that most people with HIV

Development Communication Report, no. 77 61

in Zaire were infected in their earlyteens.

Another population segmentthose from 20 to 30 identified as"young and prospective parents"was added as a second target popula-tion during 1990. Research in Zaireand other African countries indicatesthat the AIDS threat to the health ofchildren (such as transmission frommother to child) is a strong motivatingfactor for behavior change among par-ents.

Entertaining the FactsIn its first year, the project worked

with students from the NationalSchool of Performing Arts to produceand pretest a series of television andradio spots aimed at influencing pre-vailing attitudes and behavior relatedto HIV transmission. Five spots wereproduced with the National Broad-

casting Network and translated into Zaire'sfive official languages.

A longitudinal program impact studyinvolving the University of KinshasaSchool of Public Health showed that thefirst TV and radio spots effectively ad-dressed fallacies about AIDS. After ninemonths, surveys indicated a decrease of14% for those who responded "yes" to"Can you avoid getting infected with theAIDS virus simply by avoiding contactwith people who look sick?"

Music: Getting to the HeartZaire, the heart of the African beat,

boasts some of the world's most talentedand highly visible musicians. As NeilHenry, a Washington Post African corre-spondent wrote, "The air is filled withrhythms. From the street corners and backalleys, from the countless shacks of wood,cinderblock and corrugated tin... the strainsof music pour." Thus, the project soughtout to enlist this community of eloquentand persuasive musicians.

And it struck a responsive chord. TheZairean music community has not beenunscathed by AIDS. Zaire's most famousmusician, Franco-Luwambo, released asong about AIDS nine months before dyingof the disease. Franco's song and startlingdeath paved the way for the project to mo-

32 REST COPY AVAILABLE

tivate other popular musicians to raise theirvoices against AIDS.

After sponsoring a contest among Zaire'sleading bands, the project selected threeAIDS songs. The songs were released in fourmonth intervals over a year and were guar-anteed daily playtime through agreementswith national and regional radio stations.

The public response was positive. "Stepby step/hand in hand/let's all fight AIDS..."the refrain of the first released song by thewell known Empompo Loway could beheard on the lips of rural schoolchildren andsophisticated Kirtsh ?5a residents alike. In aKinshasa post test six months after thesong's release, 65% of a sample of the targetaudience had heard of it. Of these, 90%could sing a verse or two on request. Mostimportantly, 93% of those who had heardthe song retained the key AIDS messagesand 85% of the same group said it affectedtheir behavior.

Of the latter group, one in three said itdiscouraged them from having multiplepartners. One in four said it encouragedabstinence and one in six said it motivatedthem to be faithful to a single partner.

Buoyed by the response, the project spon-sored a World AIDS Day concert in 1989,where Empompo sang his song. When avideo of the performance was released justthree weeks later, Empompo was dead fromAIDS.

Five more songs soon joined the originalthree each addressing a slightly differentaudience by selecting musicians with differ-ent styles and appeals. Similarly, the mes-sages evolved over time. Due to the growingAIDS awareness, later songs veered awayfrom the basic 'do's and don't's and stressedmore emotional appeals to change behaviorpatterns. For example, one of the most re-cent songs avoids the word AIDS altogether.Instead, a man and woman sing to eachother of their marital trespasses and inthe face of "dangers all around us today"renew their love and commitment to mutualfidelity.

For the 1990 World AIDS Day, the projectsponsored a nationally broadcast concertfeaturing live renditions of six AIDS songsby the original artists. Excerpts were editedinto five music videos, with cuts of musi-cians and other popular figures giving ad-vice on AIDS prevention. The video-clipswere then broadcast on a rotating schedule,

and cassette tapes are distributed to AIDSprevention groups throughout the country.

The Drama of AIDSWorking with Zaire's best loved drama

group, Troupe Nzoi, the project produced afour part radio/TV series aimed at the "pro-spective parents" group. Its underlying be-havioral messages: 1) avoid having multiplesex partners; 2) practice mutual fidelity; 3)use a condom in high risk situations.

The drama, about a young woman wholearns after her wedding night that her hus-band has AIDS was the first mass media treat-ment of many sensitive AIDS related issues inZairean culture. They include widespreadmarital infidelity and the link between theeconomic and social plight of women andwidespread prostitution. Moreover, two spe-cific scenes provided a first time opportunityfor an explicit televised discussion of the ad-vantages of condom use for AIDS prevention.The entire series was shown twice in 12months.

Public response to the drama's realism andsensitivity was overwhelming. Follow-upresearch verified that presenting messagesthrough a culturally relevant radio/tv dramaeffectively motivates individuals to adoptsafe practices. Four "day after" surveysamong a representative sample in Kinshasashowed that over two-thirds of the intendedaudience watched each episode on tv. Ofthese, two-thirds could recount the plot of theepisodes they watched. And more than twothirds retained the drama's AIDS messages.Almost 75% indicated they intended tochange their behavior. Finally, more than 50%discussed the content with friends or family.90% wanted to see another episode.

AIDS in printTo reinforce the AIDS messages broadcast

on radio and tv for schoolchildren, the projectpresented "myths and realities" about AIDSon below market-price school notebooks.Working with a popular comic strip artist, theproject designed three 1991 calendars forteens and adults, each featuring an eye catch-ing comic strip. The first, targeted to workingmen and women, subtly underlines the im-portance of fidelity. The second, for teens,indicates the risks of promiscuity. The third,for distribution to bars and hotels, humor-

33 continued Jr: p.8

In the

absence of a

vaccine or

cure,

communication

strategies

stressing

prevention

are the most

effective

options


Entertainment, cont'd from p.7

ously presents the advantages of condoms.

Regional StrategiesBy the end of the project's second year,

Zaire's 13 million urban residents were receiv-ing an average of 10 minutes a day of consistenttelevised AIDS prevention messages. But whatabout outside the big cities? What about theremote villager or the women hawking waresfrom the river barges, whose only mass mediaexposure are songs and programs broadcast inthe local dialect from the radio station of theirregional capital?

Working through the National AIDS Pro-gram, the project identified 4 of the country's 11regional radio stations in high priority areas.After several initial visits, two producers fromeach of the four radio stations were trained inan intensive workshop and asked to submit ayear-long action plan for an AIDS radio cam-paign.

By the end of the first year, the regional radiostations had produced and broadcast in 13 locallanguages 28 AIDS feature programs, 22 radio

spots, 8 AIDS radio dra-mas, 2 songs, and 5 AIDSmessages via their localradio stations.

The results were prom-ising. In the region of HautZaire, for example, villag-ers far from the radio sta-tion created an AIDS songin their local musical styleand invited the radio sta-tion to record it. The songbecame one of the radiostation's most requestedtunes.

Results comparing oneof the target regions (Sud-Kivu) with a "control"region (Equateur) indicatethat the higher level ofexposure to AIDS mes-sages in the target regiongreatly affected knowl-edge and attitudes aboutAIDS. According to thestudy, the difference inlevel of knowledge re-garding AIDS transmis-sion between the "con-trol" and target regionswas 18%.

In one drama, the newly married Polity lediscovers that her husband contracted AIDSin a pre-marital affair.


ConclusionsResults over the project's first two years

conclude that using entertaining media topromote safer sexual behavior can effec-tively reach target audiences and inspirebehavioral changes. The following resultsfrom the second phase of the longitudinalprogram impact study conducted in August1990 indicate the following:

Increase in awareness regardingasymptomatic carriers.The ratio of people who think "you canavoid getting infected with the AIDS virussimply by avoiding sexual contact withpeople who look "sick" dropped from 56%to 42%.

Increase in abstinence and mutual fidelity forAIDS prevention.When asked "how have you changed yourbehavior in the face of AIDS", 16% morepeople spontaneously responded "by be-coming mutually faithful" in the secondstudy.

Increase in knowledge and acceptance ofcondoms for AIDS prevention.Those who named condoms as their firstmode of AIDS prevention increased from 5%to 13%. The ranks of those who had everheard of condoms increased by 11%.

Increase in condom use for AIDS prevention.When asked how they had changed their

behavior in the face of AIDS, 5 times thenumber of people responded "by usingcondoms". Indeed, annual sales of condomsoffered through PSI's Condom Social Mar-keting Project increased by more than1,000% over the course of the media cam-paign from 900,000 in 1988 to 18 millionin 1991. According to an equation developedby Family Health International, the 18 mil-lion condoms sold in 1991 prevented nearly7200 cases of AIDS in Zaire.

Julie Convisser, a communications specialistwith Population Services International (PSI),served as the director of the Zaire Mass MediaProject. PSI suspended mass media activities inNovember 1991 with the withdrawal of fundingbyUSAID due to political and social unrest in thecountry. PSI is now replicating this project in 8other countries in Africa and Asia and applyingthis technique to an HIV prevention project in theU.S.A. For more information, contact: PSI, 112019th St., NW, Suite 600, Washington DC 20036USA. tel: (202) 875-0072. fax: (202) 785-0120.

3.

Innovations in Counseling:Do They Make A Difference?

by Young Mi Kim and Rita Meyer

Health communication programsaround the world rely on face toface communication between a

health care provider and a client. There-fore, the quality of a counseling interviewcan influence whether clients begin or con-tinue to use healthy behaviors. Yet, oftenhealth care providers are uncaring, rude, ormisinformed sometimes without insightinto the repercussions of their actions.People do not want to go to them even iftheir service sites are well-stocked. Thesefindings have convinced policymakers andplanners in many countries to integrateinterpersonal communication and counsel-ing skills training into their health commu-nication programs.

But does counseling training actuallyimprove the quality of care? A counselingevaluation in Ogun State, Nigeria was thefirst to address this question and the defini-tive answer is yes.

Improving PerformanceTo improve the quality of service deliv-

ery in its clinics, Nigeria's Ogun State Min-istry of Health (MOH) incorporated threedays of counseling training into its familyplanning training curriculum for nurses.Assisted by the Johns Hopkins UniversityPopulation Communication Services (JHIJ/PCS) and its subcontractor, the Program forAppropriate Technology in Health (PATH),the MOH compared the skills of nursestrained in counseling with the skills ofnurses who had not been trained in coun-seling. The Ogun training represented anunusual opportunity for evaluators to com-pare "trained" and "untrained" skills be-cause, at the time of study, not all thenurses had yet received their training.

The result? Counseling-trained nursesfared better in almost all areas of "qualityof care" criteria. Client exit interviewsshowed that nurses trained in counselinglistened more attentively to clients (97% vs.66%), gave clearer explanations (95% vs.75%), were more polite (89% vs 53%), andmade clients feel more comfortable (95%vs. 76%). Furthermore, data from 1001medical records showed that clients ofnurses trained in counseling were twice aslikely to keep return appointments (84%) asclients of untrained nurses (44%).

Improving an Image: Ghana'sApproach

The Ministry of Health's deci-sion to offerover 5000 healthcare providerstraining incounselingskills was notunfounded.Focus groups,or sessions withgroups of po-tential or actualGhanaianhealth serviceusers, revealedthat health careproviders inGhana had apoor publicimage. Feed-back from"mystery" cli-ents coached inadvance by re-searchers tocarefully ob-serve counsel-ing interviews,reassured theMinistry of Health that nurses trained incounseling did, in fact, perform better thanthe untrained nurses. The effort to enhancethe image of trained counselors was part ofa three-year multi-media campaign in which94% of men and women were reached by atleast one mass media channel. Demand forcontraceptives increased during the cam-paign and exceeded supplies.

The newly trained providers wereequipped with new manuals, flipcharts,posters and brochures and were ready togreet the public. The public, however, stillperceived them as rude and insensitive. Thecounselors needed a new public image tomatch their skills. To promote trained coun-selors as competent and caring, a campaignwas built around the slogan "Talk to YourFamily Planning Advisors They Care".After radio and television spot promotions,counselors wearing "I Care" buttons weresought out in clinics and stopped on the

continued p. 10

I

Ghanaian nurses, midwivesand community membersmarch to show "thee care '.

_43591 Development Communication Report, no. 77

Counseling, cont'd from p.9

4.

'Way*

Nurses doing role playing during a counseling training in °gun, Nigeria.

--VrZZ:ZW-

Atrr - .

-.Grants and Fe3lowships for Women, . .

,'directory Of fellOwships'and'Igiants;Vailable to African women stu-dents and-scholars in the U.S.-is now available from the Womens' StudiesResearch Center; University of Wisconsin-Madison, 209 North Brooks St.,

Madison; Wr53715;::USA tel: (608) 263L20537fao6-(603) 265:24091... : may4sT25-postige:a.

Ceiiter/siieVivomenaxid delielopMent unit sup-ports research projects on is-sues related to women's rolesand responsibilities in theTrard World. Contact Eva-ROihgeber,-WID.Uriit7IDRC,.PO Box 8500; Ottawa, Ontario,KLG 3H9 Canada.

The Global Fund forWomen' stpPoiii'grouPs con.:cerned with media images ofwomen, legal rights and vio-lence against women, as wellas related topics. contact GFW,2400 Sand Hill Road, #201,Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA.

Z


streets by would-be clients. In thefirst year of the promotional phaseof the campaign, sales of contracep-tives nearly doubled.

Building a FrameworkThe counseling experiences of

Nigeria, Ghana, and other countriesprompted JHU/PCS to host a fourday workshop in April 1992 to helpimprove the evaluation componentsof counseling training programs.Bringing together trainers and man-agers from Nigeria, Bangladesh,Kenya, the Philippines, Egypt, andZimbabwe, the workshop was basedon three lessons learned from priorcounseling training and evaluationexperiences:

hort-term counseling trainingcan lead to higher qualitycaregiving among health care pro-viders and good health and familyplanning practices among clients.

'Promoting the image of healthcare providers publicly can encour-age providers to use the counselingskills acquired during training.

'Evaluation of counseling train-ing programs can both enhance thetraining programs and documentthe impact of the training on healthcare providers and on client behav-ior.

Workshop participants also re-fined a framework for improvingcounseling training evaluation. Itwill be featured in a forthcomingmanual developed from the work-shop and available through JHU/PCS.

The Population Communication Ser-vices (PCS) project is part of the JohnsHopkins University Center for Commu-nication Programs. Young Mi Kim, Se-nior Evaluation Officer at JHU /PCS,directed PCS's Counseling TrainingEvaluation Workshop. Rita Meyer, Pro-gram Officer, writes, edits. illustratesand produces PCS publications. For moreinformation, contact IHUIPCS, 527 St.Paul Place, Baltimore, Maryland, 21202USA. tel: (410) 659-6300, fax: (410) 659-6266.

36 BEST COPY AVAILULE

When; New, Meets. .. '1-4401 "2:*

Collaboritingpn Safer Birthing,Methods in Nigeria_

by J.P. Dansoji t

,.. 0 ...heriver and influence of tradi-tionalbirth attendants in ruralcommunities in Nigeria is so

strong that any attempt to redirect or dis-credit.their practices is met with stiff rebut-ial. Yet too many babies and mothers aredyirigficirriCrud6 birthirtmethods, nutri:tional tabooarfenutle_eircumcisions, -,

unsanitary conditions, or poor care after ''delivery. Ofte:Nig#iiii non-profit, non-gdvernmeritik oruzation familiar withthe roles anctiesporrialities of traditionalpractice haatikeir kepi to work with birthatteridanti'tii improire health practices.

The Inter-African Committee (IAC) on

Traditional Practices Affecting the Healthof Women and was established in19134 at the i.trye day seminar inDakar, Seriegat-aganied in collaborationwith severaLtlnited Nations organizations.

.peleiates cameffiliiitWenty African coun-tries and accusSechopiCS such as femalecircumcision, child Marriages, teenagepregnancies, traditional methods of con-ducting labor and delivery, and social ta-boos. In the following year, the IAC of Ni-

geria was formed and women and menfrom across Nigeria began to open statebranches. Tlie plan involved working with

(rather thanagainst/ traditional birth atten-dants to find safermethods they couldimplement in theircommtinities.

Due to the size and diversity of Nigeria,

LAC representatives selected pilot projects

for each local government area (LGA) andtrained practicing midwives in each area.Once fully trained, the midwives formedgroups of traditional birth attendants intheir communities and conducted aware-

ness trainings and practical demonstra-tions. The birth attendants learned aboutsexual anatomy; the process of fertiliza-

tion, differences between normal and ab-

normal pregnancies, personal and environ-mental hygiene, nutrition, prenatal care,

high risk pregnancies, and the importanceof post natal care and oral rehydrationsalts. As literacy was neverassumed, thetraining used posters and films and cultur-

ally relevant information about taboos.

At the end of the training course, deliverykits were given to the participants, not to re-place, but to supplement the traditional birthingtechniques. Hygienic practices such as steriliza-tion of all materials rather than just the!'new"ones was emphasized..Ongoing,contact with the.. 7,

IAC"midwives provided the supportand.prob -Aemsolving needed. to.keep theinterest of the

traditional birth attendants and the corrmmi-): ties high and leplacementparts available. :?4-1;0.-,74

By joining 'a partnership with traditionalbirth- attendants,. the Inter-African Committee ofNigeria did not try to circumvent the.cultural q!-

power of the traditional birth attendants. In-stead, their positions were treated.with the.samerespect they enjoyed in their rural communities.With this collaborative approach, new oftensafer methods could be introduced to comple-

ment traditional practice and save the lives ofmothers and. their children.

J.P:-Dangoji is.a former lecturer at the Colleges of

Nursing in Vonarul Yola. Currently, he is the Chief

Health Educator of .Taraba State, Nigeria and one of

the founding members of the TACINigeria. For more

information, contact him at: P.O. Box 324,.Jalingo,

Taraba State, Nigeria. .

BEST COPY AVAILABLE37

1 t Development Communication Report, no. 77

Training Videos: The Next Best'Thing to Being There?

by Valerie Uccellani and Maria Cristina Rosales

ideo has become an indispensable health communi-cation technology over the past decade. Yet, recog-nizing the virtues of face-to-face communication foreffective training, many people hesitate, if not shud-

der, at the idea of using video. We have all seen our share ofcostly videos which bombard viewers with one-sided informa-tion and nudge them into a sit-back-and-watch posture. True,videos will never substitute for the important interpersonal linkbetween trainer and training participants. However, a well-donevideo can entice people to reflect upon their own thoughts andactions as well as to actively explore new ideas with others.Much like dramatic role plays, participatory video can invitepeople to step outside themselves, analyze their own feelingsand actions, and practice new behaviors. Reaching far greaternumbers of people than individual face-to-face communication,in many cases a participatory video with just one facilitator canmultiply the interpersonal link effectively and successfully com-municate new messages.

The Advantages of Video

Most trainers who have used video will comment on howoften participants get excited about a training topic simply be-cause of video's entertainment value. However, the appeal of

video doesn'tautomaticallymake it effec-tive. What areadvantages ofvideo overother trainingmaterials?

Videoreaches boththe eye'ye andear. Researchhas proventhat viewersmore easilyretain a mes-sage whenmore than onesense is in-volved.

Unlike roleplays, videocan be seenmore thanonce. Whatwas missedthe first timemay becomeapparent lateron. Through

4

The director worked with health promoters andmothers to act out key concepts from the script,using their own words.


repeated uses,video can reinforceimportant skills andunearth new issuesand debate.

If training partici-pants identify withthe characters andsituations, a video can guide them through alternatiVes totheir current behaviors. The key is to design a video that isdirectly relevant to viewers' problems, priorities, experi-ences and feelings.

Video can train field staff even on complicated sets ofskills if procedures are presented dearly without over-whelming detail. With a simple stop and start, video can bepresented and discussed segments. This control givesviewers the freedom to explore priority issues in greaterdepth

If accompanied by a set of guidelines and shown by afacilitator, video can alleviate the burden of broaching cul-turally sensitive topics. For example, issues around sexualbehavior or HIV counseling may seem unapproachablewithout the objectivity gained by using technology such asvideo. The combination of video and discussion manualbest ensures that training achieves consistency and quality.

Video can be extremely cost-effective because it multi-plies the training process. When both human and economicresources are scarce, initial investment in a video can pro-vide long-lasting benefits.

Production Questions

Video can be an appropriate communication tool for adiversity of programs, especially when accompanied byfacilitation and support materials. Still, deciding if video isthe correct choice for a given training need, how it can bestaddress the need, and what kind of support materials willhelp achieve the training go -'ls are important consider-ations. Before making the final decision to produce a train-ing video, ask the following questions:

Does the intended trainee group have access to videorecorders? Are there distribution charm& to get the finalvideo to the intended users? What has their response beento videos used in the past?

How much variation is there among trainee groups? Forexample, do regional differences in setting, attitudes, orbehaviors make it impossible to create a single, realistic,acceptable, visual aid?

Does the budget allow for pretesting the video with rep-resentatives of the intended trainee groups after a draftscript is written? Developing adjunct materials? Distribut-ing the final training package?

When the Answers are No...

If these and other considerations indicate that video isnot appropriate, options do exist. Materials developers can

38*-g"r f.MF

C

scale down the video'sintended trainee group,choose to develop a slideshow instead, or design aset of creative modelscripts for trainers to use indramatizations.

When the Answers are Yes....

If the decision has been made to produce a training video,there are many pivotal issues to consider during the produc-tion process. Make sure that

I Background research has revealed the current behaviorsand attitudes of the intended training participants withrespect to the central training topic. The goal of the re-search is to create realistic situations and characters in each

scene;I Scenes are filmed in a variety of settings and present a vari-

ety of situations so that members of the intended traineegroup can relate to what they see;

I The script is reviewed at several stages and the video ispretested. Pretesting should be done only once before film-ing, when producers have agreed on a complete and finalscript. Pretesting is usually done through "focus groups"(see p. 5) where a moderator guides discussion among sixto ten people. Usually a minimum of two groups are con-

ducted with representatives from each intended traininggroup. Their comments and reactionsare recorded and analyzed so that thescript can be revised before filming. Theaim of the pretest is to ensure that theconcepts are dear, appealing, andmeaningful, and that the language set-tings and depicted reactions are accept-able.Reflection, discussion, and spin off ac-tivities are integrated into the video.Posed questions or intentional pausesfor discussion after key scenes are effec-tive.A discussion guide is developed forfacilitators and the video/guide pack-age is field tested to make sure that theguide enhances the video and provides all information thefacilitator might need. Videos are not nearly as useful with-

out appropriate facilitation.

"Comuniquemonos, Ya!":Strengthening InterpersonalCommunication and Healththrough Video

Growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) is asignificant component of development programs inmany countries around the world. In theory, GMPgives health workers and caretakers the opportunityto periodically track children's growth and to discussoptions for improving it. Research shows, however,that health wori<eis and caretakers rarely take thisopportunity to discuss the growth, nutritional status,or general health of the child (much less that of themother). Without such communication, health pro-motion cannot happen.

"Comuniquemonos, Ya!," ("Let's Communi-cate!"), a training video on interpersonal communica-tion for GMP programs in Latin America, was devel-oped to respond to these missed opportunities. De-signed as training material for village health work-ers, auxiliary nurses, and other field staff who moni-tor the growth of children in their communities, thevideo is accompanied by a step-by-step facilitator'sguide to use with a current GMP program. The video

focuses on the important (butoften overlooked) power ofcommunication between fieldstaff and mothers by "model-ing" or demonstrating goodcommunication skills at workin a variety of group situa-tions. By actually illustratingpositive interpersonal commu-nication, the viewers can coin-

continued p. 14

Valerie Uccellani is a Program Officer for the Nutrition Communi-cation Project (NCP) at the Academy for Educational Development,

1255 23rd St., NW, Washington DC 20037 LISA. Maria CristinaRosales is the Director of the Centro Regional de Audiovisuales

(CREA), a production center specializing in commercial and educa-

tional videos. Contact her at: Avenida las Americas 1647, Zona 14,Guatemala City, Guatemala. tel: (502) 2 371545. fax: (502) 2 334469.

A recent fieldnote by NCP offers more information on the production of

training videos.

r.rstr ttf6t1 rin!F 39LL vv.!

Videos zvhich model good and bad behaviors helphealth ;corkers make decisions thattvork.


"Comuniquemonos, Ya!", cont'd from p.13

Video can bringtraining participantsup close to situationsand allow them toanalyze cause and

pare their own actions with others which may bemore fruitful for health promotion.

Don't Jump in Before You Test the Water!

Before producing "Comuniquemonos, Ya!," theproducers asked themselves central productionquestions: Who is the audience? Why is the trainingneeded? and What are the objeczives and advantagesof using video? Using these guidelines, they wereable to fine tune their script and visuals to meet spe-cific needs.

The first objective was to facilitate the introduc-tion of a communication component into existingGMP training sessions with a video in hand, in-centives would be higher. The second objective wasto provide field staff with a basis to discuss howthey currently communicate with mothers abouttheir children's growth video can capture a realis-tic encounter between health worker and mother tospark discussion. The third objective was to modelsix key actions that field staff can use to improvecommunication with mothers with video, one candemonstrate concrete actions for field staff to imi-tate. The fourth and final objective was to illustratebetter communication techniques in different typesof GMP encounters a video is flexible enough toinclude different settings, such as clinic and home, aswell as typical situations trainees encounter, such asbreastfeeding infants, children with diarrhea, andchildren's growth.

Background research within GMP programs inseveral Latin American countries formed the back-bone for the script. Informal role plays helped pre-test key concepts. For further pretesting, a complete,draft script was transformed into an "animatic" a


mock-up of the video made of slides, drawings,and/or archival footage. The ammatic was pre-sented in focus groups in five Latin Americancountries. Finally, specialists working m thefields of communication, anthropology, educa-tion, and nutrition provided input into thescript at key stages. Based on all these findings,the script was revised and plans were made tofilm in Bolivia and Guatemala.

Modeling Interpersonal Communication

The video is designed to involve the trainingparticipants. They actively compare two scenes:one in which a health worker communicatespoorly with a mother in a GMP session; theother in which the same worker uses good com-munication skills. These interactions arebridged by a series of scenes in which healthworkers illustrate six communication skills:creating a warm environment, asking questions,sharing results, listening, observing, and doingdemonstrations. An off-screen narrator invitesviewers to reflect on the advantages of thesedifferent skills and asks direct questions of theviewers to guide in-depth discussion. The finalvideo is accompanied by a facilitator's guidewhich outlines a complete workshop in whichparticipatory activities complement the con-cepts and skills presented in the video.

Positive reaction to the video cut acrosscountry lines (including Guatemala, Honduras,Bolivia, and Ecuador) as well as professionallines (from community health promoters to phy-sicians). Trainers who have used the video with-out the guide report that it has sparked much-needed debate on the role of communication inGMP activities. Still other trainers have selectedor adapted sections from the facilitator's guide.This personalization enriches the training be-cause it gives participants a chance to practicecommunication behaviors and to discuss waysto incorporate them into their daily work.

"Comuniquemonos, Ya!" was produced by theNutrition Communication Project (NCP), a project ofthe Agency for International Development, Office ofNutrition, with UNICEF. El Centro Regional deAudiovisuales was contracted to technically oversee allstages of the production. The video and guide weredeveloped with several Latin American organizationsand CARE /Latin America . To order, contact localUNICEF, USAID, or INCAP offices in Latin Americaand the Caribbean, PROCOSI in Bolivia. If unavail-able locally, contact: NCP, Academy for EducationalDevelopment, 1255 23rd St., NW, Washington DC20037 USA. Specify VHS, Betamax, PAL or NTSCformat. Free in Latin America. US $10 for others.

40

Beyond Fear:AIDS Prevention From A Different Angle

by Marc Ostfield

South American campaignshows silhouettes of human bod-ies with bulls-eyes over the geni-

tals accompanied by the phrase, "AIDS isgonna get you!"

A billboard in Asia shows a young couplewalking hand in hand down a street lined withskulls. The message, "AIDS: The Devil OfDeath" is emblazoned in big, red letters.

An African poster depicts a body slowlyturning into a skeleton. The text reads: "AIDS:The Ultimate Disappearing Act".

An Australian television campaign showsthe "Grim Reaper" (death) rolling a bowlingball at a collection of frightened human bowlingpins. In the first roll attempt, the Reaper hitsnine of the ten people who fall off a cliff. Theonly remaining "pin" is a little girl holding herdoll, waiting to be hit by the second ball.

What do these campaigns have in com-mon? They rely on fear.

Although AIDS prevention campaignsaround the world provide some of the mostpowerful imagery, the threatening picturesof skeletal corpses, dripping blood, andpoisonous snakes are not persuadingpeople to make long-term changes in theirbehavior. Although often the foundation ofearly AIDS, drug and alcohol preventionprograms, fear and intimidation campaignshave met with little more than shock effect.To make matters worse, the fear-based ap-proach may actually be an impediment tochanging the behaviors necessary to slowthe spread of HIV. Communication pro-grams stressing prevention can persuadetarget audiences to adopt healthy ways ofliving over the long-term, but o:.ly if themessages shift from scare tactics to morecoordinated, positive, and sophisticatedcommunication techniques offering alterna-tive behaviors and hope.

Shocking EvidenceFear-based messages are prevalent in

AIDS prevention programs for specific rea-sons: some behavior change models havesuggested that among other factors, theperceived seriousness of negative conse-quences persuades people to avoid certainbehaviors. Thus, the scare campaigns at-tempt to shock people to attention by mag-nifying severe consequences. But several

other studies have found that fear-based ap-proaches may lead to more frequent high riskbehaviors and a higher risk for HIV infection.

The truth? Fear as the total basis for commu-nication may have more serious consequencesthan the simple waste of precious time, effortand resources. The tremendous amount of ex-perimental research conducted over the last 30years has yielded consistentlycontradictory re-sults. In onestudy con-ducted inAustraliaand NewZealand,researchersfound that thetarget audi-ence that wasexposed to thefear-based pro-gram actuallydecreased theirpractice of low-risk sexual be-haviors by 47%.An extensiveHarvard Univer-sity study in theU.S. found that thenational drug pre-vention campaignwhich used fear-based appeals did notlead to long-term be-havior change. In-stead, it has been sug-gested that the cam-paigns contributed topeople ignoring or de-nying their messages. The overall conclu-sion? A limited amount of threat and fear mayhelp raise initial awareness. But if the fear isoverwhelming, it can actually dull individualsensitivity and feeling of control and impedeefforts to change behaviors.

Fear also produces panic reactions. If peoplein a community are left feeling threatened andterrorized by the impact of AIDS, rather thanmaking personal behavioral changes to reducetheir own risk, people may opt to try and elimi-nate the "risky" people from their community.The result can be counterproductive measures

41

continued on p.16


Beyond Fear. cont'd from p.15

If the fear is

overwhelming,

it can

actually dull

individual

sensitivity

and feelings

of control

and impede

efforts to

chalige

behaviors.

such as quarantine or mandatory testing, whichare usually extraordinarily expensive and donot teach positive behavior. In addition, nega-tive attitudes toward people with HIV deter thepublic at risk from understanding and support-ing behavior change and appropriate healthcare and counseling. And if everyone is afraid,those at risk may not seek their own support orservices due to fear of being stigmatized.

Because fear-arousing approaches have somany limitations in their use, it is important forAIDS prevention programmers to envisionhealth communication as the promotion of al-ternative and beneficial behaviors rather thanmerely the removal of unhealthy behaviors.This approach requires program planners tolook for new strategies to change behaviorsstrategies that do not rely on shock and fearabout the severity of AIDS.

Is fear ever an appropriate strategy?

Even though it appears that fear-based pro-grams are counterproductive as sole communi-cation methods, there may be times when fearmay be an effective entry into other behaviorchange methods. Looking beyond fear, AIDSprevention programs should take care to ensurethat:

Fear messages control the level of fearthat is evoked. The level should be high enoughto inspire people to take action, but not so highthat they are paralyzed with fear, panicked, orin a state of denial about their own risk.

Programs provide specific, concretesteps people can take to reduce risks of HIVtransmission. People need to believe that therecommended behavior changes will help. Theyneed a range of feasible behavioral options toconsider. But telling people that unsafe sex willkill will evoke fear. Telling these same peoplethat their risk will be reduced if they decreasetheir number of partners or use condoms mayinstead provide a way for people to makehealthy changes.

Campaigns draw attention to the posi-tive results of adopting healthy behavior.People who know that they should usecondoms may be hesitant because they haveheard that condoms reduce pleasure or are cul-turally unacceptable. Using strategies to me ',eappropriate behaviors acceptable and even de-sirable will facilitate change.

Development Communication Report, no. 77T.n10

Strategies that workIn order to change behavior, program

planners have several communication strat-egies at hand which do not rely on fear.

First, program planners need to basetheir educational campaigns in solid audi-ence research. This means identifying aspecific target audience (known on the ad-vertising world as "market segmentation")based on well-defined geographic, demo-graphic, psychological, and other relevantcharacteristics. Once the audiences havebeen identified, campaign planners need toinvolve them in the design phases of theprogram through extensive pre-testing us-ing focus groups and in-depth interviews.This audience research, often not part of theprocess in many campaigns, will help plan-ners identify those issues of greatest impor-tance to the target audience and developcommunication programs that addressthose issues. For example, the educationalprogram for the Ghana Armed Forces in-volved the target audience in the designphases. As a result, one campaign posterresponds to the soldiers' real concernsabout social approval and support for mensuggesting condom use.

Second, program planners can promotepositive messages through peer education.By including key leaders within the desig-nated target group, behavior change mes-sages have more influence. Peer educationhas worked well with prostitutes in thePhilippines.

Third, innovation helps. One of the ear-liest Brazilian campaigns chose to avoidfear messages by selling love and solidar-ity. In a daring communication move, theBrazilian AIDS Control Program imple-mented a campaign with a slogan that"Love Doesn't Kill".

Fourth, program planners can link desir-able behaviors with popular and sociallyaccepted "lifestyles". This approach iswidely recognized in U.S. commercial ad-vertising: soft drink and beer ads do not tryto sell their products by trying to tellpeople that the beverages will prevent thedire consequences of dehydration; they sella "lifestyle". In a Mexico study, traditionalAIDS, family planning and health messagesdid little to convince individuals at highrisk to use condoms. Yet, when condoms

42

were associated with social acceptance anddesirable lifestyles, positive responses tothe messages increased. In the study, mes-sages and materials patterned on U.S. softdrink advertising proved the most promis-ing in gaining consumer interest, accep-tance, and use.

In another example, program plannersfrom the Planned Parenthood Associationin the Eastern Caribbean nation ofDominica worked to redesign howcondoms were displayed, distributed, andsold. Promotional materials were createdto support the new "lifestyle" approach.Posters, developed in conjunction with theCaribbean Family Pla.i...ning Affiliation,were displayed in corner shops and neigh-borhood bars in every city and village inDominica and showed people at the beachrelaxing at the end of the day. Medical orhealth themes were avoided. Instead,condoms were shown in familiar situationssuch as at the beach.

The condom promotion campaign wasinitiated in November, 1990. Data frommore than half the outlets show an extraor-dinary 83% increase in condom sales sincecampaign implementation. In some shops,the increase in sales has exceeded 300%. In

addition, the campaign has been able toexpand into 15% more outlets throughoutthe country.

Initiated as a marketing exercise, theDominica AIDS prevention campaign hashelped break down barriers to open discus-sions about condoms and AIDS throughoutthe country. Eighteen months ago, theDominica Planned Parenthood Association

was nearly closed for mentioning the word"condom" on a radio talk show. Today,local stations are broadcasting informationand promotional spots about condomsnationwide. In fact, response to the cam-paign has been so positive that the Minis-try of Health has requested that promo-tional display materials be distributed toall government health clinics. Rather thanapproaching the issue of condom use by

trying to instill and sustain fear aboutAIDS, Dominica went beyond fear by pro-moting a healthy lifestyle and offeringpositive behavior alternatives. The chal-lenge remains for all AIDS prevention pro-grams around the world: to go beyond fearin seeking to change behaviors, and there-

fore, make a significant long term difference inslowing the spread of AIDS.

Marc Ostfield is the Chief of the Behavior ChangeCommunication Program of Family HealthInternational's (FHI) AIDS Control and Prevention

Project. For more information, contact: FHI, Colonial

Place, Suite 710, 2101 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA22201. tel: (703) 516 -9779. fax: (703) 516-9781.

. $

AIDS Prevention WithoutFear:

Peer Education for Commercial Sex Workers

The Philippines has a large number of commercial sex workers, orprostitutes, at high risk for HIV infection. They operate in many citiesthroughout the country with large concentrations in major cities and

around military bases. In Olongapo and Angeles cities on the island of

Luzon there are approximately 9000 licensed sex workers. The typical

sex worker is 24 years old, single, with close to 8 years of education

and earns about 500 pesos (US$18.50) a week.In 1988, the Olongapo City Health Offices became interested in

communication projects to combat the risk of HIV. A surveyamong sex workers found that while awareness and concern of

AIDS was high, 43% rarely or never used a condom.In July 1989, a community based health education projecfwas,

launched to prevent the spread of AIDS with the support of lioththeOlongapo and Angeles City mayors. The program was design to

use the peer influence to educate the sex workers within bars:and dis-

cos. While selected sex workersbecame peer educators, posterswith AIDS awareness andcondom use messages wereplaced in the area and condomswere made available in the bars.

The posters did not rely onfear. They did not try to shamethe sex workers or ostracizethem. Instead, they relied onlearning how to reduce high riskbehavior and prevent infectionthrough the trust and camarade-rie of the sex workers peergroup.

The sex workers were not theonly ones who benefited fromthis project. Those who fre-quented the bars and paid fortheir services also benefited.

This project was implemented byFamily Health International with thesupport of the Olongapo and Angeles

City Health Offices, The Philippines.

AIDSDOESN'T snot ME

I know a sato trickand I always carryit with me.

ANDFEELSAFE

FOR MOIR MPOIMMIX04CALL UP 222-4000

PENNI ItMN P111111011111111

INK MEG=1:11711117111.11111,111


The Rural Market: A Unique Communication Medium

tr.

r!"

Readu to [vitt thettmkittetton in the market inl'era Cruz.

By Peter Spain

Nobody knows exactly howmany small villages there arein Mexico, but there are tensof thousands of settlementswith fewer than 500 inhabit-

ants scattered throughout the country. Forthe Health Secretary, trying to providehealth services broadly and equitably tothese many tiny communities offers uniquechallenges. People in villages are at par-ticularly high risk for disease due to theirisolation, their lack of education, their lim-ited diets, their lack of access to services,and often their lack of Spanish fluency.And for women and the children they carefor, all these disadvantages are com-pounded. The Health Secretary, respon-sible for the world's largest city as well asthese thousands of small towns, has to seek

creative solu-tions to meetthe needs ofthese scatteredrural peoples.

In January

`:3

k of 1990, when.* the Mexican

Health Secre-tary asked theTechnologiesfor PrimaryHealth Careproject(PRITECH), tohelp accessrural areas,PRITECH hadbeen working

lel with the Mexi-can diarrheadisease control

r program forwoo: several years.

17.0411- Their initial

plan consistedof a 'train thetrainer' ap-proach whereMinistry ofHealth staffobtained the

first round of training and they trainedothers. Eventually, the information spread.


While this strategy was effective, for themost remote peoples it proved to be con-strained by the same elements that makethem high-risk in the first place. The effectsof the training became diluted as the infor-mation reached beyond the main towns.PRITECH had to come up with a fresh strat-egy a true rural communication strategy.

PRITECH enlisted a local consultinggroup, the CICLOPE group. CICLOPE haddone research with rural indigenous peopleon their diarrhea treatment practices andhad developed training strategies to workwith them. With this unique track record,CICLOPE had already won the respect andfavor of rural communities.

For this first effort, CICLOPE focused ontwo states for eight months, Hidalgo andVera Cruz. The approach involved the freshuse of familiar media such as radio, comicbooks, and face-to-face training of healthworkers, or auxiliaries, alongside presenta-tions at regional markets.

The CICLOPE team first trained ruralhealth auxiliaries in proper diarrhea man-agement, and then followed them up intheir own communities offering supervisionand guidance for their encounters with vil-lage women. In teaching them about correctdiarrhea case management, CICLOPE em-ployed a clever teaching tool a gourdwith z. face painted to resemble a baby. Eachgourd had holes and other adjustmentsmade to illustrate the process and effects ofdiarrheal dehydration. Mothers were en-couraged to understand their own situationbetter and to adapt new information to it. Inthis way, CICLOPE moved away from atop-down teaching approach to one thatrecognized the abilities of the learner andthe active role of the learner in her/his owneducation. In contrast to most Mexicanclassrooms, CICLOPE's participatory train-ing style put the learners and teachers intoactive roles through games and exercises.

On the market days, the keystone of theproject, the communication came to life.CICLOPE could not go personally to allwomen in their villages. But market daysdrew these hard-to-reach women togetherlike a magnet every week. Markets becameunique, personal media.

After their training, the auxiliaries tookpart in the market-day events which wereannounced ahead of time on radio t-1 alert

6a-v44

the region. Throughout the month ofmarket-day events, the local radiofeatured dramas about diarrhea man-agement. Produced in dramatic fash-ion by professionals using an enter-taining "poetic" format, they rein-forced the messages of the market-dayprogram.

At each market event, the level ofenergy projected by CICLOPE staffand the retrained health workers hadto compete with the bustle of themarket's other attractions. Wedgedbeside produce vendors and compet-ing with tapes of ranchero music,CICLOPE unfurled their banners andhawked their own "wares" with apopular Mexican bingo-like lotterygame. Complete with prizes to win-ners and participants, the game at-tracted people to the booth and heldthem with education and entertain-ment. It worked: rural people, espe-cially women, came and stayed, wonprizes, and went away happy and,evaluation showed, a bit more in-formed about caring for their childrenwith diarrhea.

The education: a short flip-chartpresentation about a dramatic case ofdiarrhea in which a little boy is res-cued from dehydration and possibledeath by a mother's proper use of oralrehydration therapy (ORT). The enter-tainment: a lottery game, the answersto which came from the flip-chart

The market's attractions do not only reachwomen.

presentation. Entertainment rein-forced education, and informationabout ORT was repeated to par-ticipants in the game and to themany spectators who crowdedaround throughout the dayincluding, eventually, some pro-duce vendors and tape salesmen.

To evaluate the program, inter-views were done across all mar-kets with lottery participants andwith people who had not takenpart in the lottery. The result is notsurprising. The experience of theCICLOPE booth provides majorlearning gains for participants.While labor intensive, this ap-proach is showing that it can reachrural indigenous women critical tothe health of their high-risk chil-dren and for whom market day istheir regular contact with the out-side world.

The PRITECH project is imple-mented by a consortium led by Man-agement Sciences for Health. PeterSpain is a Senior Program Officer atthe Academy for Educational Develop-ment (AED), a consortium member.For more information, contact:PRITECH, 1925 North Lynn St., Suite400, Arlington, VA 22209 USA. tel:(703) 516-2555, fax: (703) 525-5070.

45zai

INFOTERRA/USA:ENVIRONMENTALRESOURCE

INFOTERRA/USA, a newresource and referral service,provides free informationabout international environ-mental organizations and ex-perts, materials, research cen-ters and databases. As a part ofthe United Nations Environ-ment Programme's informationexchange and referral service,INFOTERRA /USA responds torequests for substantive scien-tific and. technical informationon any environmental topicand acts as a link to govern-ments, scientists, internationalorganizations, academia, in-dustry and concerned citizensworldwide. The INFOTERRAnetwork is comprised of 140participating nations each withNational Focal Points;:RegionalService Centres, SpecialSectoral Sources, andProgramme Activity Centres.Requestors can also drop inand use the clearinghouse. Formore information aboutINFOTERRA or tomake a re-quest, contact: INFOTERRA/USA, US Environmental Pro-tection Agency, Rm. 2904; PM-211A, 401 M St., SW, Washing-ton DC 20460, USA. tel: (202)260-5917, fax: (202) 260-3923,telex: 892758. All services arefree.


lass Media and Behavior Change: Hand in HandEvidence from evaluations conducted by Johns Hopkins University/Population Communication Services over the last de-cade conclude that mass media are more effective as a behavior change technique than previously thought. Health and fam-ily planning information aired through radio, television, and print materials has increased the sales of condoms, visits toclinics, calls to hotlines, and the overall demand for contraceptives sometimes by over 100%. The evidence speaks for itself.

Mass Media Intervention

Pakistan. 1991, Multi-media campaign featuring Aahat, a six part drama for tele-

vision promoting health and family planning ( 6 weeks)

Brazil, 1988-90, Multi-media campaign to promote vasectomy in 3 Brazilian cities,

featuring humorous TV spots ( 6 months)

The Philippines, 1988-89, Mass media campaign in Cebu Province promoting

health and family planning and clinic sites, (1 year)

Zimbabwe, 1988-89, Multi-media campaign to motivate men to use family plan-

ning featuring radio soap opera for men, (1 year)

Indonesia, 1987-88, Multi-media campaign to promote private sector family plan-

ning services featuring TV and print media (6 months)

Turkey, 1987-89, Multi-media campaign to promote health and family planning

featuring enter-educate TV and radio dramas (3 months)

The Philippines, 1987-89, Multi-media music campaign featuring two popular

songs and videos, TV/radio spots, and hotline referral services

Nigeria, Oyo State,1987, TV promotion of family planning and clinic sites featur-

ing family planning themes integrated into 2 existing TV programs (6 months)

Nigeria. Anambra State, 1986-87, TV promotion of family planning and clinic

sites featuring 43 drama episodes integrated into popular TV show (14 months)

Bolivia, 1984-87, Multi -media campaign to promote health and family planning

featuring 8 radio spots in 3 languages and 8 cities, plus print and tapes for buses

Mexico and Latin America, 1985-86, Multi-media popular music campaign topromote sexual responsibility among young people featuring two songs and vid-

eos with TV, radio, print materials (6-9 months)

Nigeria, Kwara State, 1984-87, Multi-media campaign to promote health andfamily planning featuring 4 radio spots aired 169 times and 5 TV spots aired 110

times

Indications of Behavior Change

8% surveyed said they visited a clinic after seeing Aahat; 36% said they would

limit family size; 5% said they did something to improve husband-wife commu-

nication; and 44% said they intended to improve spouse communication

58% of new clinic visitors in one city cited TV as source of referral; 81% in-

crease in vasectomies performed krone clinic.. .

188% increase in new family planning acceptors at city clinics; 54% increase in

new acceptors at private clinics

14% of men aged 18-55 reported visiting clinic or community based distributor

site;.7% reported they began to use family planning; 81% of men changed

attitude about men participating in family planning; 55% talked to partner about

family planning

32% of private doctors surveyed reported a 28% increase in family rIanning

visits; 32% of private midwives surveyed reported a 36% increase in family

planning visits

6% increase in clinic visits by.married women; 4% increase in use of modem

methods; 6% increase in new IUD users; 63% discussed campaign with

spouse; 20% intended to visit clinic

25% sought contraceptive information; 12% of target audience surveyed tried

to call hotline in first 6 months; 63% intended to call

24% monthly average of new clinic visitors in 12 clinics named the TV pro-

grams as source of referral; 54% discussed program with family and friends

55% monthly average of new clinic visitors named TV program as source of

referral during first 6 months of campaign in one Oyo State clinic; 61% in re-

call-survey wanted more family planning information

Family planning acceptors at clinics increased 71% during campaign period;

99% surveyed said they intended to visit clinic as result of hearing spots

800% increase in number of letters written to adult counseling center from 50

letters per month to 450 per month at campaign peak; 50% of target audience

surveyed talked to female friends about songs; 32% to male friends

500% increase in new acceptors per quarter (from 258 in 1984 to 1526 in

1987) In the 7 clinics that were in place before campaign began

Honduras. 1984.86, Mass media campaign to promote family planning featuring 11% increase in community based distributors clients between 3000 and 4000

radio promotion of community based distributors (5 months) new users

Colombia, 1988-89, Condom Promotion Campaign (6 months) 74% increase in sales of condoms

For additional background information on any of these projects, contact: Population Communication Services, the Johns HopkinCenter for Communication Programs, 527 St. Paul Place, Baltimore, MD 21202 USA tel: (410) 659-6300, fax: (410) 659-6266.

20:hkL4g kt,=1,,d !,eDevelopment Communication Report, no. 77

Safeguarding Health through the Practical Use of Knowledge

by Gilles Forget

icari and La Chaves are twoyoung rural communitiesin the District of Rio Frioon the Atlantic coastalplain of Costa Rica. The

standard of living in this region is low.People lack many basic services includingelectricity, public transportation, potablewater, and sanitation. Visits by healthworkers and doctors areirregular.

In 1988, aCosta Ricannongovern-mental orga-nization(NGO),Fundatec (basedat the InstituteTecnologico deCosta Rica), beganto study the processof using of low-costhandpumps from Asia through aproject entitled "Participatory Strategies inWater Supply' supported by Canada'sInternational Development Research Cen-tre (IDRC).

But the project did not begin as planned.The handpumps imported from Asia tookover six months to arrive. During this time,the researchers regularly visited the com-munities keeping them informed of thewhereabouts of the hardware and the ex-pected arrival date. They became ac-quainted with the problems of the commu-nities, their needs, and their expectations.The people of the communities were struckby the candid attitude of the "outsiders,"their preoccupation for keeping them in-formed, their punctuality, and their com-mitment to keeping their word a traitthey had not previously seen in externalexperts.

This people-to-people interaction basedon mutual respect and trust helped main-tain the interest of the communities in theproject. Researchers and communities be-came interested in learning from eachother. Project activities became a learningprocess in which people were invited tohelp shape, change and criticize.

The fact that the project investigators

took the time to understand communityperceptions proved to be very helpful inovercoming the apathy of the communi-ties to improve the hygienic conditions ofwater sources and latrines. From discus-sions about hygiene, the researchers real-ized that the community members had nounderstanding of the microscopic world.Any talk about improving hygiene prac-tices was, therefore, meaningless.

To overcome this problem, the teamorganized a meeting

with the commu-nity leaders and

water commit-tees. A flea withwhiskers wasdrawn on ablackboard anda microscopewas set up. Theresearchers thenasked the puzzledaudience if theyhad ever seen thewhiskers of a flea

and invited them to look.The people discovered things they

never imagined. With the help of the re-searchers, community leaders organized a"health week" to talk to their communi-ties about the role of hygiene and thetransmission of disease. The microscopeand the flea's whiskers were main fea-tures.

The aim of the "outside experts" wasnot to introduce technology, but to addtheir knowledge to that of the communityand work jointly with the communities tosolve immediate problems. From thispeople-to-people interaction and sharingof knowledge, a new form of conscious-ness emerged. People began to under-stand how the problems they were tryingto solve were part of a larger picture. To-day, self-help and self-organization arevery much in the minds and actions of thecommunities of Rio Frio.

Gilles Forges is the Acting Director of Gen-eral Health Sciences Division at IDRC. Thisarticle was adapted from Health and the Envi-ronment: A People Centred Research Strat-egy. For more information, contact Gilles Forget

at: IDRC, PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada KIG

3119.

A flea with

whiskers was

drawn on a

blackboard

and a

microscope

was set up

4 7Development Communication Report, no. 77


ConferencesAMARC, a NGO serving the community radio move-

ment, has changed its conference date to August 23-29, 1992at the Oaxtepec Conference Center 100 kilometers outside ofMexico City. The theme, "All the Voices" explores the poten-tial of community radio and giving a voice to people de-prived of such rights. The cost is $500 to $800 and grants areavailable. For more information, contact AMARC, 3375 boul.St. Laurent, Suite 602, Montreal, Canada H2X 2T7, tel: (514)849-7129.

The Third Conference on Mass Communication, MassMedia and Health Education will take place in Amsterdam,the Netherlands from May 24-26, 1993. For more informa-tion, contact: Marianne Smit, Dutch Health Education Cen-tre, PO Box 5104, 3502 JC Utrecht, The Netherlands. fax: 31-30- 9640 -82.

Audio-VisualsThe Television Trust for the Environment (TVE), a non-

profit organization which promotes environment and develop-ment issues through broadcast television, has various informa-tion services for communicators. The Moving Pictures Bulletinincludes a database, a film catalogue with videos in languagesfrom all over the world, and a training program to help broad-casters and film-makers from the South make their own films.For information about the English edition of the Bulletin, con-tact TVE, 46 Charlotte St., London WIP 1LX. tel (44 71) 6374602; fax: (44 71) 580 7780. For the French edition, contact LesCahiers du Futur, 5 Passage Montgallet, 75012 Paris, France.tel: (33 1) 46 28 45 90; fax: (33 1) 43 44 97 67. For the TVE Distri-bution and Training Centre, contact: Postbus 7, 3700 AA Zeist,the Netherlands. tel: (31 3404) 20499; fax: (31 3404) 22484. TheBulletin is free.

Electronic Mail

The Distance Education Online Symposium (DEOS) hasintroduced two new international electronic mail (E-Mail) ser-vices. DEOSNEWS is a weekly international electronic journalfor distance education. Currently, it has over 600 subscribersfrom 28 countries and is distributed on many university com-puter systems. To submit articles, contact DEOS through this e-mail address: MF1'101CDPSUVM.PSU.EDU The second service,DEOS-L is a free international forum for distance educationestablished to facilitate discussion of the issues presented inDEOSNEWS. To subscribe, post the following command:[email protected]. For general information, con-tact: Morten Flate Paulsen, The Pennsylvania State University,403 South Allen Street, Suite 206, University Park, PA 16801-5202 USA.


Call for PapersThe International Vitamin A Consultative Group will

hold its 15th IVACG Meeting entitled "Toward Compre-hensive Programs to Reduce Vitamin A Deficiency" inAfrica in February, 1993 IVACG is accepting abstractsfrom anyone interested in making a presentation. ContactLaurie Lindsay, IVACG Secretariat, The Nutrition Foun-dation, Inc., 1126 16th Street, NW, Washington DC 20036.tel: (202) 659-9024.

Manuscripts are being sought for Volume 18 of theInternational and Intercultural Communication Annual.The theme is "Communication in Multinational Organiza-tions". Manuscripts from African, Asian, European orLatin American organizations are particularly encour-aged. Submission deadline is August 1, 1992. For guide-lines, contact: Robert Shuyer. IIC, Dept. of Communica-tion and Rhetorical Studies, Marquette University, Mil-waukee, WI 53233, USA. tel: (414) 288-3029.

The National Council of Development Communicationinvites papers for presentations at its biannual seminar on"Traditional Knowledge and Its Communication Pattern"in December 1992. The theme areas are Agriculture, Envi-ronment and Maternal and Child Care Practices. The ab-stract should not exceed 300 words and should be sent tothe Seminar Director no later than September 1. Two cop-ies of the full paper may be submitted at the time of pre-sentation. For details, contact: Dr. B.P. Sinha, SeminarDirector, Division of Agricultural Extension, Indian Agri-cultural Extension, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,New Dehli 110 012, India.

PTC Research Prizes

The Pacific Telecommunications Council (PTC) re-cently decided to launch a series of research prizes to en-courage scholarship in the area of telecommunicationspolicy research. There are three research pnzes for thebest papers (original works of publishable length) in thefollowing subject categories:

international telecommunications policy and regula-tion;

international telecommunications economics and fi-nance;

the impact of international telecommunications poli-cies on the development of societies and cultures.

Winners will be asked to present their papers at the15th PTC conference in January 1993. The prizes include amonetary award of US$ 2000 each. For information andapplication forms, contact James Savage, Assistant Direc-tor, PTC, 2454 South Beretania Street, Suite 302, Honolulu,Hawaii 96826-1596 USA. fax: (808) 944-4874.

4

AudiovisualsStrategies for Hope. Series of video programs, 15-20

minutes long, and booklets, 2540 pages in length.Available in French, English.. Booklets free to NGOsbased in sub-Saharan Africa; up to 50 booklets free toNational AIDS Control Programs. Video prices vary, buta limited number can be requested free by NGOs in sub-Saharan Africa with a letter of explanation. TALC, PO

Box 49, St. Albans, Hertfordshire, AL1 4AX United

Kingdom.

These materials cover the education and support of AIDSvictims and their families and the prevention of the further

spread of AIDS.. The videos and booklets use the case studyapproach to show the experiences of rural hospitals in Zam-

bia, and The AIDS Support Organization (TASO), an eastern

African NGO which leads support groups for people withAIDS in Uganda. Techniques used for counselling, care andinformation dissemination are described. Rather than simply

looking at prevention and control, these materials focus onliving positively with AIDS, and the role of African NGOs inAIDS prevention and control.

Breastfeeding: Protecting a Natural Resource. 15 minute

training video and booklet available in English, Spanishand French. Both are free to family planning institutionsin developing countries with proof of their institutionalstatus. For others, US$20 for the video and $10 for thebooklet. Institute for International Studies in NaturalFamily Planning, Georgetown University, 3800 Reservoir

Road, NW, Pasquerilla Healthcare Center, WashingtonDC 20007, fax: (202) 687-6846.

This video and booklet describe the health, reproduction,and economic benefits of breastfeeding for the mother, childand community in a thorough and easy to understand fash-ion. Obstacles in the promotion of communication campaignson breastfeeding are given and guidelines to overcome them.

An excellent set of materials for professionals and parents

alike.

Books and PeriodicalsCommunication Processes: Alternative Channels andStrategies for Development Support, edited by KwameBoafo and Nancy George, African Council for Commu-

nication Education and The International DevelopmentResearch Centre, P.O. Box/BP 8500, Ottawa, CanadaK1G 3H9. tel: (613) 236-6163, fax: (613) 238-7230.

This publication contains nine of seventeen papers given

at a seminar on communication systems and resources as asignificant input into the process of societal development.

Resources

Theoretical as well as practical and conceptual argumentsare articulated by individuals from a diversity of Africancountries and fields. Specific article topics include: partici-patory methods, popular theater for women as communi-cators, rural newspapers, and oral traditions and mothertongues as communication strategies.

Family Planning World. Enterprise Communications,Inc., P.O. Box 7389, Marietta, GA 30065-9808. Avail-able in English 6 times annually, FPW costs US$19 as

part of an introductory offer. Regularly, the annual feeis $38. Length: 32 pages.

An innovative bimonthly newsmagazine for familyplanning service providers has just made its debut. Thenewsmagazine not only t "'ores new technology and re-search in both developed and developing countries, it also

looks at diverse communication strategies, AIDS preven-tion and family planning models, social marketing, andfending opportunities as well as other related topics.

The Journal of Health Administration Education.Published quarterly by the Association of UniversityPrograms in Health Administration, 1991 North FortMyer Drive, Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209, USA.Subscription rates: individual, US$50 for 1 year,libraries in US, Canada, Mexico, US$55, other librar-ies, US$60.

This international journal follows advances in the fields

of health service management, the communication of inno-vative approaches to management development, and thereview of new related bcoks. The journal features articlesfrom authors from around the world to analyze variousfacets of health administration including the economics,working with rural communities, and managerial commu-nication strategies for specific health problems.

HEALTHCOM publications. 1255 23rd Street, NW,Washington D.C. 20037 USA, tel: (202) 862-1900. The

USAID HEALTHCOM project has produced variousdocuments, guides and audiovisuals about health anddevelopment communication. Most are under US$10and are free to people in developing countries. Span-ish, French, English, Bahasa Indonesian.

New Clearinghouse Resource!

A new resource is now available from the Clearinghouse

on Development Communication: An Information Package

on AIDS Education and Communication. Cost is US$5 plus

$1 shipping; free to readers in developing countries. Thepackage contains a compilation of past articles on AIDS in

the DCR, a list of periodicals, and other resources. See ad-

dress for the Clearinghouse on p.2.

419 Development Communication Report, no. 77

A Participatory Concept of Development and Communication

by Judi Aubel

A prevailing belief suggests that health communica-tion consists primarily of diffusing carefullyworded messages to target groups in order totrigger individual behavior change. But a growing

minority of people view the aim of health communicationquite differently. An alternative view suggests that the focusof health communication strategies should be on stimulatingdialogue and analysis of health problems by both communitymembers and health workers based on their respective expe-riences and priorities in order to define strategies for actionat both the community and institutional levels.Information Transfer or Convergence of Priorities?

"The set of behaviors that planners want the target audi-ence to practice is defined by comparing what the audiencecurrently does with the list of ideal behaviors determined bythe technical experts".

One concept of health communication is called "informa-tion transfer". In this classic model, the "sender" transmits"messages" to the target "audience". But the informationtransfer model has been increasingly criticized for being uni-directional and top-down. Some say it assumes informationcan be injected like a hypodermic needle injects vaccine.

One critic, researcher Lawrence Kincaid, proposes the"convergence model" of communication. In this model, termswhich suggest a hierarchal relationship between healthworker and the community members (sender and audience)are discarded and replaced with language which promotesparticipation at a decision making level. Rather than usingfeedback only at the point of evaluation, participants shareinformation throughout the process to gradually increasetheir understanding of each other's knowledge and prioritiesand to identify mutually acceptable approaches. For example,a mutual priority may be for mothers to combat bouts of di-arrhea in their children. Through discussions, it may be pos-sible to develop a recommendation acceptable to both moth-ers and health workers such as a combination of traditionalhome fluids and oral rehydration therapy.individual Behavior Change

Communication strategies which focus only on individualbehavior and information transfer are constrained because:changes in individual knowledge and attitudes often do notlead to changes in behavior; cultural or economic factors maymake it impossible for individuals to change their behavior;"target audience" suggests passivity and a top-down philoso-phy of development where experts define solutions and per-suade communities to accept them.

A collaborative approach differs in four fundamentalways:

the priority is on changing community norms rather thanindividual behavior

the aim is not solely to diffuse informatic i, but to createmutually acceptable health practices

it work through indigenous communicators'it aim to strengthen health skills in two-way communica-

tion.


Empowering Community Actors

All communities have indigenous systems of social organiza-tion and communication. Strengthening the ability of indigenouscommunicators to analyze community problems and to mobilizeothers to help solve them can promote sustainable changes inhealth strategies. The emphasis is less on providing informationand more on reinforcing processes of problem solving and com-munity organizing.

Research in the fields of communication and social changeincreasingly point to the influence which group norms have onindividual behavior. And identifying and working through socialnetworks at the community or workplace levels are not untriedideas. In India and Bangladesh, women network leaders educatedother women on child nutrition practices. In The Gambia, Mus-lim leaders, Imams, promoted child health and family planning,and in Kenya, gas station attendants distributed and explainedcondom use to truck drivers within their network. The list goeson...

Communication Materials

Facts about health information may be consistent across com-munication strategies, but participation in development promotesownership of the product and its cultural significance. In Senegal,leprosy clients developed comicstrips. In Malawi, women'sgroups developed nutrition songs and accompanying dances. InEcuador, representatives of rural communities helped produceradio and print materials on water and sanitation topics in com-munication workshops. These are just a few examples.

Research in cognitive psychology shows that the motivation tolearn increases when educational content relates to personal be-liefs and experience. Facilitated structured learning activitieswhich employ open-ended stories, socio-dramas or pictureswhich depict typical health-related situations can inspire groupanalysis of health problems and problem solving.

Examples are endless: open ended theater on family planningand child health in Tanzania and Burkino Faso, group games onchild health topics in Tunisia, and coloring books with Peruvianwomen who colored in "their lives" while discussing their prob-lems and options. In all cases, the conclusions are sought withparticipants.An Alternative Vision of Development

Health institutions must develop horizontal partnerships withcommunities. Health personnel accustomed to the role of "mes-sage sender" should become facilitators. Health workers mustbecome skilled at involving communities in analyzing commu-nity health problems as well as in program planning, implemen-tation and evaluation.

Program planners are faced with clear alternatives. Their firsttask is to define the concept of communication on which programactivities are to be built. Should health communication consistprimarily of diffusing solutions? Or should it consist of involvingcommunity and institutional partners in analyzing problems andpriorities and defining mutually acceptable and sustainable strat-egies for improving community health?

Judi Aubel is a private consultant who specializes in health communi-cation and participatory methods. Contact her at: B.P. 3746, Dakar,Senegal. tel: (221) 25 17 39, fax: (221) 24 24 78.

24

To Our Readers:In September 1990, the World Summit forChildren, organized by UNICEF, challenged

nations to explore new opportunities which would betterthe lives and futures of our children. Of four goals underbasic education, one called for the expansion of earlychildhood development activities, and another, for theincreased use of development communication strategiesThis issue of the DCR focuses on what we have learnedabout early childhood development and developmentcommunication and how to meet the needs of young chil-dren during those important and formative years.

The Editor

II i I

Learning and the Young Child:Communicating the Challenges of the 1990s

by Cyril Dalais

Learning begins at birthmaybeearlier There is little doubt todaythat the developmentally appro-priate care children receive while

they are young has a remarkable impact ontheir learning capacities, personalities andsocial interactions well into adulthood. Thefirst two years of life invt. lye such rapid

growth and significant change that by theage of two, most of the growth of the humanbrain is complete. By the age of six, a child'sbrain has grown to 90% of its adult weight.Clearly, the experiences and health duringthese early years are essential for both thelifelong perceptions of the world and thedevelopment of critical brain structures that

continued on p.2

Communication and Community Development:Early Child Development Programsby Fred Wood and Amy Jo Reinhold

ILW ithout the empowerment of the com-munitywithout the involvement ofpatterns of self-help, self-reliance and

self-activation: without the development of humanresources in and of the community; without the'Llsterinq and support of local initiatives: indeed,without the community's assumption of responsi-bility and control for its own affairs and function-ingwithout all these, the success of the mostwell- meaning early childhood program will beparting. at best." Ruth and Yehuda Paz, 1988.

Experience in many countries revealsthat the most effective method of achievingprogram acceptance, success andsustainability in early childhooddevelopment programs is to buildupon the community. By communi-cating program aims, objectives andmethods to community -basedgroups organized around particularaspects of early childhood develop-ment (ECD), such as literacy, parent

continued on p.4

o

No. 781992/3

Inside this Issue ...

F

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What's Nun.V.". v7

Seledined by the Ono. o Educedolt.Burgett tot Reeseielt and DendefhltehtU.S. Agway for anletenexed Devetepos

401Development


Development CommunicationReport. published quarterly bythe Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication,has a circulation of over 7,000.The newsletter is available freeof charge to readers in thedeveloping world and at acharge of $10.00 per year toreaders in industrializedcountries.

A center for materials andinformation on importantapplications of communicationtechnology to developmentproblems, the Clearinghouse isoperated by the Institute forInternational Research, inassociation with CreativeAssociates International andsupported by the U.S. Agencyfor International Development,Bureau for Research andDevelopment, Office ofEducation, as part of itsprogram in educationaltechnology and developmentcommunication.

The views expressed in theDevelopment CommunicationReport are those of the authorsand not necessarily of itssponsors. Original material inthe Report may be reproducedwithout prior permissionprovided that full credit isgiven and that two copies of thereprint are sent to the Editor.

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication1815 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 600Arlington, VA 22209 USATelephone: (703) 527-5546Fax: (703) 527-4661

Andrea Bosch, EditorValerie Lamont,


LibrarianMariel Escudero,

Circulation Manager

Development CommunicationReport is produced usingdesktop publishing under A.I.Dcontract DR- 5831 -Z -00- 8028 -00

ISSN 0192-1312

Learning, cont'd from page 1

fuels further behavioral changes andincreases the child's abilities to learn.

A child's development is greatly en-hanced if parents and other members ofthe family are actively involved. Withlove and attention, good nutrition andhealth care, and opportunities to play,explore, imitate, learn and feel loved,the child's mind and body will grow. Infact, research findings clearly indicatethat early psychological and social de-velopment have a direct and measurableimpact on the health, nutritional statusand abilities of the child. Physically andmentally, socially and emotionally, thechild's early years are critical to his orher development.

Learning in Jeopardy

Unfortunately, families cannot keepup with child care needs. Urbanization,industrialization, migration, naturaldisasters and armed conflict are quicklychanging our family structures. Themodel of a cohesive family in which asingle male has sole economic responsi-bility and can provide for the wife andchildren was never the norm in manyparts of the world. It is becoming lessand less the reality.

Instead, the emerging trend in manycountries in sub-Saharan Africa andAsia is that younger men are going tocities looking for work and leaving be-hind women with children and elderly(,n farms and rural villages. Thesewomen rind themselves with heavierwork loads and little time for nurturingand responding to their young children.Older siblings, especially girls, have toshare the load, thus depriving them-selves of an education while they lookatter their Younger siblings.

And women have more economicopportunities. Combined with addedresponsibility, many familiar culturalpractices and survival patterns devel-oped by women over the years havebeen disrupted. With less time devotedto building strong foundations in chil-dren, the quality of parenting is clang-ing and is likely to continue to change asthe young child grows up deprived ofadequate parental care.


The Mauritian Model:Off the coast of South Africa, southeast of

Madagascar, lies Mauritius, a small sugar pro-ducing country, where parents mobilizedaround a preschool project linked to a long termresearch program on "at-risk children." Overtwo decades, the project has yielded some inter-esting advances in child development, youngchild initial education programs for normal, at-risk and disabled children and a design andcurriculum for communicating with adultsabout the neec .ind realities of child develop-ment.

In 1968, the World Health Organization Sci-entific Group on Neuropsychological and Be-havioral Research in Psychiatry published areport which became the starting point of theJoint Child Health and Education Project(JCHEP). Mauritius was chosen as the best siteto conduct interdisciplinary research due to itswell-developed infrastructure, low cost, and itswide cultural diversity the island is popu-lated with descendants of Asian, African andEuropean settlers.

The research involved screening 2000 threeyear old children and conducting a long-termstudy of their development. A sub-sample of200 children were offered nursery school educa-tion and were observed. Later, as the childrenreached puberty, more observations and evalua-tions took place.

Community mobilization and communica-tion strategies were used to bring people to-gether. Project staff took great pains to informthe local authorities, explaining the Project andgathering input from the community throughthe local media and community meeting places.They met with religious and civic members togain support and mobilize the community.

Advocacy and Social MobilizationAdvocacy and social mobilization were the

most crucial components not only during the

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Communication and Advocacyearly days, but throughout the period of 1972-86 when JCHEP had its most significant con-tribution to early child development pro-grams. While the Project staff used the mediaand local networks, the JCHEP gave birth to aseries of sub-projects including preschool ser-vices and training, nutritional programs foryoung children, school readiness schemes,child protection and safety, early screeningand intervention for children with specialneeds, and finally, drug awareness.

Pilot nursery schools were established,with support from DANIDA, and a selectgroup of young Mauritian educators weregiven 1500 hours of in-service training halfof which was supervised work with children.All trainees were introduced to techniques ofadministration, classroom organization andsocial communication. They learned specificcommunication skills to organize parentgroups, focus groups and fundraising activi-ties and were taught how to communicateface-to-face with anxious parents while re-viewing a child's progress or to pass informa-tion to communities through the use of pup-pets, festivals or fund raising fairs.

Then, after the training component wasrepeated twice, the Mauritius Institute of Edu-cation took over the supervision of trainingand parents took more responsibility. Theoriginal 200 parents organized parent supportgroups which not only became participatory,but became influential in persuading the Gov-ernment of Mauritius to provide adequateservices for their children. Under parentaldemands and guidance, local authoritiesagreed to extend some of the teaching meth-odologies their children had benefitted fromto other children in the community.

As more centers were opened, ResourceInformation Centers were set up at primaryschools to inform parents and the communityabout the importance of child-centered activi-ties and the family. They provided a preschooladvisory service to counsel and guide parents.teachers and the community, a toy libraryservice, a reference library on preschool edu-cation, and a training center.

Conclusion: A Recipe for Success?The JCHEP has had a remarkable impact

on the Mauritian education system. The no-tion of the family as the primary social institu-tion for nurturing the child was further rein-forced a, was the need to reduce the overallburden on %% omen and mothers so they couldplay a more active role in child care and edu-cation.

Today, preschool edu-cation is offered to a largeproportion of the 94,000children under five inMauritius ensuring thatmost children have accessto adequate preparationprior to entering the formaleducation system at age 5.The training course hasbecome a certified trainingcourse for preschool edu-cators.

Looking back, the suc-cess of the JCHEP and spread of child devel-opment knowledge and programs inMauritius can be attributed to number offactors.

The child remained the focus.

Information, training, focus groups andthe media were used to spread informa-tion.

+ Parents were considered the first andbest educators of their children. Theybore the primary responsibility for theirchild's needs, moral direction and guid-ance.

The project respected the cultural diver-sity of the Mauritian population whileensuring that each child had an equalopportunity to enter the economic main-stream. All the families participated infairs, rallies, and cultural festivals.

+ The emphasis was on the prevention ofproblems rather than on the resolution ofproblems.

Continuous monitoring and evaluationensured that children and parents alikewere kept the main beneficiaries.

JCHEP grew into programs the communi-ties understood and jointly wanted becauseProject staff facilitated a constant flow ofinformation between projects, parents, fami-lies and communities. With this informationand understanding, the community mobi-lized behind a cause in which they believea.

Curil Dalais is the Senior Advisor for Educa-tion, Child Development at the United NationsChildren's Fund (UNICEF). For more informationabout Mauritius or other UNICEF early child de-velopment programs, contact: UNICEF, 3 UnitedNations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA. fax:(212) 326-7133.

This preschool educator usespuppets to communicate withyoung children.


Communication, cont'd from page 1

.1-i.e.

Communicatioll

in and between

communities

rests on

understanding

and tappinc.

the traditional

networks that

keep

communities

together

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34; 7r:-

education, and earlychildhood activities,people already in-volved in thecommunity's wel-fare often becomemotivated to initiatelarger programs.ECD interventionsthroughout theworld have con-cluded that parentalinput, participationand investment

community involvement are the key ele-ments to long-term ECD program success.

These conclusions are grounded in experi-ence. Typically, as parents focus on theirchildren's developments' needs, communitymotivation and initiative increases. For ex-ample, many literacy programs in Africa andAsia (Stromquist, 1992) have concluded thata shared agenda is essential to programs withadult learners. The care of young childrenan area universally regarded as importantis probably the single most significant re-source for consolidating and disseminatingchange. Thus, mobilizing parents aroundchild development issues serves as a springboard for organizing a community's effortsand strengths for more general advancement.

Community Initiative

ECD has also become a classic area forcommunity initiative because governmentsin developing countries can seldom meet thecosts of early childhood programs alone. Therapid growth of various forms of services isfrequently the result of a combination of ef-forts and resources between government andorganized community groups. For example:

1. The Colombian national program of"hogares comunitarios" calls upon com-munity women to devote a portion oftheir home to organized child care forminimal material reward. Parents pay asmall charge;

2. The Indian Child Development Servicesubsidizes the payment of organizers;and

3. Kenyan parents construct basic preschoolfacilities, provide school lunches andsubsidize a "teacher."

Development Communication Report. no. 78 4

In such cases, the government plays asubordinate, supportive role, while the bur-den of program delivery and maintenance iscarried by the community partners The cru-cial features include

the relatively low cost,the often complex systems of cost-shar-ing,

the links to capacity-building and em-ployment generation among adults, andthe accent on helping people develop astronger voice in their own society.

The central element of the process com-munication in ar,d between communitiesrests on understanding and tapping the tradi-tional networks that keep the communitiestogether. The community-based approach toECD which has been successful in the devel-oping world in recent years relies not uponthe word of alien specialists, but on the orga-nizing and understanding of local peoplewho have learned to define their prioritiesand responses and communicate themamong themselves.

Program Characteristics

Achieving an acceptable level of basicservices involves training community peopleas effective early childcare workers and moti-vating community groups to organize them-selves. These programs share several charac-teristics:

children and adult learn side by side;

adult learning ranges from women's lit-eracy, to health, organizational issues orsmall-scale economic development;

the intimacy with the community impliesa strong cultural component, emphasiz-ing mother tongue language learning,indigenous child-rearing practices andlocal working models;

physical structures are minimal or non-existentwhere they do exist, they are adirect contribution of the community andcarry no long-term maintenance costswhere they do not exist, programs oper-ate either in homes or in the context ofwomen's groups;

programs operate across generations and

across sectors;

capacity-building for the adults is a cen-tral focus the assumption being that ascapacity develops, it will transfer to otherspheres of community life

Colombia: Community Development

In the remote coastal villages of the Chocoregion of Colombia, an organization calledPromesa operates to strengthen the ability offamilies to attend to the needs of their chil-dren. In a classic case of community penetra-tion through early childhood developmentactivities, Promesa moved quickly into addi-tional community projects

The program began by working withmothers on designing their preschoolchildren's educational games and activities.Mothers who traditionally had been con-vinced that there was little they could do toalter their child's environment found a newsense of personal competence and achieve-ment.

With the initial experience of su.-.cess, theprocess gained strength. The mothers becameactive agents of their children's educationand eventually added an income generatingactivity to their agenda.

Promesa, through its planned group in-volvement and information sharing, movedrelatively quickly into leadership develop-ment and replaced external organizers withleaders from the women's groups. With theadded momentum and organization, theybegan to confront other priority needs in thevillages, especially in environmental healthand malaria control.

A 1990 study outlined the following ac-complishments of the Promesa program:

Participants' pride, self-confidence andability to so.. e problems related to thehealthy development of their childrenincreased. As a result, people were betterable to organize themselves in solvingfamily and community problems;

Groups learned to make effective use ofthe physical, human and institutionalresources from their environments;

Communities started relating produc-tively to the broader socio-political con-text, both regionally and nationally;

The perceived value of existing educa-tional opportunities for their children and

themselves increased.They began to mo-bilize resources todevelop new educa-tional opportunities;

Participants' childrenremained in schooland performed better;

Participants learnedto influence schoolsand, thus, better re-spond to the needs oftheir children,

Participants weremore self-reliant andefficient in attendingto the physical andpsychological needsof their children.As time passed, the

community began toplan for the future. Aprocess was establisheswhere the mothers organized and re-searched ways to meet current needs. Theyrecognized they had a voice and construc-tive contributions to make. As a result, theyadjusted and expanded the original blue-print of Promesa to meet broader commu-nity priorities.

r.

Ten YearsYears of Erratic Growth:Some Conclusions

In very poor countries, successful pro-grams remain scarce and are generallypoorly evaluated. While there are variousdegrees of documentation on specific pro-grams, there are also broad conclusionswhich can be drawn from a decade of looseexperimentation:

through communication, communitywomen can be organized to providebask early education services;

the act of providing these services canmobilize women towards other devel-opment purposes;

community-based early childhood ac-tivities can assist rural children overthe cultural barrier of school;

0 L.)

continued on p.6

Development Cotton Report, no. 78

cont'd from page 5

a pattern of cost shar-ing is emerging, withmost costs being car-ried by communities;

governments andother technicallyqualified bodies candirect supportive ser-vices towards com-munity-based ECD.(In general, the issueof how to provideresources to the infor-mal education sectorneeds further explora-tion, however); and

community develop-ment occurs throughparental involvementin ECD activities.

There are severalstrong indicationsthroughout the world thatdemonstrate the linkagebetween ECD and com-munity development. Thechallenge now is to movethis body of experienceforward and harness com-munity and governmentenergies to meet theneeds of the world'syoung children and thecommunities they live in.

Fred Wood is the Directorof Education and EarlyChildhood Development atSave the Children. Previouslywith the Bernard van LeerFoundation, he operated aprogram of over one hundredexperimental early childhooddevelopment protects In 40(ountries. Amu to Reinhold isthe Research Officer for Savethe Children's EducationUnit. They can be reached atSave the Children. U.S.A., 54Wilton Road. Westport, Con-necticut (16880, Ll.S.A. tel:(203) 221-4125: fax: (203)222-9176.

Programming for Child Development:complementary approaches and models

ProgramApproach

Participants/Beneficiaries Objectives Models

Deliver a service

Educate caregivers

The C mld

I 0-2 years

I 3-6 yearsI 0-6 years

I Parent, familyI Sibling(s)I Public

Promote Community Community

development I LeadersI PromotersI Members

Strengthen nationalresources.capabilities

Advocate childdevelopmentprograms

Program personnel

Professionals

I Para-professionals

I PolicymakersI PublicI Professionals

I SurvivalI Comprehensive

development

I SocializationI RehabilitationI Improvement of care

I Create awarenessI Change attitudesI Improve/change

practices

I Create awarenessI Mobilize for ActionI Change conditions

I Create awarenessI Improve skillI Increase material

I Create awarenessI Build political willI Increase demandI Change attitudes

I Home day careI Integrated child

development

centers

I "Add-on" centersI WorkplaceI Preschools:

formal/nonformal

I Home-visitingI Parental educationI Child-to-Child

programs

I Mass media

I Technicalmobilization

I Socialmobilization

I TrainingI Experimental

demonstration

projects

I Strengtheninginfrastructure

I Social marketingI Ethos creationI Knowledge

dissemination

Source: Children and Development in the 1990s: a UNICEF so urcebook on the occasion of theWorld Summit for Children, 29-30 September, 1990, United Nations, New York. page Iti4.


From Child to Child:Children as Communicators

by Richard Phinney and Judith Evans

T he care of younger children bytheir older siblings is a commonsight throughout the develop-

ing world. Millions of children are left ontheir own for much of the day while bothparents work long hours to make ends meet.

In recent years, a new approach to healtheducation called Child-to-Child has beentrying to turn this harsh reality into an op-portunity. The goal is to train young child-minders to become communicators.

"We find that parents don't share infor-mation as much as children do", says InduCapoor, Executive Director of the Centre forHealth, Training, and Nutrition Awareness,which coordinates Child-to-Child programsin Gujarat, India.

"Child shares the message and aware-ness very quickly because they are alwaystalking, playing and dancing."

If an older child is educated about im-portant health messages, Child-to-Childadvocates say, she (or he) will take bettercare of the younger child. She will also passthe message on to brothers and sisters, toparents, and to her neighbors. Manyprojects are aware of this pattern and workwith children to reach out to the entire com-munity, making it a healthier environmentfor all who live there.

An Active Learning Approach

When the Child-to-Child approach wasformally given a name in 1979 by a group ofhealth and education professionals, it wasalready in use in several countries. Its guid-ing principles of active, child-centeredlearning were challenging the passive, by-rote learning styles still present in manyparts of the world. The Child-to-Child ap-proach assumed that children only retainand communicate information effectivelywhen they discover its meaning and impor-tance themselves.

The strategy goes beyond health educa-tion. Many educators recognize Child-to-Child as a way of bringing active learning"through the back door" into schools thatstill use traditional methods.

But those expecting to be handed a"ready-to-serve" program will be disap-pointed. Advocates of Child-to-Child havetried to avoid pushing preconceived notions

of how people should actually apply the con-cept. The assumption is that those livingwithin a community and culture are best ableto adapt the approach to local conditions.

Setting Up

The flexibility of Child-to-Child has beenpartly respor.sible for the movement's vitalityand popularity. But it also makes it difficultfor those wishing to introduce Child-to-Childto know what works and what doesn't. Therehave been few attempts to analyze what, infact, can be accomplished through a Child-to-Child project. The Aga Khan Foundation(AKF) has made an attempt to fill this gap.Over a three-year period, it has supported,evaluated, and compared a cluster of sevenvery different Child-to-Child projects in In-dia. The results of this unique experimentnow completed may be useful to those in-terested in using the Child-to-Child approachin other countries. And a glimpse into thediversity of projects shows how personalizedChild to-Child can be.

The Mobile Creche organization runs 19educational centers in Bombay for the chil-dren of migrant construction workers. Theclassrooms are improvised: a temporary shel-ter of sheetmetal and wood, or perhaps, apartially completed apartment. The centeraccepts children between the ages of onemonth and twelve years. Children normallyattend for about six months before the familymoves on to another construc-tion site. Activity-basedarning about hygiene,

safe water, measles andother health issues is inte-grated into the teachingof other topics, such asliteracy and numeracy

The New DelhiMunicipal Corporationschool system pro-vides a rather differ-ent setting in alower-middle classsuburb. While thefacilities are better,teachers face theusual challenges ofovercrowded class-rooms, low salaries,

continued on p.8

7:i

A

Child tv Child activities include hugiene andparticipation in lunch service.


Child to Child, cont'd from page 7

Many

educators

recognize

Child-to-Child

as a way of

bringing active

learning

"through the

back door"

and minimal supervision or encouragement.Through a range of action-oriented activitiesstudents practice simple rules of health, hy-giene and nutrition.

The project represents the first attempt inIndia to implement the Child-to-Child ap-proach in a large government-maintained sys-tem. Beginning in 32 schools in 1987, theproject expanded to 108 by 1990.

The Malvani project, on the other hand,began as a health clinic in community of re-settled slam-dwellers in Bombay, supported bya local medical college. From the beginning,the project placed emphasis on identifyingprimary school students who could act as"mini-doctors" to assist the health center inreaching out to the community. The childrendiagnose basic conditions such as scabies, mo-bilize the community for immunization cam-paigns, and undertake health surveys. Themini-doctors have also conducted hundreds ofOral Rehydration Therapy demonstrations.

The Aga Khan Education Service Boys andGirls Schools in Bombay cater to low andmiddle-income groups, and are partially main-tained by the Government. During the courseof the project, the Child-to-Child approach wasused to cover three Grade 5 topicsdiarrhea,fires and burns, and eve care.

Finally, the Foundation selected threeChild-to-Child projects for primary school chil-dren in rural Rajistan and Gujarat. In each case,the local NGO was given training and technicalsupport by the Centre for Health and Nutri-tion Awareness. Among the more populartechniques used in the projects were skits actedout by students for their parents.

Lessons for Implementors

Evaluations found that all of the projectsachieved positive results in increasing healthknowledge of both children and teachers. It isless certain, however, how much of this knowl-edge spread to parents and the community.The difficulty in measuring the "outreach"component of Child-to-Child stems from thefact that people have many potential sources otinformation. Knowledge of how to mix oralrehydration solution, for example, could havecome from a health worker, a neighbor, a tele-vision program, and/or a child participating ina Child-to-Child project. The evaluations onlymeasured the knowledge, not the source.

Nevertheless, a comparison of Ole evalua-


tions reveals a number of practical lessonsfor those considering the Child-to-Childapproach:

1. Consider using schools for Child-to-Child projects. The formal school systemprovides access to large numbers of children

a captive audience. They also allow oth-ers "to come in," whether in the form of vis-iting health workers, or experimental pro-grams. Schools are highly valued and re-spected in the community. By comparison,outreach from health clinics to children canbe costly, requiring an infrastructure thatdoes not vet exist.

2. Make teacher training a priority. Often,too little attention and follow-up is providedwith training. No matter how much teacherslearn from a five-day training course, mostwill not be able to follow through on w itthey have learned unless they are proyiuedwith additional training sessions and/orregular meetings with others. If possible,more than one teacher at a school should betrained in the approach so they can shareexperiences. If the school has only oneteacher (as is often the case in rural areas)then regular supervision and encourage-ment are required.

3. Provide administrative support. Whenthe total organization is behind the effort,Child-to-Child is more easily accepted.Rather than leaving teachers on their own,the support of heads of schools/central ad-ministrators is a critical factor in gettingprograms off the ground.

4. Make everyone feel involved. All staffshould feel involved in the decision makingprocess. Those who are affected by theproject in any way, whether or not they aredirectly involved with children, should heable to provide input from the time theproject is initially presented.

5. Don't underestimate the difficulty ofchanging teaching methods. Teaching stylesare not likely to become more child-centeredsimply because of the introduction ot Child-to-Child. Teachers tend to teach in the waythat they have been taught. If teachers havebeen expected to copy notes from the black-board and memorize information that is not

linked with their own reality and experi-ences, then they are likely to try to pass onknowledge in the same way To introducethe Child-to-Child approach most effec-tively, great emphasis must be placed onthe development of appropriate pre- andin-service training for teachers

6. Use locally-made teaching materials.While mass-produced Child-to-Child activ-ity sheets are useful as models, it is moreeffective to have teachers create new activ-ity sheets in training workshops This isone of the best ways to teach teachers thepurpose and their role in Child-to-Child,and to obtain their commitment to the ap-,m-oach.

7. Integrate Child-to-Child into the officialcurriculum. Teachers need to be convincedthat Child-to-Child can help them to dotheir job better and more easily. If the top-ics covered are not part of the regular sylla-bus, this won't be the case. Using an activelearning approach can take more time, andmany teachers are under pressure to "com-plete the syllabus" no matter what the levelof comprehension. Therefore, it is impor-tant to ensure that the Child-to-Child ap-proach is fully and realistically incorpo-rated into existing programs.

8. Make topics relevant. The more familiarchildren are with a disease, the more likelythey are to learn and to practice better pre-vention and treatment. Similarly, the moreoften children are able to practice theirknowledge, such as personal hygiene, themore likely they are to develop habitsbased on that knowledge. Discussions ofthe necessity of boiling water are likely tofall on deaf ears if there is little fuel, forexample.

9. Use a recognized authority to back upthe information children are passing on.Adults may be skeptical if children's mes-sages are not reinforced from time to timeby a respected "expert." In the Malvaniproject, the "mini-doctors" initially becamediscouraged when no one would listen tothem. But after a health professional visitedthe community to confirm what the chil-dren were saying, the parents began believ-ing the children. The "authority figure" can

1.17*, (ra

vary in centralBombay, educa-tional televisionprograms play asimilar role inreinforcing healthmessages spreadby children Skep-ticism seems to beless of a problemin rural areas,however per-haps because chil-dren are morelikely to be thefirst generationwithin the familyto attend school.

11 t

10. Use incentives. Introducing Child-to-Child techniques requires commitment fromthe teachers and workers on the "front-line."Often simple recognition is enough. Othereffective incentives include free healthcheckups, training certificates, prizes andhonoraria for participation in trainingcourses.

Since 1979, Child-to-Child is being for-mally practiced in over 70 countries and thenumbers are growing. The approach is beingused for projects from community healtheducation to early child education and de-velopment. Using the minds and energies ofthe children to mobilize communities,spread important information and bettereducate themselves, the Child-to-Child ap-proach is one answer to many difficult com-munication questions.

Richard Phinneu is a Manager of SpecialProjects and Communications for Aga Khan Foun-dation Canada. Judith Evans is the Senior Advisorfor Aga Khan Foundation on Early Childhood Edu-cation. They can be reached at: Waterpark Place, 10Bay Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5J 2R8.tel: (416) 3 64-2532; fax: (416) 366-4204. Thoseinterested in incorporating a Child-to-Child ap-proach into their work should contact the Child-to-Child Trust, c/o University of London, 20 BedfordSquare, London, England, WCIH OAL. The Trustdistributes literature on Child-to-Child in English,French, Spanish and Swahili, and can link peopleup with existing Child-to-Child projects in theirregion. A similar article appeared in IDRC Re-ports. vol.19, no.4, 1992.

1

A plan about malariaenthralls village audiencesin Gujarat. India.


Peasant Children Centers in Ecuador:Learning from Experience in Nonformal Education

by Enrique Tasiguano

R eaching marginalized peasant families throughnonformal education is not a new concept in Elia-dor. Since 1971, nonformal education techniques

have reached out to children and adults who otherwisewould be denied an education and the individual and com-munity empowerment associated with it. Over the past twodecades, a program in Ecuador has gone further it hasdiscovered the value of using nonformal education and com-munication techniques to promote the development of thewhole child within a unique community design.

Huahuanapao HuasiIn 1978, the Marginal Rural Development Fund at the

Central Bank of Ecuador created Huahuanapao Huasi, or thePeasant Children Centers (CICA), to care for Ecuador'syoung, marginalized rural children. CICA took careful notesfrom other programs both in early childhood developmentand in nonformal education in the region. Along the Peru-vian-Bolivian border, for example, a series of projects fo-cused on young urban children and the importance of earls'childhood programs. Combined with Ecuador's experiencein nonformal education, CICA was prepared to weave anintegrated system relying on innovative communicationmethods and knowledge of child development and commu-nity traditions.

Like other early childhood programs worldwide, CICAhad the ability to serve both children and their communities.While CICA's programs focused on children between threeand six years, they also organized workshops and informa-tion networks to involve the community in the process froman understanding of child development to the implementa-tion and management of the center. A management structurewas designed to promote ongoing interaction between col-leagues, organizations, and communities. Training was pro-vided at national, provincial and community levels whichintroduced new concepts such as child psychology, childnutrition and health, traditional information such as culturalancestry, and combinations of new and old knowledge suchas management capabilities, community organization, andthe utilization of materials from the environment. Case stud-ies were analyzed so that particular groups, such as parentsor coordinators, could more easily understand other groupsand other projects.

Communication and the Whole ChildCICA decided early on to be more than just a babysitting

,ervice or a place where children learn literacy andnumeracy. Instead, it focused on the whole child and usedgames and interactive activities to encourage confidence,Lreativity and health. CICA's specific objectives were:

to stimulate the child's psycho-motor development andsensitivity to the world;


to support the child's cre-ativity and problem solvingin all areas through culturaland artistic expression; and

+ to improve the child's dietand nutrition using the re-sources found in th( com-munity, and to influence thecommunity as a whole.

CICA divided work areas within the center to reflectemotional, intellectual, linguistic and physical growth.Activities were constructed which used the environmentand taught indigenous knowledge as well as contempo-rary alternatives. For example, puppets, cards, postersand blocks created by the parents or children allowedchildren to practice or express new ideas. Art, drama,dance, games, and traditional means of communicationhelped children to explore their feelings and practice newskills.

Staffing and CostCICA's management, implementation systems and

staff help the program provide an environment of secu-rity and care for children. Here, the personalities, inter-ests, feelings and needs of the children are central. Thestaff is carefully chosen from within the community usingcriteria of sensitivity and ability to work with children.After participating in workshops, they use their naturalskills with added expertise.

CICA uses three organizational levels to run the cen-ters: a nationai work team, which performs technicaltasks; a team of community coordinators; and a team ofcommunity promoters. Most are community members.

Currently, 92 CICAs exist in nine provinces and 4500children are being served. Since it began, approximately37,000 children have benefitted from this program.

But while the cost of each center is low and the de-mand for centers has grown across the country, economicausterity throughout Ecuador has made it impossible tokeep up. Even though the programs have been widelyaccepted in the communities and the results of the man-agement system and whole child philosophy have beenhighly successful, the centers, like the economy in Ecua-dor, are threatened.

Unfortunately, many decision makers still do not fullyappreciate the importance of early childhood care and thelifetime difference it makes. With concentrated communi-cation efforts, hopefully CICA will continue to grow and'serve our marginalized rural children.

Enrique Tasiguano is the National Chief of C1CA. lie can hereached of Castilla 88-R, Quito, Ecuador. tel: 593 2 541 543: far:393 2 504 010.

Project Entry-Point: Communicating through Intersecting Needs

"Childhood is the initial stage of life as the foundation is the first design of a house. The house can be strongly built only if the foun-dation is laid strongly. We must make the early childhood days good.

Radha, a mother from Utter Pari, Surkhet, Nepal

Throughout Nepal, the vast majority of people aresubsistence level farmers. In the division of labor, themajor workload falls upon women as they fulfill mul-tiple roles. In addition to their contribution to the familyfarm and household maintenance, women also under-take "informal" economic activities such as small trade,marketing, crafts and shop-keeping.

As mothers, women play a critical role in theirchildren's development. But they are limited by time andother social conditions that deprive them of food, ser-vices, resources and information. The children are leftunstimulated and in poor health.

Planning child development programs in Nepal musttake account of the increasing stress women are under tomeet subsistence needs. It must have a strong orienta-tion towards health, nutrition, sanitation and parentaleducation. The challenges, in this case, are to developeffective programs which address both the intersectingneeds of women and children, and to continually com-municate the benefits to the community.

The Home-Based "Entry-Point" ProgramThe UNICEF-supported Production Credit for Rural

Women (PCRW) designed a program which incorporatedboth the need to alleviate some of the women's burden andthe need for better child development. PCRW realized thatin Nepal, center-based child-care arrangements alone werenot the answer. Instead,. they developed these low-coststrategies:

* Home-based programs to be run by mothers themselveson a rotational basis for children up to 3 years;

Using homemade toys and'the pictorial guide, this woman isable to give added attention and support to the children.

....

wi.......0

The women learn developmentally appropriate activitiesthrough the pictorial guide.

z

* Community-based childcare centers for children 3-6;* Parent education classes;* A Child-to-Child program that would strengthen

older children's abilities to promote the health, wel-fare, and development of younger children.

Interested women joined a group and each groupreceived a kit of interactive communication materialsand bamboo toys made by the fathers. Because themothers were largely illiterate, a pictorial chart was en-closed to indicate a daily schedule of activities to intro-

duce new skills and concepts to the children. Atthe same time, the mothers learned hygiene andhealth information.

Benefits from the "entry-point" program wentbeyond the children. The mothers gained newknowledge and confidence in their new roles andwere able to participate in other income generat-ing activities more freely. They learned to man-age and plan their own programs and to use agroup process and communication network. Andas child development became integrated into abroader community development, parentslearned the interactive nature of health, educa-tion and stimulation for early childhood develop-ment.

44

61

Excerpted and adapted from Seeds, P.O. Box 3923Grand Central Station, New York, New York 10163U.S.A. This case study was prepared by Caroline Arnoldfor the Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care andDevelopment.

:72fl`r g"1 ;1;1: rtF1 r n4 r


The Creative Use of Video:Early Child Health and Education in Thailand

by Nittaya J. Kotchabhakdi

T he declaration of the goal health for all and edu-cation for all by the year 2000 has created amovement in self-care and participation in healthservice management and community develop-

ment. This change in attitude and practice is even more re-markable in developing countries where health personneland government officials used to be authoritarian and sub-jected to centralized "top down" policy, and parents in re-mote or slum communities are mostly poor, less formallyeducated and often feel powerless concerning theirchildren's health and quality of life. More than ever, there isa need to communicate with parents and the communityabout their rights, roles and ability to enhance theirchildren's lives.

As communicators know, communication for behavioralchange differs from the mere transmission of facts and fig-ures. It requires an interesting presentation of clear and cul-turally sensitive messages with which the target audiencecan relate. To improve child health and development inThailand, the Institute of Nutrition Research, Mahidol Uni-versity and the Department of Pediatrics at RamathibodiUniversity has used a series of interactive videos to commu-nicate with parents with encouraging results in bothruraland urban settings.

Interactive VideoThe impact of a series of five interactive nutrition and

education video programs, and the provision of a food


supplement, was studied in 12 villages innortheastern Thailand. Each interactivevideo tape is 25-30 minutes long with 8-10interactions the group practices for another15 minutes each. The tapes cover severaltopics:

Luk-Rak ("beloved child" and the nameof the supplementary food product):compares the food and maternal behav-ior around two 15 month old boysone malnourished, one normal;

Let's Cook Supplementary Food: showshow to cook and encourage the child to eat stfood;

Value of Breastfeeding: promotes breastfeediiinfant "first milk", and the maternal diet duri

Here Comes Dr. Nit: shows the perceptual anactivities of newborn babies, and children's nsocial stimulation and play materials; and

Happy Valley Village: presents the 5 food grcpuppet show.

Here Comes Dr. Nit (VTR-4): a module parti(to child development, aimed at creating mat(of the child as an individual with early perceand at recognizing the importance of mothertion, play and supplementary feeding.

The total audience of the VTR-4 were 478 met3225 school children. Village mothers children utwo were interviewed individually prior to the iat 2, 10 and 14 months later when the VTR-4 hadand 7 times respectively in each village.

Changes in AttitudeInfants and preschool children in these villag

due to impoverished social and physical envirotmothers are overburdened and distracted by ag:other work and their cultural values and certainlady impede the child's early interactions with (stance, the Thai village culture values subtlenes!pressiveness. Newborn babies are usually fullyplaced close to the mother in a basket for a few 1parents, relatives and neighbors do not openly Emiration for the baby for fear that spirits will talInstead, they say aloud, "What an ugly baby, iithe spirits.

In our survey, few mothers in northeast Thaithe visual perceptual ability of infants, and titerknow they were preventing the infant from nanwith the environment. In the pre-test, only 1.7';thought babies could see at one week and onlymonth. At the same time, 20(-; and 35`", of moth

12

'utritionhey play.

Bangkok slum thought thatbabies could see at oneweek and one month. Re-sults of opinions aboutearly perceptions of soundswere similar.

After VTR-4 was shown,surveys showed a strongimpact on the expected ageof seeing and hearing.

Another part of the pre-test showed only one-thirdof rural mothers and theirurban-poor counterpartsencouraged or played withtheir children. This in-

two and six months after media expo-) 50% 14 months later.cessful outcome related to health and-om imitating desirable behavior.ig the feeding process when infants1st their tongues, a striking number ofcontinue to engage and feed the childhim or performing other behavioreo.

?TS

edia made a difference. In a controlledle effectiveness of health educationdeo and a radio spot, just radio, andto for Nutrition Research at Mahidolat village mothers exposed to video or

n-e significantly more knowledgeableT nutrition to their 0-4 aged children.lad improved interaction betweennd an enriched environment for youngrgets of VTR-4.anal status of the children and maternalitudes toward childrearing were as-)servation during home visits revealedAated to the media exposure in mother-xisting play materials and the type ofre mothers stated their intentions to givean (first milk) in comparison to a controlmalnutrition did not decrease during theIs clear that the integration of psycho-into nutrition education had a consider-ternal knowledge, attitudes and elementstg practice.ommunication technology, using visuales can result in behavioral change regard-els or remoteness. The integration oftponents into nutrition education pre-of interactive video has had a promising

others' knowledge, attitudes andice. In each case, by increasing maternal

Learning Strategies

Particular interactive learning and motivation strategies wereused in the videos to teach child development information:

1. Discovery/Logical Conclusion. The audience is exposedto certain information and then asked to make a decisionwhich logically follows. Example: a newborn baby can see,hear and imitate facial gestures.

2. Analogy/Logical Conclusion. The audience is remindedof something familiar that works on the same principle as theidea being taught and draw conclusion about new information.Example: Mother-child interaction is like being greeted at anew house.

3. Observation.a. Description. The audience observes an event and reportswhat was seen. Example: Observe the face-to-face interaction ofthe doctor and 3 month old baby.

b. Comparison. The audience observes two or more condi-tions and reports differences and/or similarities. Example:Compare the behavioral responses of a malnourished child and anormal child.

c. Modeling of Desirable Behavior. The audience sees de-sirable behavior and is asked to describe the positive behav-ior or some of its elements. Example: Interaction betweenmother and child while eating supplementary food product.

4. Specification. The audience is given a general principleand asked to apply it by giving specific examples. Example:Play materials can be made from local materials. The audi-ence is asked to name the plants and the home-made toys.

5. Generalization. The audience is given specific examplesand asked to conclude the general rule. Example: The babycan hardly see while she is laying awake in a closed hammock.

6. Personal Opinion or Feeling. The audience is asked togive their opinions about non-threatening subjects related tothe topic. Example: the audience is asked to imagine them-selves seeing through the infant's eyes while she is in a closedhammock and after it is opened and then discuss.

7. Reinforcement. After each interaction, an immediatefeedback and reinforcement of the correct answer is given.

awareness, the naturally existing mother-infant relationshipis enhanced.

With urban parents who are ordinarily exposed to awider range of media and information services, the effective-ness of health communication using interactive video pro-grams may depend more on its novelty and focus on thetarget audience. As communities become more sophisticated,specific issues and modes of presentation are necessary tocapture the interest of the people as well as to make a differ-ence in health behavior and childrearing practice.

Nittaya j. Kotchabhakdi, M.D. is a pediatrician at theRamathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University in Bangkok, Thailand. tel:66 2 245 6068; fax: 66 2 246 2123.

P13.

k.)Development Communication Report, no. 78

Understanding Child Development:The High/Scope Curriculum

by David P. Weikart

juan kneels on the floor a three year oldin a new nursery on the outskirts of Cali,Colombia. He fingers a toy truck. spin-ning the wheels of the truck over and over.

When an adult approaches him and asks him aft-to questions, he doesn't reply. He continues tospin the wheels, lost in observation.

Dante is shouting with ioy. Buried in blocks,he excitedly tells the adult that he built the big-gest tower ever, it was "fiveteenton" miles high.In this Head Start classroom in Ohio, U.S.A.,Dante and his friends begin to rebuild the towertogether.

Devkumari stands in line, one of 40 four-year-old children. Beside her is another line of equallength. The adult signals and 80 children. herpreschool class. break into song. With big smilesand sonic harmony, they dance their way to theirclassroom in their small school in Soweto, SouthAfrica.

When researchers and curriculum devel-opment specialists at the High/Scope Educa-tional Research Foundation observe children,we see great variety in appearance, in thelanguages they speak, and in cultural aspectssuch as dress, toys, and ways of relating toadults.

Yet, children grow in much the same wayand at much the same pace throughout theworld. A trained adult will understandJuan's behavior as consistent with other chil-dren his age focused on very concrete

items such as thewheel of a truck.Only atter he has

s -----. explored manyitems will he under-.stand the truck as a"tool" to "haulwood."

Dante was be-coming aware of thedifferences betweenbig and little."Fiveteenton", whilenot a real number, isa big concept in anylanguage. Convinc-ing all your friendsto help build a towerincorporates coop-eration and friend-ship into problem

Development Communication Report, no. 78 14b

solving very important analytic and so-cial skills for Dante's future.

Devkumari was singing harmony anddancing with the group. It displays consider-able cultural e,:perience and maturity be-yond most preschool children. To an experi-enced eve, her behavior is significant.

Cross cultural examples of children atvarious stages of development suggest uni-versal principles in the growth of all chil-dren. The High/Scope approach to curricu-lum is built upon these child developmentprinciples and tries to communicate them toteachers and parents everywhere.

Communication NetworksThe High/Scope Foundation believes in

organizing early childhood programsthrough networks of trainers who spreadinformation about the importance of attend-ing to the young child and his/her experi-ences. The Foundation's innovative style ofcreating early childhood institutes world-wide where trainers and teachers learn im-portant information about child develop-ment, and of preparing local communities tocreate early childhood programs fromwithin, sets it apart as a communicator foryoung children.

The High/Scope early childhood curricu-lum works across borders and cultures be-cause it is a framework where the commu-nity can fill in the blanks with their owncultural values and beliefs. With a littleknowledge about child development, High/Scope believes adults and children can beginto initiate new communication networkswhich share the responsibility of growingup and build the confidence and productiv-ity of children so that they grow into adultswho can problem solve and feel in control.

The HighiScope CurriculumWithin the High/Scope framework, the

teacher and child both plan and initiate ac-tivities and actively work together. Whilethe underk ing psychological theory is basedon the theories of lean Piaget, the applica-tion was de.eloped by teacher-researcherteams over the last 30 years. In this model,children develop their own activitiesthrough a plan-do-review sequence. Theyare supported by adults who use develop-mentally appropriate key experiences tounderstand and interact with the children

and promote intellectual and social devel-opment.

These activities produce three outcomesimportant to developing confident andcompetent adults:

1) Children learn to communicate theirintentions through both gestures and ac-tions. For example, an infant picking onetoy over another, or a preschooler guidingan adult to the material needed for playmay not immediately seem like steppingstones towards effective communicationskills and decision making. But as the chil-dren mature, they begin to feel in control oftheir experiences. The High/Scope curricu-lum calls children's expression of intent"planning."

2) Children generate experiences. A highquality program offers opportunities forchildren to be actively engaged. Effectiveactions comes about when children are ac-tively involved with people, materials,events, and ideas. Children need enoughtime for trial-and-error, generating newideas, practicing and succeeding.Independence is the key to active learningby self-motivated children. In the High/Scope curriculum, children act on their in-tentions during "work time."

3) Children reflect on their experiences atplay. A high quality curriculum must pro-vide time for children to reflect on theirexperience with increasing verbal abilityand logic as they mature. Through this pro-cess, they begin to match words to theiractions and construct memories and in-sights they will modify as their understand-ing increases. In the High/Scope curricu-lum, the time set aside for this process iscalled "recall" or "review."

As the result of these three components,children develop a sense of self-control andself-discipline. This control is real power,not over other people or things, but overoneself. Understanding what is happeningin their environment, recognizing that thosearound are genuinely interested, and know-ing that their effort often leads to successthese elements create the type of controlthat promotes personal satisfaction andmotivates productivity. This early sense ofpersonal control has a permanent effect on

the child and is, per-haps, why high qualityearly childhood pro-grams are so effectivein altering the lifecourse of participatingchildren.

Training Institutes:A Larger Network

Working with vari-ous groups in differentcountries, High/ScopeFoundation is estab-lishing independentinstitutes worldwide.Each institute belongsto an international reg-istry which promotestraining and coordi-nates quality control systems for the partici-pating groups. Some institutes are indepen-dent charity organizations that work withlocal education and social service authori-ties. Other institutes are attached to universi-ties which already do training on a nationalbasis. Still others are private businesseswhich provide services to governmentalbureaus.

The High/Scope strategy of training fol-lows a train-the-trainer approach. Initially,High/Scope staff trains a group of 20 to 25experienced child education or child servicetrainers in a participating country. Thecourse is a seven week program spread overa one year period. It allows time for directtraining, application by participants, andobservation of their effectiveness in training.At the end of the course, two individualsfrom this group are selected to become na-tional trainers and attend the High/ScopeResidential Training of Trainers 15 weekprogram in Ypsilanti, Michigan. A secondgroup of experienced child education orchild service trainers in the country is thentrained with the two country trainers leadingtraining and the High/Scope staff trainerdirectly supervising. With these three stepssuccessfully behind them, the country train-ers staff the national institute and continuethe training of local trainers.

The network is growing. Currently, oneinstitute is fully operational in the UnitedKingdom. A second has entered the training

continued on p.16

This teacher is helping thechild learn about herself.

15. Development Communication Report, no. 78

High/Scope, cont'd from page 15

Children

grow in

much the

same zvay

and at much

the same

pace

throughout

the world

process in Portugal. Institutes in Singaporeand Mexico are awaiting final approval. InSouth Africa, trainers are operating infor-mally, and discussions are underway inNorway, Denmark, Finland, Turkey andChina.

Training Adults:Spreading Knowledge

As adults become involved in long-termtraining, certain persistent issues emerge:

Children are children. Parents becomeaware that children are basically the sameeverywhere. Despite superficial differ-ences, through observing children on vid-eotape, in day care settings, or at preschoolclassrooms, parents see the stages of devel-opment through common behavior andresponses. With this knowledge, adults areready to accept the transfer of information,methods, procedures, and skills.

Training follows a step-by-step process.Unoerstanding child development is notalways easy especially for cultureswhich have not previously emphasizedthis period of growth. But if a logical train-ing process is followed, the importance ofchild development becomes more accept-able. For example, adults learn best and aremcst willing to change when perceivedchanges are not threatening or involve

philosophical beliefs. In High/Scope curriculum training and

arranging the classroomenvironment intomeaningful child-

centered areas isgenerally an easy

first phase and willimmediately reduce

behavior problems.Suggesting children

J' make basic choices and

I


then supporting those choices may be acomfortable second phar,,. Finally, learningto observe and understa..d the developmen-tal processes in individual child behaviorcan be a difficult step and should happenafter the adults are committed to the pro-gram.

Knowledge is be applied. Training needs tobe on-site so that participants can applywhat is learned immediately to the children.The focus of training is to change behavioron a daily basis. Off-site training frequentlyis too abstract to genuinely change behav-ior.

Training is slow and thorough. Conceptslearned in training should be repeated anumber of times with different types of ap-plied examples and points of view. Ade-quate time for practice and discussion isimportant.

Because of the long-term effectiveness ofhigh quality early childhood care and edu-cation on the lives of children, their familiesand the community, the international inter-est in providing services to children isgreater than ever. Today, much is knownabout how to organize complex and effec-tive early childhood development pro-grams. Our task as adults is to incorporatethis knowledge into our own activities andprograms and become the best parents andteachers possible.

David IVeikart is the Preqdent of the 1-1k.htScope Educational Research Foundation. TheHighlScope curriculum model is outlined in moredetail in the book Young Children in Action,which is available in Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch.Norwegian, and Arabic. For information about thebook or about establishing a national traininginstitute, contact: High7Scope, 600 North RiverStreet. Ypsilanti, MI 48198-2898 USA. id: (313)485-2000; fax: (313) 485-0704.

Communicating with Parents First

by Nancy Donohue Colletta

While we are most familiar with earlyeducation programs which provideservices directly to children, com-

munication strategies which help childrenby focusing on their parents' behavior havesome basic advantages..True, short-termchild-focused programs are able to achieveimprovements in children's development.But these gains may disappear a year ortwo after the program ends, especially ifthe children are exposed to unresponsiveor unstimulating primary schools. Longerlasting effects seem to be possible whenprograms focus on the child's familythrough changing parental behavior.

Making permanent changes in the par-ents' attitudes, behaviors, and knowledgeoften has a dramatic and long lasting im-pact not only on the child in question, butalso on other family members. And unlikechild-focused programs, changes in paren-tal behavior are likely to extend beyond thelength of the program particularly whenthe program is careful to communicate toparents that they are the child's first andmost important teacher. This position em-phasizes the central importance and com-petence of the family and de-emphasizesthe role of the outside "expert."

There are other advantages to communi-cating with parents first. With a focus onthe caregiver as the primary audience, pro-grams do not need to bring children to-gether in groups, are easily integrated intoexisting programs and are often lower incost. Experience shows that parent-focusedmodels of early education may:

+ improve children's development;+ improve children's school adjustment;+ increase mother's interest in their own

education;increase mother's feelings of controlover problems in their lives;

4.. improve parent-child interaction; andimprove parent's responsiveness tochildren.

Media for Parent EducationOne approach to parent involvement is

simply to educate the parent about childrenand their development. Parent education

programs tend to offer training which directschanges in parental knowledge, attitudesand behaviors. Parent education messagesmay be delivered through channels alreadydeveloped for other adult education pro-grams such a.- mass media campaigns, healthor literacy programs.

In Indonesia, a simple chart was devel-oped to communicate basic knowledge toparents about predictable steps in children'sdevelopment and the ways that parents canaffect and improve their children's progress.(see page 18) The chart was modeled afterthe typical growth monitoring chart andconsisted of one milestone for each of thefirst 36 months of life. Accompanying eachmilestone is simple activity which the parentcould perform to encourage the child's de-velopment.

While simple, a tool such as a basic devel-opmental chart can bridge cultural commu-nication gaps and introduce the significanceof the parents' role in preparing the child forhis or her future. Thechart serves as a con-tinual reference and con-crete starting place forparents to learn aboutchild development.

The chart was de-signed to be:

composed of cultur-ally appropriate be-havior indicatorswhich are familiar tothe child, important inthe culture's valuesystem, and useful forindicating specificinterventions;

+ focused on milestonesmost predictive oflater development andcovering many areasof development in-cluding cognitive,language, fine andgross motor, socialand self-help skills;easy to administer inhealth centers withoutelaborate training ormaterials;

continued on p.18

"1Z Development Communication Report, no. 78

bring toevery

.600/°#

Posanduonth

Feed the childhealthy foods-breastfeedinup to 2 yr

\IFollow Kader's Giveand staff advice protein

Provide toys :- ri

fit with r foodsthe developmentphase tempu tofu, fish

since 4 months old

,,-- Love your baby

Play with the child -

Familiarize the childwith other people

-.7 .1 ... ,.,..

;.:- 1.i.Vloo , to CI'. tall,.sing. tc.il stories.respond to child

This Indonesian child development card showsparents ways to facilitate healthy growth anddevelopment.

Parents First, cont'd from page 17

cn

o.

UJ

+ easy for parents and health workersunderstand;useful in focusing parents' attention onimportant developmental processes and inemphasizing the idea that children's devel-opment does not "just happen" but thatparents play an important role in fosteringtheir children's developmental progress;

+ capable of strengthening parent-child in-teractions by increasing the parents' sensi-tivity to the children's needs and by in-creasing the parents' understanding of theimportance of spending time with theirchildren; andsuggestive of simple interventions at eachage.

Simple but direct communication toolssuch as the growth chart can be the beginningof parent education and early childhood de-velopment programs especially when thetools are catered to the specific needs and in-terests of a community. Recently, for example,the developmental chart has been revised foruse by mothers in their homes. The mother's

charts can then be brought on regularvisits to the health centers, where thechild's progress can be discussed with thehealth workers.

Child Development in the Home

Entire early childhood programs canbe created around child and parent inter-action in the home. In home visiting pro-grams, for example, a group of commu-nity members, usually neighborhoodmothers, is trained to communicate basicchild development messages directly tothe parents. Visits are made on a weeklyor biweekly basis and the caregivers aretaught simple activities they can do withthe child until the next visit. These pro-grams make use of local materials andbuild on culturally appropriate practices.In comparison to center-based programs,home-based programs are geared to:

reach the youngest children (0-2) whoare seldom brought to centers;

reach out to sociallyisolated or extremelypoor families; and

Imitates adultWalks aloneReaches to be picked upResponds to verbal requestPicks up objectPlays peek-a-boo ("ciluk baa")Sits alone steadilyLooks for fallen spoonPicks up small objectMakes 3 different soundsRolls to one sideHolds head upSmiles in response to personInspects surroundings

14131211

10987

654

23

1

NameDate or birthName or parents :

HamletSub DistrictDistrictPOSN'ANDL:

month and year of birth

use familiar commu-nay members who areable to put both parentand child at ease.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112

13 14 15

N,'10iTth Chart 'Fed in !mimics:a rurlh, partialli/ shozott helps parents to understand tiCiTIOPMelltal

hat k or the chart gays at unties h) de) with Chlidlell at these stages.


Home visiting pro-grams appear to hemost effective when:

the intormationlearned in home visitsis reinforced bymonthly meetings ofparents;

all family members.not just the mothers.are involved;+ the home visits tocu,on specific activities theparents can do withtheir children; ond+ the parents are ac-tive participants inplanning the details ofthe activities.

An Indonesian Example:Communication Tools and theHome-Visiting Approach

The Pandai Project in Indonesia, run byDr. Satoto out of Diporegoro University andfunded by the Ford Foundation, integratessimple communication tools into a home-based model in order to work with parents.Started five years ago, the program aims toincrease parental involvement in the devel-opment of their preschool children throughverbal stimulation and appropriate activi-ties. It was designed to function with lim-ited funds, to take only a few minutes of themothers' time each day and to make use ofthe in-place village volunteer system to staffthe home visits. Trained at the local healthcenter, the volunteer home visitors are su-pervised by a staff of volunteer governmentworkers. The home visitors see theircaseload of six families on a weekly basisfor a year. Replication costs are kept to ap-proximately US$2.30 per family by makinguse of local materials found in the villagesand by using inexpensive photocopiedbooks and games. The curriculum, designedto emphasize verbal, emotional, and playstimulation for children between the ages ofone and five, was displayed in cartoon for-mat. A second grade literacy level is as-sumed for v unteers; no literacy demandsare made on parents. Communication mate-rials consist of:

A checklist of 130 developmentally se-quenced activities for the home visitorto carry out with children;130 activity cards which describe theactivities in simple cartoon format; andBackup materials consisting of picturecards, counting cards, sequence cards,paper puzzles, and a dozen wordlessstory books.

Perhaps the most ingenious and effectiveof the materials were the wordless storybooks. As the name implies, the books de-picted a story without the use of words.Highly prized by the families, the booksencouraged family members to invent sto-ries for their children from detailed pictures,and eventually, for the children to createtheir own versions.

To reinforce the notion that the parent,

:f p

.1 t :* .t1

Understanding Child Development: A Guide forCommunicators and Community Members

Understanding Cross-Cultural Child Development and DesigningPrograms for Children, edited by Nancy Donohue Colletta,produced by Christian Children's Fund, PACT, 777 UnitedNations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA. 140 pages. cost:US$18.95 + shipping and handling. English. For more informa-tier, call:_ 697 -6222 or fa)c (212) 692 -9748.

This book looks at children living in the developing world and pre-! setts information about caregiving and child development iri a simpli-

fied format. Each chapter begins with general or cross-cultural state-! inents about children, moves to observations on a situation - specific

level and then makes suggestions on how to apply these observations tolocal communication and design of programs to meet children's needs.The book suggests ways of modifying caregiving and programs to meetthe needs of children at special risk. FASy to read, this book will serve asan aid to communicators, program designers, parents and university

, students worldwide.

rather than the visitor, is the most effectiveteacher of the child, during each visit the visi-tors followed three steps:

1. teach the mother the developmentallyappropriate activity,

2. have the mother teach the child, and3. help the mother to plan how to integrate

the activity into her daily chores.The evidence from this and other programs

is convincing. When programs are highly fo-cused, provide concrete models of new behav-iors and reinforce individual learning throughcommunity meetings and communicationstrategies, they can change parents' behaviorsin the homes. Parents can be taught skills,behavior, and techniques which facilitate theirchildren's development. And the parents ben-efit as well. Evidence indicates that the ap-proach is related to greater feelings of overallparental satisfaction and control.

Dr. Nancy Donohue Colletta is a developmentalpsychologist at the Center for Infant Study, Univer-sity of Maryland School of Medicine in Baltimore,Maryland. She can be reached there or at her Wash-ington office; 5225 Connecticut Ave. N.W. Suite313, Washington, D.C. 20015, U.S.A. tel:(202) 966-7189; fax: (410) 328-8339. A step-by-step guidebookfor the adaptation, use and evaluation of a home-based mother's record is available from the WorldHealth Organization, Programme of Maternal andChild Health, CH-1211, Geneva 27, Switzerland.

cis "r!,'Development Cororiluilidiftn Report, no. 78

Materials Development: The Building Blocksby the Bernard van Leer Foundation

How many times have you heardyourself saying: "if I only had abooklet, photograph, game,puzzle, video... or anything to

help explain this idea to the children or theirparents more easily?"

It happens to everyone. Some type ofmaterial is missing. And so begins the pro-cess of developing a new teaching aid, a newtoy, a new reading book, or perhaps even anentire course for para-professionals.

Over the years, many of the Bernard vanLeer Foundation-supported projects aroundthe world have devised unique and imagina-tive materials that provide hours of enjoy-ment for young children; or convey complexhealth and nutrition messages to members ofthe community in an understandable man-ner so that they can begin to act to improvetheir situation; or offer role-play games sothat trainees can get a taste of some of thereal-life situations they may face; or provideparents with a set of ideas that will encour-age them to play and to learn along withtheir children.

These are some of the building blocksneeded for successful early childhood educa-tion or community development programs.They are essential, and yet, the materialsthemselves, no matter how innovative,clever or appealing, are worthless unlessthey are used and used well.

Creating Toys for Learning

One way that many projects have ensuredthat materials are usedwell is to involve thecommunity in their pro-duction. For example, inKenya, parents andmembers of the commu-nity participate with theteachers and educationalauthorities in the collec-tion of stories, poems,games and puzzles thatreflect the local culture.This reinforces theirvalues and environmentas well as the idea thateveryone can make acontribution to earlychildhood education. It

A child from Colombia uses wooden blocks tospell a word.


also supports the cultural symbols of achild's daily life and makes life and educa-tion more integrated and compatible.

In another example Centre for Educationand Human Development (CINDE) in Co-lombia has produced excellent materials forparents and the community on health, hy-giene and the environment, as well as awide range of materials on early childhoodeducation. Rather than just designing writ-ten or illustrated materials, they havedrawn diagrams on how to create toys fromlow-cost local materials such as bamboo.Once the parents start exploring the use oflocal material puzzles, games, musicalchimes the diversity of ideas grows.

In Jamaica, the Resource Training Unithas turned "trashables" things peopleusually throw away into a large range ofstructures and toys to help children de-velop their physical strength and coordina-tion, provide them with a sense of accom-plishment and self-confidence, and helpthem to explore their environment.

In Oranim, Israel, an "outdoor activityyard" was set aside and stocked with itemsno longer used by adults: furniture, carts,old tires and other materials where childrencan have creative play. Team work andmutual assistance develops quickly amongchildren when things need to be lifted,moved or built.

Along with the larg ,tructures, an al-most endless variety of small toys andteaching aids can be made from discardedmaterials. Plastic containers can be turnedinto buckets, scoops, measuring cups, fun-nels and even little boats, cars or trains. Eggcartons, boxes or natural items such asflowers and twigs can stimulate creativeimpulses in both children and adults.(Adults should always check these items tomake sure their are no sharp edges or smallitems that a child could put in her mouth.)

Teaching Aids for Parents

Materials which assist parents andteachers learn about early childhood arealso easy to construct. For example, a selec-tion of 150 cartoon sequences on almostevery aspect of child-rearing providesthemes for discussion between English par-ents and their weekly home-based teachersin one Foundation project. Friendly andinformal, the cartoons are reproduced on

to Learning

Two young Khmer children take a smallhomemade cart for a test drive.

inexpensive paper to show parents thatmaterials do not need to be fancy to beuseful. Despite initial hesitation, nearlyall the teachers have come to value thecartoons and were pleasantly surprisedto find the parents responding to themas well.

In Kenya where they are pioneering amore participatory style of curriculumdevelopment, National Center forEarly Childhood Education (NACECE)has been established. In each of 18 cen-ters of the NACECE, a team consultswith a community to understand thetraditions and lives of its people. Then,the teams work to mobilize the commu-nity and create community-basedgames, dances and children's songs rel-evant to the culture. These materials areused for both adult training and theearly childhood learning.

Through the local development of"trashables" and other materials forchildren and the use of other local mate-rials as additional teaching aids, theseprograms are directly involving parents,teachers and local leaders in makingdecisions about what should be taughtto their young children. This approachhas attracted the attention of educa-tional authorities all over Africa as wellas in the developed world and contin-ues to make early childhood programsmeaningful and affordable around theworld.

Adapted from Playing to Learn, Bernardvan Leer Foundation newsletter, Number 47.For more information, contact: van LeerFoundation, P.O. Box 82334, 2508 EH TheHague, The Netherlands. tel: (070) 3512040;fix: (070) 35 02373.

Resources

Audiovisuals and Books

Infant/Toddler Caregiving: An Annotated Guide to Media Training Materials byAlice S. Honig and Donna Sasse Wittmer, Child Development Division, Califor-nia State Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271USA cost: USS8.75.

This guide compiles video, film, slide packages and audio cassette training materi-als for caregivers of children below the age of three. Rates quality, content, andprice, and describes the intended audience. English.

Options for Educators: A Monograph for Decision Makers on AlternativeParticipatory Strategies by Lyra Srinivasan. PACT Communications Develop-ment Service, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA. 152 pages,1992. cost: USS14.95 + shipping and handling.

Author of Per 5pectrz,es (n, Nontormal ;Adult Ledrnink; and Ti for Comm/Jinn Partici-pation. Dr. Srinivasan presents methods that trainers, educators or program staffcan use to incorporate participatory strategies into their work. Using "educator"' inthe broadest sense. the monograph describes three different participatory ap-proaches and what they can do in poverty- stricken countries. She discusses waysto change the attitudes and behavior of oppressed people from ones of low confi-dence and lack of trust to empowerment and creativity. A how-to section guidesthe trainer or manager through the methods, activities and workshops.Toward a Fair Start for Children: Programming for Early Childhood Care andDevelopment in the Developing World by Robert G. Myers. The Young Childand Family Environment Project 1990-95, Unesco, 7 Place de Fonteroy, 75700Paris, France. fax: (33-1) 40 65 94 05. 107 pages.

Available in nine major languages, Dr. Myers outlines what early childhood devel-opment means internationally and describes comprehensive programs worldwide.He makes arguments for investing in child development programs and presentscommunication strategies for building advocacy, organizational networks, andeducating and changing the behavior of parents, community leaders and politicalfigures. The book includes case studies from around the world.H igh/Scope I.oundation has a large assortment of training videos and books onsubjects such as Setting Up the Learning Environment, Shaping EducationalPrograms, and others. For a free catalogue, write: High/Scope Press, 600 N. RiverStreet, Ypsilanti, MI 48198-2898 USA. tel: (313) 485-2000, fax: (313) 485-0704.

Resource Centers

The Early Learning Resource Center (ELRC) in South Africa, an active participantin the education of five million black preschool children, also provides innovativeresources internationally. For information about their nonformal training pro-grams, parent and community education programs and information disseminationand outreach activities, contact: Early Learning Resource Center, 37 Denver Road,Lansdowne 7764, Cape Town, South Africa.

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education (EECE)provides resources on topics from rural and urban early education to child devel-opment and classroom techniques. With sixteen clearinghouses. ERIC cataloguesand distributes information from over 700 libraries and institutions worldwide. Formore information, contact: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Child-hood Education, College of Education, Universal; of Illinois, 805 W. PennsylvaniaAvenue, Urbana, IL, h1801 USA. tel: (217) 113-1386.

21 Development Communication Report. no. 78


Audiovisuals and Books

Microcomputers in African Development: Critical Per-spectives edited by Suzanne Grant Lewis and JoelSamoff. Westview Press, 550 Central Avenue, Boulder,CO 80301 USA. tel: (303) 444-3541; fax: (303) 449-3356. 256pages, 1992. Cost: USS27 + shipping.

Using case studies and research in the Sudan, Ivory Coast,Kenya and Tanzania, the contributing authors analyze patternsof political and social change brought about by the rapidgrowth of microcomputer technology in Africa. Various per-spectives and approaches are represented within diverse levelsof organizations schools, local institutions, and govern-ments. Issues of control over information and censorship areaddressed, along with potential changes and reactions withincommunities. A thoughtful and provocative piece, this book isappropriate for researchers, journalists or others interested inthe impact of information technology upon Africa.

Designing Messages for Development Communication:An Audience Participation-based Approach by BelaMody. Sage Publications, Sage Publications, 2455 TellerRoad, Newbury Park, CA 91320, USA, 1991.

Part of the Communication and Human Values Series, thisbook is a 'do- it- yourself' text on audience based message de-'sign in Third World settings. It focuses on the difficulties ofusing development communication and pulls from the author'sexperience in advertising to show how and when communica-

II Li- "."1

-

MAP International has developed a comprehensivepackage of materials to spread information about theprevention and treatment for cholera. The package is de-signed for organizations and churches interested in work-ing with communities and includes videos, radio materials.workshop guides and technical materials development bythe World Health Organization and the Pan AmericanHealth Organization. The kit is available only in Spanish.l:S520 for 1-5 kits, S15 for 5-10, 510for 11 or more. Send orders to:MAP International. Oficina Re-gional Para America Latina, 41:

Avenida Los Shyris 3517 y Tomas)11'

de Berlanga, Casilla 17-08-8184. -' 4 eQuito, Ecuador. tel: (593 2) 452 qpIo yap

373. fax: (593 2) 458 263.


tion strategies work. Topics range from effective commu-nication messages to how and when to research and pre-test an audience. Simple and direct, this text is helpful toanyone Iyho studies and designs development communi-cation or implements it in the field.

Using Communication Theory: An Introduction toPlanned Communication by Sven Windahl andBenno Signitzer. Sage Publications, 2455 Teller Road,Newbury Park, CA 91320 USA, 1992.

This book outlines ways in which communicationplanning is informed by 30 years of communicationtheory. The author shows how advertising and publicrelations benefit communication theory.

Women and the Media in the Asian Context. Peoplein Communication, Inc., 3rd Floor, Sonolux AsiaBuilding, Ateno de Manila University, LoyolaHeights, Quezon City, Philippines. 1990.

This collection of country reports and papers pre-sented in the Asian Sub-Regional Conference on Womenand Media held in the Philippines in 1987. The reportschronicle women as portrayed in the media and womenas media practitioners. They offer extensive ksight andrecommendations on how to deal with obstacles. Whilepresented in 1987, the research and conclusions are stilltimely today.

Communication Planning Revisited by AlanHancock, UNESCO, UNIPUB, 4611 Assembly Drive,Lanham, MAD 20706-4391 USA. fax: (301) 459-0056,220 pays, cost: USS2S + postage and handling.

In revisiting development communication planning,the author evaluates what has been achieved in the pastdecade. He uses case studies and looks at the potential inplanning institutions, networks, and communication sys-tem, and the extent to which planned can facilitate newideas and concepts.

The Grameen Bank's Experience: A Video: TheFondation pour le Progres le l'Homme (Foundationfor Human Progress) in Paris, France has recentlyproduced a video recounting the experiences of theGrameen Bank in Bangladesh. The video is usefulfor organizations or communities working towardsestablishing credit and self-management in micro-enterprise businesses. It provides a presentation ofthe groups of women involved in the credit groups,and the organization at the village level. The VHS

video is available in French and English and is 35minutes long. For information, contact: Mr. Oliveri,ICAD, Le Maret, 89113 Guerchy, France, tel: 86 73 72 16.

Journals

The Green Library Journal is a new publication devotedto environmental topics in the information world. The prod-uct of a cooperative effort between many organizations, itprovides articles, and information about new technologiesand other resources around the environment and the worldof information. Appropriate for libraries, organizations orinterested individuals, the journal is published 3 timesyearly. Subscriptions are US$20 per individual, 540 per USlibrary or institution, and $45 for institutions outside of theUS. Each paid subscription pays for a free subscription for alibrary in the developing world. For more information or tosubscribe, contact The Green Library, P.O. Box 11284, Ber-keley, CA 94701 USA tel: (510) 841-9975, fax: (510) 841-9996.

Conferences

The National Federation of Community Broadcasterswill hold its 18th Annual Conference April 1-4, 1993 in Min-neapolis, Minnesota, USA. The planning committee wel-comes suggestions or ideas for themes, workshops or re-sources. Contact them at: NFCB, 666 11th Street, NW, Suite805, Washington, D.C. 20001, USA. tel: (202) 393-2355.

The Association for the Advancement of Policy, Re-search and Development in the Third World invites pro-posals for research, papers, panels, round tables and work-shops for possible inclusion in the 1993 International Con-ference on the State of Education and Development: NewDirections in Cairo, Egypt. The conference dates are No-vember 21-25, 1993. Contact: Dr. Mekki Mtea, P.O. Box70257, Washington, D.C. 20024-0257 USA. tel./fax: (202)723-7010.

The Satellite Communications Users Conference willbe held November 16-18, 1992 at the Sheraton WashingtonHotel, Washington, D.C., USA. For information call (800)525-9154, or fax: (303) 770-0253.

The Universidad de Guadalajara in Guadalajara, Mexicois sponsoring The Sixth International Book Fair from No-vember 28-December 6, 1992. During this event participantswill meet to discuss "Open and Distance Education: Contri-butions and Challenges." The Book Fair will be dividedinto three activities: media and materials, a book fair withbooks in Spanish, Portuguese and English, and conferencesand workshops on communication networks, media sys-

terns, and off-campus educa-tion. For informa-tion, contact: Pub-lic InformationCenter, A. Postal39-130, 44170Guadalajara, Jsl.Mexico. fax: (36)625 10 100. Cost:US$155.

Courses

AbhivvaktiMedia for Devel-opment has de-veloped short-term courses toteach communica-tors how tobroaden theireffectiveness andaccess resourcesfor their work.From November14-18, 1992, Com-munication Skillsfor Trainers will beoffered for Rs.500.For informationabout this courseor a full schedule,contact:Abhivvakti Mediafor Development,41, Anandvan,College Road,Nsik-422 005,India. tel: +70294.

RIO:

An InternationalResearch Computer

Network

ORSTOM (Institut francaisde Recherche scientfifiquepour le Developpement encooperation) is expanding itsnetwork, the RIO (ReseauInformatique ORSTOM). Thiscomputer network will enablescientists working in distantlaboratories to carry out com-mon programs and to ex-change data processing tools.As a result, the powerful com-puting resources of importantlaboratories will be availableto less well-off research teams.

Recent vast development inthese networks means thatmost research institutions inEurope and North Americaare linked to RIO. These net-works allow researchers toshare in the information age,facilitate technology transferand dissolve some of the isola-tion of scientific teams in thedeveloping world.

RIO covers 10 countries in theSouth so far, seven of whichare in sub-Saharan Africa. Forinformation, contact:ORSTOM, 213 rue Lafayette75010 Paris, France.

The Centre forAfrican FamilyStudies (CAFS), based in Nairobi and Lome, is an inde-pendent, non-profit institution which provides training oncommunication and family planning in sub-Saharan Af-rica. Topics include: Family Health; Women and Health;Training of Trainers; Population Communication; Man-agement of Community-based Programs; and HealthCommunication for Journalists. CAFS provides coursesand seminars on a regional, sub-regional and in- countrybasis in French and English. For information, contact:CAFS, P.O. Box 60054, Nairobi, Kenya. tel: 448618; fax:448621.

t)2a Development Communication Report. no. 78

Using Technology to Do Better Work

by The Foundation Center Staff

A n unspoken rule states that grass roots organiza-tions should avoid technology in their daily workThe underlying concern is that "technology" mayseparate or alienate us from the communities e

work with each day. This myth, however unfortunate, isdisempowering in that it freezes the grass roots organizationand ultimate's, stereotypes it as one which is out-ot-the-main-stream, ineffective, and too idealistic. The myth serves to op-press the organization and deny its capacity in much thesame way the people it serves are oppressed.

The real task is how to perceive and then access technol-ogy in support of the culture and peoples we serve. Fax ma-chines, cellular phones, lap-top computers, video camcorders.etc., can be friends of the culture and available for the pur-pose of cultural maintenance, growth and supporttools forempowerment.

A Grass Roots Organization

The Foundation Center is a grass roots organization whichdelivers high quality child development and family supportservices to over 2100 children of working poor and seasonaland migrant agricultural families. Its 240 teachers match thecultural and linguistic characteristics of its children and comefrom the same class and economic backgrounds as the par-ents.

As a grass roots organization, The Foundation Center hasworked in situations where it has become known for its workin empowering the children. Yet the grass roots label has cre-ated barriers for The Foundation Center. Most of the barriershave been embedded in the attitude that, if you are trulygrass roots, VOU are not sophisticated, you are sincere but notrealistic, a "bleeding heart" but not a business person whohas access to the kinds of tools which successful businessesutilize.

In part, The Foundation Center has been left alone to de-fine itself. We decided to reject the militaristic, top-down,organizational structure and opted for a flatter style whichdepends on communication between people. In addition, weworked hard to avoid some of the problems of sister organi-zations which, following old-style ways of organizing, havecreated their own large bureaucracies, thereby effectivelyreducing the amount of money available for direct services.

The small organizational style allows us to give value topeople's ideas so that they are given the tools to be creativeand effective champions of their communities.

The Benefits of Technology

The Foundation Center ases technology in many ways thatmost grass roots organizations do not. For example, TheFoundation Center has fax machines at each of its 21 infant-toddler and child development centers. The centers span ninecounties across the state of California. The fax machines es-tablish communication between and among centers giving

them an opportunity tobuild a sense of teamottamily and connectednessThe tax machines enhancethe telephone-verbal com-munication as it pros idesa written, sometimes vi-sual- graphic record Mes-sages can be received any-time without interruptingthe work on the other endThey can also be sent any-time, thereby allowing thesender to utilize less busytime. The same messagecan be sent automatically to one or 21 locations.

The fax also provides the "documentation" required byfunding sources. How often has the grass roots organizationreceiving government or grant funds heard, "If it isn't docu-mented, it didn't happen?"

Another advantage is that urgent or detailed informationcan be relayed accurately and completely. Both parties can besure that information has been transmitted.

In The Foundation Center, we say, "The fax can speakSpanish!" By this, Ive mean that the writer can communicatein a native tongue and can do so effectively. This is anotherstep on the road to empowerment.

And faxes permit the staff at various locations to expressculturally appropriate courtesiescongratulations, personalsupport and encouragement. Faxes maximize the network.

The Foundation Center also uses cellular phones. Not onlydo they facilitate communication during long journeys be-tween centers, they prepare the centers to deal with disasters,especially centers located along earthquake faults. During the1990 Loma Prieta earthquake in the San Francisco area, thecellular phones were the only means of communication for.everal hours alter the disaster. Parents, staff, and their chil-dren have the earthquake numbers so that they can stay intouch in the event of an emergence. During the April LosAngeles riots, the emergency phones kept us connected to thecenters and facilitated emergency services.

Someone once said to the Executive Director of the Foun-dation Center, "But You people don't look like you have allthis stuff, let alone know how to use it." And it is true that theadministrative staff of the Foundation Center may look like agroup who wouldn't make it in the world of technology. Yet,it uses the tools it needs to communicate quickly and com-pletely. The lesson is: To accomplish our missions, grass rootsorganizers and organizations can use what are perceived ashighly sophisticated tools and still be true to their work. In-deed, in The Foundation Center's case, those very tools makeit more effective.


Ritchell Vali. Marihni Prosser, Antonia Lopez, David Schmitz, andRichard Truzuka at The Foundation Center for PhenomenologicalResearch, Inc., contributed to the article. TFS,1800 1 Street, Sacra-mento, CA 95814 USA. tel:(916) 447-2087, fax3916l 441-7059.

To Our Readers:After several decade` of usingcommunication strategies to

further development goals, this issue examines

the field of development communication andasks the question, where are we now? From ad-

vances in communication technologies to clearer

evidence of what works and what doesn't, plan-

ners, practitioners, academics and entrepreneursoffer insight into how the field has progressed,what we have learned and what we still mustexplore to use communication for development

in the most effective way. The Editor

II IL I I

knOMR IMIIIMINM.1111111111MRIONIGAIIIMMII1BEM 3111111

IOW

Development Communication Today:Optimism and Some Concernsby Robert Hornik

difficult contradiction resultsfrom any examination of the stateof the art of development commu-nication. On the one hand, good

technical knowledge exists about how to do

development communication well. On theother hand, as time goes on and externalfunds and technical advice are withdrawn,

early successes don't seem to stick. Theseparagraphs consider this contradiction: whatwe know, why it is difficult to sustain andsome ideas for doing it better.

What We Know: Four Basic Principles

A widely shared current view of doing

effective development communication iscontinued p.2

Back to the Future:Communication Planningby Alan Hancock

The general definition of communi-cation planning has not changeddrastically over the pastdecade. Itstill involves three main elements:

development policy and philosophy, commu-

nication intrastructure, and the incorporation

of innovative technologies. What hasevolved, however, is the way in which these

three components interact and the context

and potential of communication to play a

major role in political, economic, and social

change.

Changes in technology are the most obvi-

ous and dramatic. On the one hand, satel-lites and computers have evoked fafeeaterpossibilities for international con-nections than was previously imag-ined. At the same time, due to themicrocomputer, technologies have

become more individualized, which

means new forms of creativity, ofsocial organization, and of workinghabits have evolved. Our experienceof using these technologies has gone

continued p.5

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Development Conzmu motionReport, published quarterly bythe Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication.has a circulation of over 7,000.The newsletter is available freeof charge to readers in thedeveloping world and at acharge of $10.00 per year toreaders in industrializedcountries.

A center for materials andinformation on importantapplications of communicationtechnology to developmentproblems, the Clearinghouse isoperated by the Institute forInternational Research, inassociation with CreativeAssociates International andsupported by the U.S. Agencyfor International Development,Bureau for Research andDevelopment, Office ofEducation, as part of its programin educational technology anddevelopment communication.

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ISSN 0192-1312

Communication Today, cont'd from page 1

summarized in four principles: good context,good messages, good channel use and goodaudience knowledge.

Good context. The first principle demandscareful analysis of what change is possible inthe environment. In some contexts, publiccommunication will gain little success. Forexample, Judith McDivitt, an Annenbergcommunication researcher, describes a suc-cessful campaign in lordan to encouragebreast feeding within the first six hours of ababy's birth. However, routine practices inprivate hospitals did not encourage early ini-tiation. Therefore, success was limited to par-ticular settingswomen giving birth at homeor in public hospitals.

.\ communication campaign can respondto context in ant' of three ways: it can encour-age corresponding changes in the context(initiating a campaign to stimulate demandfor vaccinations only after assuring that thesupply will suffice); it can tailor its recom-mendations to the context (promotingcondom use only where condoms are readilyavailable); or it can postpone or reject a sug-gested communication campaign until thecontext changes (deciding not to encourageadoption of new high yielding seed becauseneeded credit facilities are not in place). Partof knowing how to do a communication cam-paign is knowing when not to do it.

Good messages. Message development isboth a creative process and a technical pro-cess. While creative message developmentmakes a real difference in the success of pro-grams, the focus here is on the technical pro-ess.

A program's objectives are not the same asthe messages most likely to achieve thoseobjectives. Instead, good programs try tocreate messages that solve problems audi-ences recognize, and build on, or at least re-spond to, current behaviors. Much of theformative research that precedes the develop-ment of a communication plan involves re-search about understanding (a) what actionsdifferent segments of an audience are alreadytaking, (b) what motivates particular actions,and (c) what keeps them from acting, in therecommended way.

Thus, the Philippines HI program foundthat timely vaccination improved as a re-sponse to messages about the age to bring achild for measles vaccine but not to messages


about the dangers of the disease.There is widespread acceptance of this

'good messages' argument; indeed there issome need for caution in applying it. Some-times programs have constraints: they havesome urgency for initiating implementation;they have limited budgets to design materi-als for subgroups; they are unable to mountdistinct local efforts, having no choice but tobroadcast mostly homogenous messages, ortake no action at all. Sometimes, the goal ofmessage research may be to define an ac-ceptable common message, rather than tocreate ideal localized messages. This is amodest goal and contains some risk. Itleaves programs open to accusations thatthey are insufficiently respectful of culturaland social variation, and in fact, may meanthat some subgroups are less effectively ad-dressed. On the other hand, it may representall a program can actually do.

Good Channel Use. Good channel use in-volves responding to often contlicting de-mands: channels must be effective and reacha wide and specific audience. Emphasis oneffectiveness has led to a preference for face-to-face channels over media channels, giventhe reasonable belief that a good outreachagent is more effective per contact. How-ever, there is also good evidence that muchlarger audiences can he reached through themass media, and they can be reached repeat-edly, at lower cost (DCR 77, p.3).

For example, in Swaziland, evidenceshows that face-to-face channels were oneand one-half times as effective as mass me-dia channels; however, radio reached threetimes as many people. In total, radio ap-peared to be the more effective channel.

Similarly, using more channels is betterthan fewer channels: the audience reach isgreater and it is more likely to receive rein-forcing messages. On the other hand, thematerials production task multiplies. At thesame time, some channels (eg., theatertroupes and mobile film, in some contexts)can be expensive while reaching relativelyfew people.

Strategies which emphasis multiple chan-nels require unflinching trade-offs: likelyetlectiveness, cost of production, cost of dif-fusion, potential audience reach and Ire-quency, possibility for sustained use, andavailable talent.

`.1

0

Good Audience Knowledge. Each of theseprinciples demands that programs be client-onented and that managers know their au-diences well This responsibility continuesafter the program is planned and messagesare pretested Programs need to create effec-tive mechanisms for tracking their audi-ences. the initial shape of an educationalintervention is often wrong, even with someplanning research. The difficult task is torecognize when things have gone wrongand reshape the intervention in response.If we know so much,why doesn't it stick?

While many programs do not followthese recommendations entirely, there arecommunication programs that do, and havedemonstrated clear success. Despite initialsuccess, however, the achievements arerarely maintained over a long period. Whatforces stand in the way of building andmaintaining an effective development com-munication capacity?

First, one should be cautious in askingsuch a question. Large scale communicationprograms are often held up against unrea-sonable criteria. If everyone at risk doesn'tchange their sexual behavior immediatelyupon exposure to a six month AIDS educa-tion program, many are ready to declareAIDS education a failure. Expectations maybe unrealistic.

Similarly, when a public communicationeffort is evaluated and lasts for one or a fewyears and then disappears, there is a fre-quent concern that it has not been institu-tionalized. While legitimate, the concernshould be raised in two contexts: first, wasthe short term result worth something evenif the program lasted only for a few years;second, how does it compare to other simi-lar intervention efforts: do other effortshave longer lives? In many cases, immedi-ate benefits may be enough to justify publiccommunication efforts, even without insti-tutionalization.

Barriers to InstitutionalizationLimited Political Motivation. Analysis ofthe survival of any intervention begins withsome reckoning of political winners andlosers. Sometimes, political actors are will-ing to sponsor an intervention because theybelieve it will do good for 'the people'.However, it is also useful to understand

motivationtrom a moreselfish pointof view howwill it benefitthe sponsor'Public corn-munication, -

particularlymass mediabased inter-vention, doesprovide some such benefits. Since mediabased programs are so clearly public, minis-tries gain credit for doing their jobs. Thus,Ministers of Health ca-. appear on broadcastsadvocating immunization and gain publiccredibility. However, when it comes to doingsuch programs effectively, investing in re-search with the audience, and making surethat supplies match demand created by massmedia promises, the public rewards arefewer. Thus, political motivation for supportover the short term may not last long enoughto create a stable and effective communica-tion office within a ministry.

When short term political backing fades,there are rarely others with a direct stake ininstitutionalizing the activity. Clients ofhealth and agricultural services are demand-ing services .-ather than information Minis-tries of education face demands for class-rooms, traditional educational materials, andhigher teachers' salaries. No one is in thetrenches with demands for radio-basedschooling. To the extent that allocation ofresources among government departments isprimarily a response to the demands of es-tablished constituencies, programs withoutthis backing will have a limited future.

"N

Lack of Fit with Routine. Serious publiccommunication is an unusual activity for asectoral ministry. Health educators are oftengiven the basement corner office, literallyand figuratively. When it comes to a choicebetween allocating money to radio broad-casts or urban hospital beds (regardless oftheir relative health benefit), it is difficult toimagine any health service choosing radio.Serious public communication, with its re-quirements for extended audience research,messages which reflect audience needs aswell as expert prescriptions and channel

continued on p.41%7,,

4

Face-to-face interaction is ahighly effective developmentcommunication strategy percontact, but the mass mediareach many more people at once.

3, Development Communication Report, no. 79

Communication Today, cont'd from page 3

The

remarkable

short term

success of

some

programs has

created an

expectation

that

communication

programs will

always have

rapid success

analysis, doesn't have any precedent within

most government bureaucracies. It is no sur-prise that once public communication stafflose outside funds, they find themselves re-turning to their prior status as basement

health educators.

Lack of Skilled Staff. Health education staffare often paid far less and given much lessstatus than others in the ministry. If outsidefunds are used to retrain or employ skilledcommunication staff, retention of that staffbecomes a major problem once those fundsdisappear. If a successful program has sub-contracted audience research to a marketresearch agency and preparation of mediamaterials to an advertising agency, follow-up

programs without outside funds may lackfunds to sub-contract services and lack skills

to do the work in-house.These barriers to a sustained public com-

munication capacity are closely linked to oneanother and produce a lack of stable budgetsand staff. Is there any hope that things will

improve?

How do we do it better?Even without the establishment of major

development communication capacity at the

end of an 'effective program, there may stillbe a long lasting effect. The staff may usesome of the orientation and skills when out-side funding is gone. The health educationdepartment may maintain a routine of pre-

testing or other ministry otficials may thinkabout prevention interventions in a moresophisticated way than before. Institutional-ization effects do not have to be measured as'all-or-nothing.' Nonetheless, there is more

that may be possibleThe primary prescription is patience. The

remarkable short term success of some pro-grams has misled us. It has created an expec-tation that communication programs will

always have rapid success and produce sharpchanges under any circumstances. We acted

as though such success would be sufficient to

motivate institutionalization and that thisclass of intervention would quickly becomestandard operating procedure in governmentdepartments. On the contrary, we may need

to adopt a patient view, both for the effects

we achieve and for the institution buildingwe seek.

Patience also relates to what outcomesshould be expected from communication


programs. Without doubt, some behaviorsare open to quick effects. Thus, it may beeasy to encourage timely vaccination whenvaccination itself is widely accepted andparents are trusting. It is more difficult todiscourage smoking among those alreadywell aware of health risks. Thus, the majordeclines in smoking behavior in the UnitedStates, have happened slowlyI or 2 per-cent per year over 30 years. For some suchbehaviors, only the slow shift of socialnorms, potentially associated with long termpublic information programs, is likely to beassociated with stable behavior change.

Patience means expecting to have to stayfor the long haul, regardless of short termsuccess. Two or three years of workworkYhose success has depended on involve-ment of private outside agencies; work thathas been successful because it was kept clearof the deadening clutches of ministry bu-reaucraciesthese approaches will bringshort term success, but may not be sufficientfor institutionalization.

Institutionalization requires, at mini-mum, a consistent call on budgets E, n d staff.Communication programs may need arriveat strategies which more fully express thesupport of sponsors and constituencies, suchas addressing favored outcomes of seniorstaff, publicly attributing success to others'work, engaging the press and legislativeattention and inspiring enthusiasm. Thesecompromises may still leave room enoughto do the real work.

From my perspective, this is both an opti-mictic time and a time for raising concernsabout development communication. Wehave developed a set of technical ap-proaches which have been shown to affectbehavior even in large scale programs. Wehave not vet sorted out how to make suchprograms become a long term part of oper-ating agencies. Our best prescription for thefuture remains patience, some satisfactionwith what has been accomplished, and someunderstanding that strategies for short termsuccess have to evolve into strategies forlong term stability.

Robert Horrid; is Director of the Center forinternational Health and Development Commum-

ration and a Professor at the Annenberg School for

Communication, University of Pennsylvania .3620

Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA tel:

(215) 898-7057: tax: 1215) 898 2024.

far beyond a pilot stage of experimentation.The changes in the world in general have

also changed communication planning. Theaftermath of the collapse of the Berlin Walland the trends in social planning and politicalpractice worldwide have altered the base ofdevelopment action. They have also trans-ferred a theoretical concern with participatorydevelopment into a whole environment, wherethe realities of social adjustment policies, thedisappearance of centrally planned economies,the arrival of transitional and often ambiguousdemocratic forms have to be confronted.

These same forces have inevitably had theirimpact on communication systems, wherepressures for deregulation, privatization, com-petition and pluralism have opened up possi-bilities (and hazards) for a whole new set ofmedia actors: private press and radio,grassroots media, alternative media, and novelcombinations.

These changes are reflected, for example, inthe changing policies of UNESCO's Interna-tionaltional Programme for the Development ofCommunication (IPDC), which has diversifiedboth its partnerships and its funding base tomatch the new pluralism. Some of these inno-vations are explored below.

The Evolution ofCommunication Planning

The nature and degree of the support thatcommunication can offer has deepened ourunderstanding of development. When commu-nication was first conceived as project support,the communication infrastructures envisionedwent no further than an external communica-tion unit. The technologies involved were au-dio-visual, group teaching and learning, exten-sion activities and interpersonal skills. "Devel-opment" and the role of communication werenot questioned to any great extent.

Subsequently, when development was seenas more programmatic, or campaign oriented,communication support grew. It relied on abattery of mass and audio-visual technologies,coupled with extension activities in an oftenquite sophisticated delivery system drawingon advertising, public relations and publicitytechniques, and sociological theory. Thetheory of development underlying these ef-forts was still, however, one of modernization.

Later still, when concepts of participationand empowerment and "another develop-ment" became more accepted, developmentcommunication was more often based on alter-

Communication Planning, cont'd from p.1

native, local and community media, or com-munity analysis and debate. Communicationtechniques were added which drew fromanthropology, qualitative research, psychol-ogy and formative evaluation.

Over time, the technological range wasextended. New individualized media weremade available, including video, audio, anddesktop publishing. Larger technologiescould also be co-opted to support develop-ment, such as electronic mail and low orbitsatellite systems. Throughout, however, therewas still an implicit assumption in planningthat communication was in some sense de-tached from the developmental processasupport, tool, a catalyst, a motivatorbutalways external.

There have been several perspectives ofthe relationships between communicationand societal development over the years. Butthe traditions of communication planning fordevelopment, including infrastructures, hu-man resource development, and communica-tion system planning and of communicationas an independent entity have remainedseparate.

A first change in this perception came inthe 1980s when information and communica-tion began to be recog-nized as the fastest grow-ing sector of modern andmodernizing societies.This view was reinforcedin turn by the treatment ofinformation as a commod-ity with a value and avalue-added potential.

Communicationand Democracy

In the late 1980s, thepressure for a holistic viewof communication in de-velopment was growing.Now, in the early 1990s,the two traditions can no longer be heldseparate. In the pursuit of democracy,open and multi-sided communication isa key concern. Moreover, a free andindependent press and other forms ofopen expression are increasingly ac-cepted as an index of democratic soci-ety, not purely as channels for the trans-mission of information. The structures

continuedp.6

2

MEW


Communication Planning, cont'd from p.5

.Vezo sets of mediarotors are changing thentssIbtlittes for

ommumeation andtmot.ratu.

of communication haveopened up considerablyto embrace new formswhich, in the past, werediscrete.

There are no longerfirm divisions betweenpublic and private media.Increasingly, the two aremixed. Developmentinitiatives draw upon theprivate sector for supportand on advertising tech-niques for inspiration.Individual media serviceshave grown up for spe-cial-focus audiences tthe

Inter-Press Service or the Women's FeaturesServices, based in India, for example), and themass media spectrum is interspersed with alter-native forms. Community radio, for example,has developed sufficiently to justify the estab-lishment of a world association for communityradio servicesAMARC.

At the same time, the consolidation of newinformation technologies has opened up newpossibilitiesof combining satellites and com-puters, for example, in a multi-media mix whichcan cross cultural boundaries. (see DCR 75)

What this means is that communication plan-ning for development is increasingly takingplace in a real-life, real-time environment inwhich communication and information are seenas essential elements for democracy, not justmarginal supplements. On the other hand, com-munication planning faces the same constraintsof limited resources, pressures of populariza-tion, and of the marketplace. The communica-tion planners, the development planners, theindustrial planners and decision-makers are allpart of the same scenario.

Communication Planning NowChange does not come all at once. Nor is it

total. Many traditions co-exist and will continueto do so. At LNESCO, for example, the largestproject cluster is still concerned with infrastruc-ture building and training for broadcasting andnews agencies in Africa. Some significantprojects are focused on local mediacommu-nity radio in Bhutan, and in the Philippines.Others are problem-centeredagainst drugabuse in Colombia, for population education inAfricaor curricula and teaching materialswhich emphasize culturally rooted, develop-mental materials. Projects are underway at all


educational levels in distance learningsomefeaturing interactive methods or the search forappropriate technologies such as computer soft-ware for African and Asian languages. In Africaand Asia, rural radio and the rural press are tobe combined with basic education and literacyprograms in Africa and Asia. For UNESCO,communication planning has many "entrypoints" of technology, content, problem, orteaching styles.

A new kind of project focus is also emerg-ing, designed to foster participation and diver-sity in the media and to be critical of the dia-logue between decision makers and those af-fected by decisions. Some of these projects havestemmed from the seminar on press freedomand media independence held in Namibia al-most two years ago, which led to a secondmeeting for Asia and the Central Asian Repub-lics, in Kazakhstan in October 1992. In Africa,there are independent ventures for private, al-ternative press and publishing activities inBenin, Cameroon and Senegal; in Gabon,women lawyers have established their ownjournal L'Egalite: the Pan African News Agencyis rethinking both its policies and its manage-ment and resource base. In Kazakhstan, newlegislative and management practices for themedia are being developed with UNESCO as-sistance. The overall premise is that governanceand the democratic process are not only insepa-rable from development, but that communica-tion is a main factor in establishing new linesand forms of participation.

These innovations have left a vacuum in theavailable planning tools; communication plan-ners have not vet found adequate substitutes forolder, more comfortable methods of centralizedeconomic planning. The fact that we now havemore data and more sophisticated means ofdata collection and analysis is of limited use itthe frameworks within which planning is con-ducted are either obsolete, or not vet developed.

The field of communication for developmenturgently needs a more creative coupling of ac-tors, structures and planning processes to find anew balance between liberalization, participa-tion and direction. At least, the Mort is nowbeing made center stage and not conducted onI he sidelines.

llaait Ilancotk is the Mrmer nireCtOr nr the Com-munication Division at UNESCO. lie is now Directorot the Programme Or Central and Eastern EuropeanDevelopment (PROCEED) at UNESCO, 7. plate deFontenot/. 75.352 Pans 07. SP. Emilie. tel: 1 33 1)45(181289: My: (3.3 1 47348557.

`,J

Talking to Development Bankers:Extension Workers Speak Up

by Bella ModyThere are several million of us agri-culture extension workers aroundthe world. The departments ofhealth, nutrition, family planning

and education depend heavily on front-lineextension workers too. Worldwide invest-ment in agriculture extension has doubledin the last decade. We feel good that manyeconomic studies confirm that our laborhas contributed significantly to increases inagricultural output. However, we do knowthat the emphasis on increases in outputmeans that we spend the majority of ourlimited time in the field with medium andlarge farmersnot marginal and smallfarmers who have few other sources ofinformation and need help most. In fact,our agriculture extension departments donot know what advice to give small andsubsistence farmers who cannot afford thetechnologies we are being trained to "trans-fer" to them. If ability to pay was the crite-rion, we would never visit them.

If we had our druthers, we would rec-ommend a participatory approach to agri-culture extension that puts the farmer first.We would facilitate horizontal communica-tion between farmers with similar con-straints and cropping preferences to de-velop a consensus on their problems andsuccesses. This critical communicationfrom the grassroots to the researchers andextension staff will happen only if we dem-onstrate that together we can collaborate toresolve their unsolved problems. With thisgrassroots grounding, we would be in abetter position to research answers andshare suggestions sensitive to their needs.But this approach implies a fundamentalchange in how our top-down extensionsystems are structured.

Magic Multipliers:Enhancing Extension Work?

Present extension design is labor-inten-sive. No extension worker can present the

range of information needed to all farmers.In response, the mass media are being usedto extend quality information to morefarmers, especially in underserved areas.Accurate extension of research and exten-sion expertise via the "magic multipliers"of mass media exposure can be designed tobe very low cost per farmer and can level

information differences between large andsmall farmers, male and female farmers, andfarmers who are farther away from head-quarters than others.

Specially designed media programs canbe targeted at the urban public, politiciansand policy makers to ensure that they toounderstand current problems facing farmers.Unfortunately, the use of cassette recordersto document farmers' needs, program pref-erences and innovations to help select pro-gram topics is neglected. Such "feed for-ward" or grassroots information flow canhelp remedy the problem of inappropriatecontent and form for particular audiencegroups. Continuous needs assessment isusually not the practice in agriculture exten-sion agencies.

This new use of communication technol-ogy provides an opportunity to initiatechanges in our normal practice. The technol-ogy can serve as a catalyst for structuralchange to include new client groups, newactivities, and a new social organization ofwork. These changes would change exten-sion work rather than enhance an old struc-ture.

Specific implementation issues that needattention are related to the context of theproject, its administrative structure, mediachannels and agricultural content:

(1) Context: The media work within the or-ganizational context that deploys them.When media are commissioned by the exten-sion system to carry its messages, their use isinfluenced by the exter-nal politics that affectthe extension system,and the internal poli-tics of the system itself.

For the most part,agriculture extension'suse of media is charac-terized by low budgets,little or no audienceresearch prior to andduring program devel-or:aent, production byjaded government-issue artists,undifferentiated audi-ences, and the impos-sible goal of persuad-

cmitinued on p.8

uDevelopment Communication Report, no. 79

Extension Workers Speak Up, cont'd. from p.7

Mg low-income farmers to make major changesin their historically-rooted family agriculturalpractices quickly. When such media programsproduced by agriculture departments (and theirsister agencies in health, nutrition and familyplanning) did not work, the recommendationwas to parallel the media production practicesof commercial advertisers more closely, thusleading to what we now call social marketingcampaigns. The fundamental one -way informa-tion transmission context of media use in agri-culture extension did not change.

Steps in Au'dienceParticipation BasedMessage Design

1. Learn every-thing possibleabout the topic ofthe campaign.

11. Collect impactdata.

4,Ir

2. Analyze lifestyle andcommunication prefer-ences of audience(s).

3. Assess audienceneeds vis-a-vis thecampaign topic.

4. Write specificmeasurable goals.

5. Select media

10. Monitor exposure

9. Modify message andproceed with massproduction.

8. Pretest

6. Agree on creative-persuasive strategy

7. Write messagespecifications

(2) Administration:The administrativestructures of theclassic agriculturalextension system, itscrop-specific vari-ants, and their moreefficient incarna-tions are modifiedversions of colonialbureaucracies in theThird World. Notethe irony: Innova-tion-resistant bu-reaucracies are ex-pected to promotethe adoption of in-novations amongfarmers. The rigidstructures of largetop-down agricul-ture extension sys-tems cannot accom-mouate the flexibil-ity required to en-courage participa-tion by farmers.Thus, when farmer-first orientations aremandated, they aredistorted andadapted out of rec-ognition.

A prerequisitefor farmer-first com-munication designis farmer-first exten-sion design. Forma-tive research formessage design,subject matter spe-cialists in the exten-


sion agency, and media planners and pro-ducers in private and non-governmentalorganizations would help facilitate thisgoal. Extension communication is envi-sioned as a team activity encompassingpublic and private sector roles. Large bu-reaucracies run by historical precedent aregenerally incapable of producing the cre-ative communication design required toattract and hold audience attention.

(3) Media Channels: In the first flush ofexcitement in the 1960s that saw mass mediaas "magic multipliers" of messages, littleattention was paid to the content or the in-novations that would he multiplied. Politi-cal scientists, sociologists and psychologistswho studied mass communication auto-matically assumed the content of newlyintroduced media channels in the ThirdWorld would he supportive of national de-velopment, and that exposure to these magi-cal channels would automatically lead towhat was then called "modernization." Thegeneral finding after ten years of media sup-port for development projects in the mid-1970s was no different from the ThirdWorld's experience with other developmentprojects that used no media: very little realdevelopment occurred by just about anystandard, and what little occurred accrueddisproportionately to the better-off seg-ments of society.

To development banks and governmentswho ask whether television is better thanridio for agricultural extension, behavioralscience research says clearly that audience,learn from all and any affordable mediachannels. Given availability of media chan-nels that reach farmers, the selection of me-dia channel should depend on the nature ofthe informational or instructional task (au-dio, visual or text, color-relevant or not,one-way or two-way, group or individualreception and so on), the information-pro-cessing ability of the specific audience seg-ment, and the financial and organizationalability of the extension system.

(41 Media content: The benefits of media usein agriculture have been sub-optimal be-cause the program content was designed (11

without farmer (audience) involvement and(2) without creativity. The greatest advan-tage can be derived from the use of commu-

nication technology in support of agricul-ture extension when:

(a) its content and format are based onaudience needs and media preferences,

(b) its content is transmitted through acombination of media, and

(3) its content is planned in collabora-tion and coordination with field exten-sion activities and other inputs.

Each of these three conditions is relatedto content, not the channels or media hard-ware. The audience must participate withextensionists in selecting content they needfor goal- oriented communication design.Since every medium has its strengths andlimitations, the extensionist who is com-mitted to supplying farm audiences withcontent that meets their needs will rely ona combination of channelsinterpersonal,group and mass media.

RecommendationsExperienced extension workers do not

recommend media use as a quick-fix addi-tion to a top-down agriculture extensionsystem. Media-based communication at-tempts are effective to the extent that theirprocess of message design imitates theback-and-forth of sender-receiver dialoguein interpersonal communication. The bu-reaucrat-to-farmer top-down structure ofthe existing agriculture extension edificeparallels the old development paradigmand its parallel communication paradigmthat was discarded as ineffective in the1970s.

A unique Farmer-First Extensions andCommunication-System must be fleshedout in each setting through local pilotprojects. What will be common acrosscountries is clear accountability to farmers,monitored by a continuous audience re-search and evaluation process that may beundertaken in-house or contracted out. Aradio-based dissemination strategy com-bined with local television or video-cas-sette and print material (when affordable)and extension support (if available) willprobably be the most sustainable agricul-ture extension media plan, and is perfectlyadequate. Funding option include financ-ing low-power television and radio sta-tions as multi-sector rural integrated de-velopment information facilities, wherethey do not exist, as well as other basic

materials such as more vehicles, portablelow cost audio and videocassette recorders,and laptop computers for rapid data analy-sis. If basic capability exists in-house, localretraining of existing extension staff as for-mative researchers would also boost pro-gram development.

Media planning and subsequent mes-sage design to meet agreed specifications isa specialized activity that would be bestcontracted out to a creative group that isalso comfortable with the notion of provingtheir utility to farmers through systematicperiodic program pretests and pilots. Sys-tematic multi-method social research andbehavioral science findings can be taught;creativity in media production cannot. Thatcreativity does not survive in large govern-ment bureaucracies is evidenced by theuninspiring quality of present agriculturalmedia programming output. The lack ofaudience involvement and media pro-ducer-audience-researcher interaction re-sults in programming that ranges fromknow-it-all subject experts and progressivefarmers talking down at audiences in one-shot plays with no dramatic value or cul-tural compatibility with farmers.

Could it be possible that some re-searcher will be here 10 years from now, in2002, saying pretty much the same thing?Thomas Kuhn suggested that our critiquesnotwithstanding, dominant paradigms donot pass away until the power structureand economic conditions that support themchange. Criticism of the orthodox top-down extension approach is a critique ofneo-classical theory as applied to agricul-ture. Development banks are large agricul-tural extension lenders in developing coun-tries; it is important that they contribute tochange the rhetoric and the reality of agri-culture extension.

Adapted from "Energizing the Communica-tion Component in Agriculture Extension" pre-sented at the World Bank's 12th Annual Aricul-ture Symposium in 1992. Bella Mody specializesin communication technology and internationaldevelopment issues at the College of Communica-tion at Michigan State University, Departmentof Telecommunication and Urban Affairs Pro-grams, 130 West Oren Hall, Michigan StateUniversity, East Lansing, MI 48824-1109. E-mail: 21811MGR@MSLLbitnet tel: (517) 336-3378; fax: (517) 355-1772.

83

Experienced

extension

workers do not

recommend

media use as a

quick-fix

addition to a

top-down

agriculture

extension

system.

Development Comb no. 79

The Growing Potential of Communication Technology:Project Saturn Global

by Andrea Boschhe world is a very small placeindeed. Environmental forumsremind us that reductions inrainforest in one part of the

world and increased carbon emissions inanother, affect the whole globe. Populationand health problems, food shortages andlow literacy are local and global issuescommanding the attention and action of aninformed world community. Whether welike it or not, the earth is a small place andwe are intrinsically linked and interdepen-dent upon each other.

With advances in communication tech-nologies, these links can be more than justimages of faraway people with farawayideas. Through satellite technology it ispossible to reach into the crevices of theearth to trade information and communi-cate with people from the hillside to theshores of a remote land. For the field ofdevelopment communication, this presentsan amazing opportunity which opensdoors to unprecedented conversations andactivity. And in a world climate which isadvocating privatization and communica-

tion systems free of government control,there are new and interesting methods

of gaining access to advanced com-munication systems.

A

Project Saturn-GlobalOne entrepreneur dedicated

to children's education andworld health issues is show-ing how a partially non-profit, partially for-profit,nongovernmental organiza-tion can communicate withpeople around the world.Electro-Romm, Inc. in a joint

venture with World AudioLibraries, Ltd has developed

the world's first all educational,24-hour-a-day internationally dis-

tributed satellite radio networkProject Saturn Global.

Project Saturn Global is the brainchild ofCatherine D. Kahn, president of Electro-Romm, Inc. In 1982, Kahn set down theplans for the world's first independent Glo-bal-Educational Radio Network. Now, adecade later, she is preparing the network's


first international satellite tests, signing upSaturn Global Country Partners and train-ing broadcast teams worldwide.

KAHN: "Our signal will originate dailyfrom Los Angeles at 1600 hours GMT. Theentire transmission will reach around theworld with testing being done at stationsin the North Pole, South Pole, east to Eu-rope, Africa, Asia and back to the NorthAmerican continent. Additional testingwill be held on ships at sea and airplanes.Our PSG signal will illuminate the entiresurface of populated earth ... remote recep-tion from the banks of the Amazon tomountain villages in Nepal. From oceangoing vessels, to airplanes in flight and toevery city, town and village and topeople...evervwhere."

Project Saturn Global and other worldsatellite systems are largely the result ofNASA innovation. For PSG, initial projec-tions indicate an average daily audience ofover 100 million listeners within the first24 months. While the network beganworldwide satellite tests on April 15, 1992,the actual network launch time is sched-uled for January, 1993 with worldwidecoverage scheduled for April, 1993. Thenetwork has already been on the air testingthroughout North America (the UnitedStates, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean Nationsand the Hawaiian Islands) for six weeks,and can be monitored on GALAXY 5 Tran-sponder 7 5.7975 MGHZ, at 3.5KZ).

With the emphasis on education fromprimary school through high school,Project Saturn's programs reach all aceswith subjects ranging from fairy tales tocomputer technology. The daily program-ming is drawn from an audio library ofover 2,000 educational audio presentationswith an average program length of 25 min-utes Programs are repeated every eighthours to accommodate global time zonesand include hourly educational news fea-turing contributions from over 200 indi-vidual in-country PSG News Bureau Part-nerships.

Program Agenda and DistributionIn addition to other programming, The

Saturn Foundation, the nonprofit compo-nent of PSG has designated over 5,000 30-second public service announcements to he

aired annually for education in theprevention of cholera and dysentery.These spots will play on a regular dailybasis worldwide and be distributed toworldwide radio stations in the sevenofficial languages of the United Na-tions. Called the "Boil Your Water/Wash Your Hands" campaign, theseprograms advocate basic hygiene. PSG-NIGERIA among other Saturn Partnersthroughout Africa, Asia and ScuthAmerica are working on a series ofregional musical concerts to reinforcethese messages.

PSG exemplifies the potential ofsatellite programming. It can be dis-tributed over standard radio broadcastwhere time and space is available,through audio cable, satellite receiverdownlink, and telephone by party line.The PSG research and developmentdivision has developed a solar pow-ered-transceiver/ satellite downlinkespecially for use in third world coun-tries. This system will offer viable PSGlistening in remote areas while re-transmitting the signal up to two milesfarther either by FM or AM frequency.Reception is easy and affordable and isrecommended through solar poweredlow cost transistor radios currently offthe shelf in the Asia radio marketplace.

Communication:Granting Access

PSG i, creatin,..; news divisions ineach participating country. The newsdivision will be responsible for cover-age of their own country's educationalnews as it applies to a global audienceand in the production of their own"Country Day" as celebrated on PSG.The country day is one of three broad-cast days per week dedicated to anindividual country. During that day'sbroadcast schedule, dozens of 60-sec-ond news items about the chosen coun-try are broadcast worldwide. At theend of the broadcast day, the localnews division is honored and takespart in the presentation of a one hourspecial program salute to their country.The program is run three times duringthe 24 hour broadcast schedule and isoffered for sale to the listening audi-

ence by audio cassette through the PSGprogram mail order service.

In accordance with the goals of theUnited Nations, Project Saturn has alsocommitted thousands of 30-second Pub-lic Service Announcements to The I'eaceCorps, WHO, UNICEF and many others.

Funding in a Capitalist WorldPerhaps one of the most interesting

aspects of Project Saturn-Global is how itis funded. Project Saturn Global is notaffiliated with any government, religiousor political organization. Instead, it iscommercially sponsored with the major-ity of its funding generated by the institu-tional advertising of large corporationswhich promote ideas and products onthe air.

As an entrepreneurial endeavor,l'roject Saturn Global aims to be useful tosponsors around the world. With this inmind, PSG has begun to include in-co-en-try promotional events advertising in itsmonthly International Program Guidesas well as unique international licensingopportunities for its advertisers. PSG has92,000 commercial availabilities annuallyand hopes to be self-supporting within 18months.

For the listeners, the network is airedfree of charge. Programming is availableto radio stations, cable stations, for audiochannel distribution and in some cases,via telephone to the general public.

Satellite Technology: The Future

Now, firmly in the Information Age,the globe continues to shrink. Withprivatized funding mechanisms and thecommunication technology to transmitmessages around the globe instantly, thefield of development communication issurely seeing a new dawn. The potentialof the communication era for developingcountries continues to unfold.

Those wishing to take part in the develop-ment at Project Saturn Global may write to:Project Saturn Global(PSG) Attn: Develop-ment Director 691 S. Irvin St. Suite 2008 LA,CA 90005 USA tel: (310) 285-3655; fax: (213)-388 -4222. PSG-Program Demonstration Tele-phone: (213) 891-3959

Prospects for theFuture:

The TelephoneTutor!

As part of its futureglobal educationalagenda, PSG hasinitiated develop-ment on a Tele-phone Tutor. Thissystem will holdbetween 3-5,000educational audio/visual programswhich can beaccessed over acommon tele-phone. Participat-ing in-countrytelephone compa-nies will be encour-aged to allow localcalling access witha minimum monthlyflat rate accesscharge. The pro-gramming will betranslated into theseven official lan-guages of the UN.A prototype wasdemonstratedearlier this year withactual manufactur-ing and implemen-tation to begin in 24months.

:211 Development Communication Report, no. 79

Variations in Technology:Computer Drawing Made Easier

by Cliff MissenO.K. Call me lazy. But when I'min the situation where I need agood graphic to highlight apoint in a brochure, poster or

video, I panic. Or at least I usedto. A new generation of computerdrawing packages has changedmy outlook and may be changingthe way communicators designmaterials.

Unless one is a natural artist orhas plenty of free time, creatingoriginal graphics can be a tedious,if not painful, task. For develop-ment communication projects, weknow that our work needs to befield tested and reworked severaltimes before the product is final.For those of us who work in several com-munities simultaneously, graphics may alsorequire many versions to suit local needs.

Over the past few years, a quiet revolu-tion has occurred in the world of computergraphics. Programs have become cheaper,more specialized and easier to use. Today'scomputer graphic technology promisesmany practical choices for the creative de-velopment communication specialist. (seeDCR 73, p. 10)

Bit Mapped vs. Vector BasedGraphics

When choosing betweencomputer graphics programs. it

is useful to under-stand the underly-ing technologiesand their advan-tages. Most olderand many contem-porary computerillustration pro-grams employ bitmapped graphics.Using bit mappedsoftware, onedraws as if on agrid, turning indi-vidual pointscalled pixels on oroff. One can changethe color of thesepixels, change

tilt+

whole groups of pixels at one time, or cutand paste pixels from one drawing to an-other.

Vector based drawing software, a newertechnology, uses techniques borrowed fromarchitectural and mechanical design pro-

Vector-based enlargement printed from Corel Draw software.(stretched from the drawing on the left)

A vector-based image used fortraining in well digging.


grams. Instead of patterns of pixels, thevector based software defines the parts ofthe drawing as mathematical equations. Aline has a beginning point, an end point,and a certain degree of curve in between. Itcan then be filled with a particular patternor color.

Each element of the vector based illus-tration is a separate object which can beassigned qualities like width, color, texture,and orientation. To alter a vector basedgraphic, one can point at the object andsimply indicate, "make this green" or"make the outline larger" and the computerdoes the rest.

The difference between bit mapped andvector-based software is obvious whenchanging a graphic. Drawing a bit mappedgraphic is much like painting on a canvasone applies paint continually covering theold with the new. With vector-based soft-ware, drawing is more like arranging cut-out figures on a felt boardobjects can berepositioned endlessly by overlaying, rotat-ing, and tilting the artwork. Vector-basedfiles are also much smaller than many othergraphics files, and therefore, easier to trans-port from one program to another.

Bit mapped graphics have certain 'ir-.ita-dons: one must create the graphic in itsintended size or suffer distorted images ifyou change the size of the graphic. This isthe source of those saw-toothed drawingsoften associated with computers. With ad-vanced vector based drawing software,

however, resized graphics remain cleanand undistorted from pocket guides toposter art. If one enlarges a graphic to twiceits original size, the software simplydoubles the appropriate parts of theobject's equation and redraws the objectaccordingly. Once drawn, an object can beresized and reused over and over whichmakes it easy for the communication spe-cialist to develop a toolbox of ready-to-useimages.

Most importantly, you don't need to be

grate bit maps into your art-work.

Hardware and Software

There are many low-cost bitmapped and vector-basedsoftwares available. An IBMpersonal computer (most pro-grams require Windows software,thus requiring a 286 processor) ora Mac SE will run most drawingpackages. As with anything grapi_:c, one

wants as much RAM memoryand disk storage space as pos-sible and faster machines arerecommended, but not necessary.

Printer choice is a matter ofquality. A laser printer whichsupports PCLS or Postscript willprovide the best output with theleast jagged edges. Standard dotmatrix printers produce excellentdrafts and, if necessary, can pro-duce final copy.

The advances in computergraphics have revolutionizedpublishing, advertising and

graphic communications. With reducedcosts and better quality software, there isno reason these advances cannot enhancethe lives and effectiveness of developmentcommunicators everywhere.

Cliff Missen is the Director of WellspringAfrica, a small non-profit organization which isreviving hand powered water well drilling tech-nology for village level development. He is alsocollecting a database of vector based clip art per-tinent to third world development. Contributionsare welcome. He can be reached at: 715 GeorgeStreet, Iowa City, IA 52246 LISA. Internet:[email protected] tel: (319) 335-7880; far: (319) 335-7330.

Bit mapped enlargement printed from CorelPhoto Paint.

a math wizard to use any of these drawingpackages. The internal workings of vectorbased software are hidden behind cleveruser interfaces which make drawing easy.For example, to define a curve the artist isgiven a set of handles at each end of a linewhich can be adjusted to bend the line andcreate any kind of curve imaginable.

The Possibilities are Endless

All computer graphics can easily beintegrated with text through desktop pub-lishing for textbooks, manuals, newspa-pers, posters, brochures. It is one of thebiggest advantages. Vector-based softwarecan also expand to meet other communica-tion needs. Because the software can ma-nipulate text and graphics, it can lay outslides and title videos easily. Through inte-grating the media, crisp color slides canalso be made with a standard computerslide recorder.

While older and less versatile, bitmapped software still provides the onlyway to edit images, such as photographs,which have been scanned into the computer. Most vector based software can inte-

W.

W. springAfrica'

EirIlling Weolliss

This vector-based logo can be integrated overand over onto posters, brochures or videos.

37Development Complitirppf17°' Report, no. 79

Selecting Grassroots Alliances:Practical Considerations

by Moncef M. Bouhafa

relatively recent addition to developmentcommunication theory is the use of strate-gic allies and partners for either "demandgeneration" campaigns or to ensure that

services are used effectively. Through the practical appli-cation of social mobilization in the field, strategic allieshave been identified as key factors in achieving tremen-dous gains in immunization coverage and family planningin developing countries--especially in areas where thereach of the mass media is limited.

Allies have always been important. In the 1960s, anIndonesian Family Planning Program showed that involv-ing strategic allies could result in increased success. In the1980s, child survival campaigns used the private sector tohelp broaden the perception of preventive health from a"medical" issue to one that is vitally important for thecommunity as a whole. Recent experience in social mobili-zation with the police in Latin America, soldiers in Africa,well-known playwrights in Nigeria, and teachers and reli-gious leaders everywhere points to the same lessonwhenwe involve others, programs can achieve more.

Identifying PartnersUnfortunately, finding potential partners in some coun-

tries, like Nigeria, can take several months and be rela-tively expensive based on the large number of nongovern-mental organizations (NGOs) and large areas alone. Insome smaller countries, NGOs may be scarcer but data onthe reach of the organization may be limited. While theinitial effort may seem great, the simple counting of allieswill not help to evaluate their credibility (or lack of it) andtheir potential virtue or harm for a program. The care in-volved in building alliances is important.

In order to ensure that the right allies are used to the

maximum effectiveness, they need to be identified and in-volved in a systematic manner. The social mobilizationanalysis (SAM), a well researched tool, is a comprehensiveassessment of a country's mass media as well as a look intocommunity level networks. The guidelines for the SAM havebeen developed through many years of practical applicationand are regularly refined based on field experience. Theseguidelines, available through the Programme Communica-tion Section of UNICEF's New York office, provide a practi-cal methodology which can be adapted to a specific countrysituation.

Building Partnerships

Building partnerships with all local organizations is noteasy or even necessary. While some may not be interested,other interested groups may lack valuable community cred-ibility. Still others may be "enlistable" but require extra skillin negotiating around mutually felt benefits. One practicalway to build partnerships involves exchanging ideas abouthow a potential ally can help in language that group mem-bers can understand. For example. religious leaders under-stood the relevance of the Facts for Life communicationprojects (see DCR no. 66, page 8), when health messageswere linked to the Holy Koran through the Child Care inIslam Initiative. Agricultural extension workers in Ghanaincluded health messages in their work only when they sawbenefits to their own drive for increased food production atthe community level. Defining mutually felt interests helpedthe groups build commitment and alliances so both partnerscould benefit.

Assessing the Allies

The more information one hasabout potential allies, thebetter. An organizational analysis (or strategic allies andpartners study) combines the criteria necessary for an ally tobe useful (see chart) with other project information. Gener-

Sample Chart Assessing Criteria for Potential Allies and Partners

Potential 1 Communi- Access to Target Credibility with Target Commitment Capacity Decision

Resource cation Groups: Groups: to Project to be

Ability Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Objectives Mobilized

Drug Sellers yes yes no yes no no no no

Muslim Leaders yes yes no yes no yes yes yes

Church Leaders yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

CDR's yes yes yes no yes yes yes


ally, qualitative research that uses directed inter-views with organizations and establishes baselinedata about each potential partner can provide help-ful data. The resulting annotated inventory of orga-nizations is much more useful than a mere listing,particularly when matrices are used, as in this ex-ample from Ghana. They provide a means of com-paring organizations on scores of overall criteria.

The secondary analysis of partners can be facili-tated by the use of another simple matrix presentlygaining acceptance in West Africa. The matrix isused after the inventory and is introduced in struc-tured workshops where decisions are made aboutpriority partners. Each organization in the inventoryis assessed as to its most useful role in the program(development, financing, implementation) as well itsrelative importance (critical, important and useful).

This simple framework can help avoid a "laundrylist" approach to allies and can help identify agen-des as potential donors with and without technicalcapacity. It can identify certain organizations withtremendous credibility within the community andmatch them with technical experts. At the same time,organizations that lack credibility with the commu-nity but are politically powerful can be listed as"useful only when absolutely necessary."

Coordinating the Results/Reaching Your Partners

Following their identification, potential alliesneed to become integrated into the program. Thisinvolves a number of negotiating skills and a greatdeal of coordination. In some immunization pro-grams, coordination meetings were held on a dailybasis for three months. In Ghana, a structure of so-cial mobilization committees was put into place atregional, district and zonal levels.

The orgnizations need to understand the goalsof the program and their role as early as possible.Simply worded, non-technical communication mate-rial is needed. The first activity in many cases in-cludes a short meeting with all the allies in order todistribute this information, seek feedback, and de-tine an integrated strategy. In some cases, furthernegotiation must take place. For example, in order touse the village chiefs in Senegal, the Ministry of theInterior first had to be convinced.

Finally, before the allies are expected to worktogether, a mechanism to handle internal communi-cation and activities should be set up. Once de-signed, it is important to work as much as possiblewithin these existing mechanisms. In Ghana andother areas, social mobilization committees have

IMIMUeli in p. 1 b

Criteria and Questions for Selecting Allies

ment when choosing an ally is to make sure they can bring ad-ditional reach to your communication objectives. Do they havelarge numbers of staff? Are these staff spread throughout thecountry where the beneficiaries of your programs are located?Do they have their own internal means of communication (suchas a newsletter)? How are they structured? These are among thequestions that need to be asked early on.

The mass media are often an automatic choice under thisheading. School teachers in Senegal, two popular singers inNigeria, an Egyptian soap opera producer, and popular theaterproducers in Nigeria and Burkina Faso have also become im-portant allies for communicating health messages.

2. Allies must have access to families. To what extent does thepotential ally have genuine access to families within communi-ties that you are trying to reach? How close are they to yourtarget audience?

Community organizations, such as the Naam village move-ment in Burkina Faso, and religious leaders in Sierra Leone andIndonesia have proven to be important allies in communicatingbasic health messages. Village chiefs in a number of Africancountries were also very strategic in achieving increases in im-munization coverage.

3. Allies must have credibility with the community. Some or-ganizations may be very powerful in terms of reach, but havelittle local credibility. Are they respected? With whom?

Paramount chiefs in Sierra Leone, and private press leadersin Morocco and elsewhere have all added credibility and mobi-lized communities for national immunization programs. Inde-pendent political parties may also become more significantallies in the 1990s in Africa with the trend towards democraticpluralism.

4. Allies must have overlapping interests. Allies must be com-mitted in some way to your program objectives (whether childsurvival or environmental education). What are their own in-terests? How do these fit with your program?

International NGOs as well as multinationals often havemutual interests with health programs. Rotary International, forexample, has become a key ally in worldwide immunizationprograms. In Gabon, a recent analysis revealed the potentialinterest of some multi-nationals to join in promotingbreastfeeding.

5. Allies must have technical competence. What are the techni-cal capabilities of the organization? How are these organized?What kinds of training have the staff received?

Advertising agencies, market research companies in Mo-rocco and in Egypt have contributed their technical skills tofamily planning programs. In addition, alliances of performingartists in The Congo and in other West African countries havehelped identify and convince producers and playwrights todevelop communication materials.

,10


Alliances, coned

been established tokeep the programcoordinated andoperating. There isno ideal structure forsocial mobilization,however, because itis dependent onwhat is available ineach country.

Building alliancesis based on experi-ence. Currently, Ni-geria is undertakinga major social mobi-lization analysis inorder to identifystrategic partners atmany levels. Ghanais assessing the im-pact of the socialmobilization com-mittees set up toinvolve partners. Intime, both exercisesshould provide moreuseful lessons onhow to successfullyinvolve and inte-grate strategic part-ners in communica-tion projects.

Moncet Bouhafa isthe Senior ExternalRelations Officer inUNICEF's regionaloffice for West andCentral Africa and isresponsible for commu-nication strategies inthe region. He can hereached at: UNICEF,BP 443, Abidian 04,Cute d'Ivoire. tel:213131: tax: 225227607. Luis Rivera,Gam Gleason andSillvie Cohen also con-tributed to the develop-ment of this methodol-

(WY.

Spreading News and Literacy in Nepal:

Anovel kind of print material, thewall newspaper, has come to beaccepted as an alternativemeans of communication amongrural populations in Nepal.

Widely distributed, the newspaper pre-sents graphics, photos and printed materi-als in large type on one side of a large newssheet.

When villagers receive their wall news-paper, it is pasted on public premises suchas village chautaras (public gatheringspots), school and office walls. Passers-bystop by the newspaper and read the infor-mation materials during work breaks orcommunity gatherings.

Need for an Alternative Press

Access to information is basic right ofhuman beings guaranteed by the Constitu-tion of Nepal. In reality, however, the ma-jority of the people do not enjoy this right.The conventional modes of mass commu-nications have a heavy urban bias and pub-licize predominantly urban events and

ideas. The result has been that the generalmasses have not been able to benefit fromthe mass media or other means of informa-tion. While a glut of reading and audio-vi-sual material is available in the urban cen-ters, there is a severe lack of informationalmaterials of any kind in the rural areas.

The Nepal Forum of Environmental Jour-nalists (NEFEJ) with assistance from theWorld Conservation Union (IUCN), hasbeen publishing a wall newspaper,Batabaran (Nepali for the environment),every two months for the past three yearswith the objective of compensating for thelack of relevant news and information inrural villages, providing a forum for ruralevents and issues and raising environmentalawareness.

The wall newspaper offers the advan-tages of print and visual media and is aneffective medium in communities where theliteracy rate is growing but the purchasingpower of the people is very low. The princi-pal motto is: "Large type, simple language,true stories, a lot of pictures and graphics,and above all, accessibility for readers who

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Development Comrfiunfation Report, no. 79 to I BEST COPY AVER E

The Batabaran Wall Newspaper

are economically among the most deprivedpeople in the world.

Language and Subject MatterAlthough the literacy rate in Nepal is still

very low, there has been positive progress inthe last few years. In order to cater to theneeds of the neo-literates and influence localleaders and policy makers, the wall newspa-per is published in simple Nepali. While thewall newspaper aims at promoting the mes-sages of conservation and sustainable devel-opment, many agencies support it as an im-portant post-literacy material.

Batabaran highlights successful villageexperiences in conservation and environmentprotection among local readers. It also pub-lishes information on the perils of destroyingthe natural environment.

Stories are timed to coincide with certainroutine activities in the villages. For instance,during a period of regular fires, Batabaranpresented a story on how to avoid such disas-ter. During boughts of child sickness,Batabaran published illustrated stories onhow to prevent diarrhea and prepare oralrehydration solutions.

National and international environmentalissues are also highlighted in Batabaran withaccompanying photos and illustrations. Thesearticles enable villagers with little exposure toglobal events to become more aware of theirworld.

Collection of MaterialBatabaran has been successful for many

reasons, but its method of material collectionand connection to the people in the villagesare two of the key elements. In order to main-tain the interest of the villagers, members ofthe Batabaran Forum, all professional journal-ists, regularly visit rural areas to collect rel-evant material and to write stories in theaverage villager's language. The ma-terial is then printed using two col-ors and using the artwork andquotes of readers.

DistributionDistribution of the newspaper is

undertaken by the Forum itself through thepostal system and government and nongov-ernmental agencies directly or indirectly in-volved in conservation efforts. Each wall

newspaper is intended to benefit a large crosssection of the village masses.

PopularityNepal's success with the wall newspaper

has attracted the interest of other organiza-tions in South Asia. The Energy and Environ-ment Group of India has begun producing asimilar newspaper and interest is graduallybuilding in other South Asian countries.

EvaluationThe Forum evaluates its program every

year and the identified shortfalls are cor-rected in the succeeding programs. The wallnewspaper undergoes a similar evaluationprocess. Members of the Forum gather villag-ers' opinions of style, subject matter and pic-tures while traveling in the rural areas. Theysubsequently hold discussions among them-selves before giving approval for publication.The Forum also receives feedback from read-ers through government and nongovemmentagencies.

Overall, the wall newspaper has proven tobe a huge success in providing rural villagerswith their own source of news and as a sup-port for literacy in rural Nepal. As an alter-native to a primarily urban press, the wallnewspaper is giving new meaning to thenews.

Adapted from an article written in NEFEJNewsletter and edited by Sanjay Upandhya. Formore information, contact: NEFEJ, P.O.Box 5143, Thapathali, Kathamandu,Nepal. tel: 977-1-227691; fax: 977-1-226820.

MI

Freedom of the Press, from TheDemocratic Journalist, 11'88.

a Development Corntaii# Report, no. 79

Participatory Communication for Social Change:Reasons for Optimism in the Year 2000

4

by Jan Servaes and Randy Arnst

The face and expectations of de-velopment communicationhave changed over the past twodecades from approaches whichpurely facilitate "technology

transfer" to more participatory methods.Communicators, development profession-als, and indeed, many world leaders arerecognizing that in order to promote socialchange, they must work with the groupsthey wish to help to share ideas, developnew ideas and negotiate knowledge. Whiletheories of participation are not new, prac-tical experiences have shed light on realisticways of involving people.

Participation Begins with People,Not Projects or Policies

The predominant approaches to devel-opment communication originated in theWest and saw the relationship as unilinear,from "source/developer" to "receiver/developee." Development and develop-ment communication have been, and re-main, largely an approach of unidirectionalmarketing and monologue planned to

P

change behavior in a predesigned manner.But participation has increased in popular-ity and become more important in develop-ment communication projects. With partici-pation, people gain real control over re-sources and processes under whichchange/developmert is expected to occur.And perhaps, as it has been suggested, it isonly through participation that sustainablesocial change can be achieved. Informationmay be simply disseminated; knowledge,meaning or social change cannot.

If the goal of the development effort is toassist the poor, the endeavor should beginin their context, not in the planning office,not in the research station, and not fromtheories and constructs of far-removed in-stitutions. As a result, participation is not asupplementary mechanism "diffused" toexpedite external agendas, or a means to anend. It is a legitimate goal in itself.

Rural people possess a wealth of knowl-edge germane to peers, development per-sonnel, and academicians. Indigenousknowledge can provide a different under-standing and analysis of a situation whichwas formulated in response to the environ-ment and relevant cultural issues. Theclaim is not that rural farmers are the fore-

most experts in macro-levelplanning, but they are often

4"e'lanier

ova-,

a

group ,s omit/zing a problem conveued through pictures and discuss*mow. ontzons.


1+1

U ,

the most qualified to decidehow, or if, such informationapplies at the local level.

Towards a ParticipatoryCommunication Model

We perceive a number ofchanges in the field of com-munication for social changewhich are reasons for opti-mism, and which will alsohave considerable conse-quences for communicationplanning and policymaking:

The growth of a deeperunderstanding of the natureof communication itself:Since the 1970s, the empha-,,is of communication hasbecome more on the processor exchange of meaning, the

11/.11/11511111,;,/,:i?social relationships created by commu-nication and the social institutions andcontext which result from such relation-ships.

A new understanding of communica-tion as a two-way process: Today, theinteractive nature of communication isincreasingly recognized. At least con-ceptually, communication is seen asfundamentally two-way rather thanone-way, interactive and participatoryrather than linear. Communication hasto be looked upon as a constructiveprocess to build and share means ofunderstanding.

The trend towards participatory de-mocracy: The end of the colonial erahas seen the rise of many independentstates and the spread of democraticprinciples, even if only at the level oflip-service. The world's communicationmedia are still largely controlled bygovernments or powerful private inter-ests, but they are more attuned to andaware of democratic ideals. At the sametime, literacy levels have increased andpeople's ability to use communicationtechnology has improved. Compared toa few decades ago, more people haveaccess to the mass media.

Recognition of the imbalance in com-munication resources: The inequity ofcommunication resources between dif-ferent parts of the world is increasinglyrecognized. As richer nations developtheir resources, the gap becomesgreater.

Recognition of the 'impact' of commu-nication technology: Some communica-tion systems (e.g., audio- and video-taping, copying, radio broadcasting)have become cheap and so simple thatthe rationale for regulating and control-ling them centrally, as well as the abil-ity to do so, is no longer relevant. How-ever, other systems (for instance, satel-lites, remote sensing, transborder dataflows) have become so expensive thatthey are beyond the means of smaller

W_1 '"Z

countries and may not be accessible tolocal environments.

A new understanding of the integra-tion of communication channels:Modern mass media and alternate orparallel networks of folk media or in-terpersonal communication channelsare not mutually exclusive. They aremore effective if appropriately used inan integrated fashion, according to theneeds a :id constraints of the local con-text. The Western model of the massmedia is seldom truly integrated intoinstitutional structures in Third Worldsocieties. However, modern and tradi-tional channels can be effectively com-bined, provided a functional divisionof labor is established and the limits ofthe mass media are recognized.

Watch out! Barriers to participation

Rigid and general strategies for partici-pation are neither possible or desir-able. It is not an innovative formulathat "experts" use to diffuse informa-tion to the masses. It is a process thatunfolds in each unique situation. Au-thentic participation, though widelyespoused in the literature, is not ineveryone's interest. Such programs arenot easily implemented, highly pre-dictable, or readily controlled.

4. Behavioral response to planned mes-

continued on p. 20

3

If the goal

of the

development

effort is to

assist the

poor, the

endeavor

should begin

in their

context

Development CommlitptiOl'' Report, no. 79

Participatory Communication, cont'd from p.19

These participants arc analyzing the possible roles of a pump committee in their village

of "props." (activity from Tools for Community Participation. by Lyra Srinivasan.i

sages is not participation. Neither isit a strategy to make "target audi-ences" feel more involved. Strivingfor behavioral change is a means toan end, but should not confused withparticipatory methods.

4- Participation can involve the redistri-bution of power at local and nationallevels. As such, it directly threatensthose whose position depends uronpower over others. Reactions to suchthreats are often manifested as less

visible, vet steady and continuousresistance.

4- The interaction between develop-ment organizations and rural peopleis indeed cross-cultural communica-tion. Various groups structure, in-

deed live within, different realities.A major assumption of developmentpractitioners is that their own logicand world view is correct, universal,and applicable to all.

Participation should not be construedas the inclusion of the poor in gov-ernment programs and services, but

Development Communication Report. no. 79

rather the inclusion of gov-ernment programs and ser-vices as per the informed andautonomous choice of thepoor.

4- The assertion of a knowl-edge gap, of a disparity invalid knowledge between"experts" and local people, iswrong--unless the "experts,"through cooperation andlearning from local people,can apply their knowledge inthe context and to the benefitof local "expertise."

4- Participation does notalways assume cooperationor consensus. It can oftenmean conflict and usually

through a variety poses a threat to existingstructures. As a result, thequestion whether participa-

tion is appropriate in all contextsshould be raised.

4- Attitude is paramount for the facilita-tor. She or he must truly believe theparticipants are not only capable, butare ir.deed the most qualified personsfor the task at hand. Some of the mostthreatening obstacles to participationare large The most importantexpertise, technique, or methodoloevcannot be diagrammed. What isneeded is a change of attitude, the pa-tient fostering of trust, and the abilityto listen.

111

Jan Servaes is a Professor of InternationalCommunication at the Catholic University ofNiimegen in the Netherlands. and visiting pro-fessor at Cornell University in the UnitedStates. He coordinates the Participatory Com-

munication Research Network. and is involvedin the UNFPAIUNESCO protect on IntegraiApproaches to Development Communicatin.Randy A rust is program coordinator for a num-ber of communication and education protects orWorld Education in Laos. For further informa-tion, write to Weezenhof 64-29s1-6536 At'Niimegen, The Netherlands. tel: 31-80-444545,tax: 31-80-613073.

BooksEntangling Alliances: How the ThirdWorld Shapes Our Lives, by JohnMaxwell Hamilton, seminar guideprepared by Elise Storck. and JoanJoshi, Seven Locks Press, P.O. Box 27,

Cabin John, MD 20818 USA, tel: 800-

537 -9359.

This book traces the connections be-tween events in the Third World and theeffect they have on the lives of people inindustrialized countries. The supple-mentary guide presents exercises forstudents to go through to learn how theycan deal with the real issues policymakers address everyday. The exercisesset the stage for problem solving andshow participants how they can use theircommunity as a laboratory for change.The guide provides detailed instructionsfor each exercise. An excellent tool forinteractive training or seminars.

Communication in Development,edited by Fred Casmir. Ablex Publish-ing Corporation, 355 Chestnut Street,Norwood, NJ 07648 USA. Cost:US$32.50, 352 pages.

Fifteen authors from around the worldoffer their perspectives of the role andapproaches of development communica-tion. From Wimal Dissanavake's Bud-dhist approach to Guido Grooscors'essay on communication policies anddevelopment. thi' book gives a broadspectrum of theoretical and practicalinformation about the evolution of thefield and where it is today.

New Communication Technologies:Research Trends, Reports and Paperson Mass Communication, no. 105.Unesco, UNIPUB, 4611-F AssemblyDrive, Lanham, MD 207064391 USA.tel: (301) 459-7666; fax: (310) 459-0056.

Cost: US$10.

This document and the others in theseries analyze the role of mass communi-cation in developing countries. While

most of the research conducted on mass

communication has been done inindustrialized countries, the authorslook at research emerging from bothdeveloped and developing coun-tries. This report looks at legalissues, cultural issues involved innew communication technologiesand their relationship to socialchange and democracy.

Speaking.OutiA-Women's Radio Forum

Radio internacional Feminista orFeminist International Radio En-deavor (FIRE) is a new radio pro-gram broadcast once a day inmagazine format on Radio forPeace International, a shortwaveradio station in Costa Rica.

FIRE can be heard at 0600 and0330 UTC (Universal CoordinatedTime), 15.030 MHz and T.375 MHz.Presently, broadcast in English, AREwill soon expand to a secondSpanish hour and plans to con-tinue to add other languageslater.

Usteners are invited to sendtapes of programs about womens'issues. They should be recorded inmono, be less than 60 minuteseach, and be on professionalquality tape. The sender's name,address and phone numbershouldbe included.

For more information. contactWINGS. P.O. Box5307, Kansas City,MO 64131, USA. lei:(816) 361-7161, orRadio for PeaceInternational,Apdo. 88, SantaAna, Costa Rica,tel: 50 6-40-1821.

21:j

Resources

1-11m°


Low Cost,Reliable FMTransmitters

Petrie Telecommuni-cations, Ltd. an-nounces the avail-ability of low powerbroadcast transmit-ters and engineeringservices catered tosmall remote com-munities. For apackage of transmit-ter. antenna and 20meters of RC8/Ucable the cost is:S1895 Canadiandollars. Engineeringservices include:calculation of VHFand UHF coveragearea for a broadcaststation: design andmanufacture of spe-cialized antennas;and planning to en-sure the most eco-nomical broadcastservice. For moreinformation, contact:Petrie Telecommuni-cations, Ltd., 22Barran Street.Nepean, Ontario,Canada K2J 1G4.tel: (613) 825-1560;fax (613) 825-2249.

What's New , What's Coming

Books and Audiovisuals

Ten Practical Tips for Business andEconomic Reporting in DevelopingCountries by Paul Hemp 50 pages. TheCenter for Foreign Journalists, 11690-ASunrise Valley Drive, Reston, VA22091, USA. tel: (703) 620-5984; fax:(703) 620-6790. Cost: US$5. Bulk pricesavailable.

A handbook on covering the financialworld for working journalists. Writtenby a Boston Globe business reporter, thebook draws on actual examples frombusiness reporting in the developingworld. Includes tips for clearer writing,more interesting coverage, improvingaccuracy and gathering information.Includes a glossary of common technicalterms in business reporting.

A Passion for Radio: Radio Waves andCommunity, edited by Bruce Girard,Black Rose Books, C.P. 1258, Succ.Place du Parc, Montreal, Quebec H2W2R3 Canada. 212 pages. Cost: US$19.95.English, Spanish and French.

Written by people actively and passion-ately involved in the medium, this bookpresents the experience of twentyalternative radio stations locatedaround the world. From the Salvadoranguerrilla-operated Radio Venceremos tothe native-owned Wawatav RadioNetwork in Northern Ontario, the bookdescribes the role alternative andcommunity radio stations play in givingan ear and a voice to those at themargins of society. Bruce Girard, theeditor, is the founder of the WorldAssociation of Community RadioBroadcasters (AMARC).

Effective Nutrition Communication forBehavior Change: Report of the SixthInternational Conference of the Inter-national Nutrition Planners Forum(INFP) by Cheryl Achterberg, TheNutrition Foundation, Inc., 1126Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington,


D.C. 20036, USA. 24 pages. Cost: singlecopies free to people in developingcountries. English, French, Spanish.

This report summarizes the 1N FPmeetings held 4-6 September, 1991 inParis, France and provides key prin-ciples for successfully planning collabo-rative communication interventions. Itoffers a synthesis of the discussionsgenerated, an overview of eight casestudies worldwide, and theories,methods and outcomes learned bynutrition practitioners, educationprofessionals and media specialistsfrom around the world.

Conferences

The Dutch Health Education Centrewill hold The Third Annual Confer-ence on Mass Communication, MassMedia and Health Education fromMay 24-26, 1993 in Amsterdam, TheNetherlands. For more information,contact: Marianne Smit, Dutch HealthEducation Centre, P.O. Box 5104, 35021C Utrecht, The Netherlands; tax: 31-309640 -82.

The Indian Environmental Society isplanning a Global Forum on Environ-mental and Develonment Educationfrom Septembei 2.8, 1993 in NewDelhi, India. For more information,contact: D:. Desh Bandhu, President,Indian Environmental Society U-112(3rd Floor), Vikas Marg, Delhi-110092,India.

The Fifth World Print Congress will beheld from February 28-March 4, 1993 inNew Delhi, India. The theme 'PrintCommunication: A Global Vision'attempts to analyze the need for freeflow of information globally and thepotential of the print media. Forinformation, contact: the All IndiaFederation of Master Printers, E-14South Extension Part II, New Delhi,-1101)49 India.

The International Conference onEducation for Human Rights andDemocracy will be held in Montreal,Canada in March, 1993. It will examineeducational approaches and methods asthey relate to democracy. ContactUnesco, 7, place de Fonteroy, 75007Paris, France, or the United NationsCentre for Human Rights.

Courses

Cornell University's short course inCommunication Planning and Strategywill be offered from June 2-29, 1993.The course covers topics such asdeveloping a communication strategy,analyzing audiences, message designissues, media selection, mobilization ofresources, interpersonal communica-tion, social marketing and communica-tion research. For information, contact:Joan Payton, CPS-93, Dept. of Commu-nication, Cornell University, KennedyHall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA. tel: (607)255-6500; fax: (607) 255-7905; e-mail:[email protected].

The International Extension Collegeand Department of International andComparative Education of the Instituteof Education, University of London arerunning a sour month course onDistance Education for Developmentfrom April 13-July, 30, 1993. For moreinformation, contact: Short CourseAssistant, Dept. of International andComparative Education, University ofLondon, Institute of Education, 20l3edford Way, London WCIHOAL,England. tel: 44-71-612-6606.

The Radio Nederland Training Centre,a non-profit organization and part ofthe Federation of Institutes for Inter-national Education in the Netherlands,has various courses to train broadcast-ers from developing countries. RadioNederland brordcasts daily in ninelanguages via transmitters and partici-

pants the course have the opportunityto meet and establish contacts withbroadcasters from around the world. Thecourses vary from Agricultural Sciencesand the Media to Aerial Survey andEarth Sciences. For more information,contact:Radio Nederland TrainingCentre, P.O. Box 222, 1200 JG Hilversum,The Netherlands. tel: 31-35-47779; fax:31-35-724532.

Scholarships and Grants

The Asian Development Bank Scholar-ship Program announces the availabil-ity of about 50 scholarships for mastersand doctoral studies for up to threeyears. The scholarship includes tuition,travel and other allowances. The candi-dates must be nationals of a developingcountry member of the ADB and have atleast two years work experience. Forinformation, contact: Manager, Educa-tion, Health and Population, AsianDevelopment Bank, 6 ADB Ave.,Mandaluvong, Metro Manila, ThePhilippines, tel: (63-2) 711-3851, fax: (63-2) 741-7961.

The World Bank offers graduate schol-arships for masters and doctoral studiesto students who are under the age of 40from developing countries which aremembers of the World Bank. Forinformation, contact: Administrator,Graduate Scholarship Program, WorldBank, 1818 1-1 Street, NW, rm. m-4033,Washington, DC 20533, USA. tel: (202)473-6849; fax: (202) 676-0962.

11

Two new journalsinvite contributorsAdult Education and De-velopment, a bi-annual jour-nal for adult education pub-lished by the German AdultEducation Association, De-partment for InternationalCooperation, invites authorsto submit articles on:

.6 Culture and Communi-cation,

,tu International coopera-tion,

zz Evaluation and research,A Literacy, print and elec-

tronic media,.6 Technology: innovations,

transfer and alternatives,.6 Global and local con-

cerns: environment andpeace,

A Teaching, training andlearning,

.6 Gender issues,

.6 Role of institutions, orga-nizations and associa-tions, and

.6 Financing, legislationand lobbying.

Graphics and photos arealso welcome. For informa-tion, contact: HerbertHinzen, editor, Adult Educa-tion and Development,Deutscher Volkshochschul-Verband, Fachstelle FurInternationaleZusammenarbeit, Rheinalle1, D-5300 Bonn 2, FederalRepublic of Germany.

The Community EducationDeveloment Centre is alsolooking for submissions. Itsnew journal, The interna-tional Journal of Commu-nity Education, is aimed atpolicy makers and practitio-ners in any sector of educa-tion. For information, con-tact: ICEA International Of-fice, Lyung Hall, BlackberryLane, Coventry CV23JS,England.


Have We Become Surrogates for Failure?Out

by Richard K. Manoff

auritius is a fascinating case study. As CyrilDalais stated in the last issue of the DCR, I, too,

I have experienced Mauritius' "well-developed-..ttlaul infrastructure...its wide cultural diversity."From my experience as a consultant to the National Insti-tute of Nutrition in 1987, I was also impressed with its fam-ily planning programthe only success in Africa and per-haps in all the developing world.

I came away convinced that Mauritius is a prime ex-ample of the principle that " when poverty ends, develop-ment flowers." In that sense, I was pleased to note fromDalais that among the factors responsible for JCHEP's suc-cess is "that each child had an equal opportunity to enterthe economic mainstream."

In the Mauritius that I recall, the eminent achievement isits virtual elimination of poverty. The effects are visible inits health statistics: morbidity and mortality have shiftedfrom infectious diseases to the chronic ailments of heartdisease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, etc.,all the dubiousblessings of affluence.

In such an economic environment, social marketing pro-grams have their best chance of success. The history of thedeveloped world bears testimony to this. Of course,Mauritius is a small island country of little more than amillion people. Its modest size makes problems easier todeal with and program objectives more readily attainable.But there are other countriesisland and non-islandthatprove smallness does not necessarily assure successful out-comes.

This is the notable lesson from Mauritius for those en-gaged in development efforts: the prerequisite is "equalopportunity to enter the economic mainstream." Economicopportunity reduces the hardships of survival, eases timeand energy demands on human effort and introduces thenew value of convenience, with its liberating lifestyle. Cer-tain earlier struggles are now won and the mind, spirit andenergy are more available to the possibilities of educationand development, self-improvement and health.

Mauritius is an exquisite cameo of such achievement. Asexplained to me, its prosperity derives from a British Com-monwealth price guarantee for Mauritian sugar on theworld market. These are circumstances peculiar toMauritiusbut we can provide "equal opportunity" with-out the means to build a capital base for internal develop-ment.

This is no novel insight. But have we social marketing/communication experts factored it into our work? Don't weusually approach maternal and child health or family plan-ning programs with the same missionary zeal that they willmake a difference? And have they? Can they, under less-than-equal "equal opportunity" circumstances?

I have spent more than 30 years propagating the theoryand practice of social marketing, convinced to this day thatit is an indispensable component of every program. Evi-

Development Co4411100)n Report, no. 79

dente of its effectiveness for these programs mounts. Buthow successful are the programs themselves? How muchnotice have we taken of the impact of limited "mainstreameconomic opportunity" on program outcomes? Shall weremain content to struggle with well-intentioned, well de-signed, effectively social-marketed programs while bindingourselves to the foreboding that, at best, we are merelyameliorating a critical condition with no assurance thateven this modest improvement can be sustained?

Are we, too often, unwitting surrogates for failure?There must be a way of devising an "eligibility formula"

for development programssome means for ascertainingin advance whether the "equal opportunity" of targetpopulations is sufficient to liberate them for effective re-sponse to programs and messages. If it isn't, then we havetwo responsibilities: 1) to factor this into our expectationsof program outcomes; and 2) to address the need for creat-ing the essential "equal opportunity" which may be themost important development program of all. I can hear achorus of voices: "We know that. We know that."

Well, if we do, isn't it incumbent on us that we reject therole of "surrogates of failure" and become "equal opportu-nity" advocates, foresworn not to give it up? Let us startwith our economic planners from whom we would like tohear.

Tell us: what can be done in a developing countryanyone or all of themto emulate the Mauritian example ofproviding the economic basis for success in development?And, in the interim, hcw can we devise the "eligibility for-mula" so that we may realistically set objectives for pro-gram outcomes or to know that certain ventures are pa-tently ineligible even to be tried?

Richard K. Manoff is the author of Social Marketing: NewImperative for Public Health and President of Manoff Interna-tional., 950 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10022, USA. tel:(212) 72807710; fax: (212) 751-1786.

'Nam. ___Assessing the "equal opportunity" of target populations

a needed precursor to social marketing programs.

J8

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