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Woman's Art, Inc.

The Empress's New Clothes: Fashion and Politics in Second Empire FranceAuthor(s): Therese DolanSource: Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Spring - Summer, 1994), pp. 22-28Published by: Woman's Art, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1358491 .Accessed: 10/06/2011 18:00

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A natole France once imag-ined being able to readbooks published 100 yearsafterhis death. Rather han novelsor histories,he would first searchout fashion periodicalssince cos-tumes tell more about humanity E l lthan do philosophers, novelists,preachers, and learned men. N E TSimilarly,Charles Baudelairepor- yW Ttrayedhimself thumbing throughfashionplates at the beginningofhis importantessay Le Peintre dela vie modere. In these images Fashion arhe discovered the moral attitudesand the aesthetic values of the Second Entime. Throughout his essay herefers to the power of fashion,beit of the dandy,the soldier,or his By Thermany classes of women, to bodyforth the unity of the figure withthe contemporaryocial milieu. For Baudelaire ashionservedasa potent signifierof class,status,andmodembeauty.Commentaryon fashionduringthe Second Empire (1852-70)articulatedprofoundshifts in political,economic, and social val-ues, with implications that reached far beyond any stylisticvagariesn the cut and color of a ballgownor a frockcoat. Fashiondiscoursecontainedthe languageand symbolsof classstatus,andits inflectionsheld a preciselycoded significanceorthe 19th-cen-turyaudience. Of specialinterest was the publicreactionto thestiff,horsehairundergarment nownas the crinoline,and its asso-ciation with the empress Eugenie. Indeed, the crinoline wasemployedto construe he empress's dentityandprovideda wholerange of signifiers-political, eco-nomic,moral,historical,andgender-related-by which to critique theSecondEmpireregime.From the outset of his reign,Napoleon III used fashion to servehis politicalprogram. On February1, 1853, he announcedthat no one ^would be received at court withoutbeing in uniformor officialcostume.Women were required to wear acourt trainat specialreceptions.The -emperor's marriage o Eugenie, theSpanishCountessof Teba(1854;Fig.1), was met at home with surpriseddismayby many dignitarieswho hadhoped for a French bride.' Foreign "throneswishing or a royalunion alsoexpresseddisappointment.Sensitiveto these slights,the imperialcouplesoughtto create an elegantand cul-tured court, and fashionhelped set .the distinctive one.The Second Empire proclaimedpeace and paraded prosperity.Napoleon III's quest to re-establishParis as the capital of the world1- _V - -1 _ _ .. . -_-? . I1 1brought a dramatic increase in elabo-*, ?i . ri~. , ~Fig. . Franz-XovierWinterate display as a sign of increased (1854), oil on canvas, 36"industrial power and political Art. Mr. and Mrs. Clai

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supremacy. The moderationthEE~rU~ ^had markedLouis-Philippe'sJu[E ~j ~ Monarchy avewayto extravagstateballs,splashymilitary arad10 pompousreceptionsof foreigndinitaries,and glitteringgala perfoLESS S mances of new ballets andoperSumptuousness replaced selrr < -E ^ effacement, and earned capital w( mT|1 . ^ quickly converted into externflourish. Women invited to thimperialresidence at Compiegunderstood hatno dress was to bPolitics in worn more than once. A weekstay thus entailed as many as 2)ire France dresses-all in the mostup-to-dastyle, of course. For the wealtthis opportunity afforded gidde Dolan indulgence; for others, it meafinancial hardship. One invitecomplainedof having o sell a flomill to meet the costs of properattire.2The amount of clothiandthe taxonomy f occasionsproliferated:dayandeveningwemultipliedinto the necessity for specialized attire for morninwalking, raveling, nd so forth,for the countryas well as the citnot to mention heproper ormfor officialmourning.Althoughfemale attire,especiallythe crinoline,came to symbolize the ostentationof the regime,male fashion remainedbacally unchangedduringthe Second Empire,with the black frocoatpurportingo demonstrateequality. Fashionperiodicalsmhave proclaimed the crinoline as the triumph of mechanizedressmaking nd a herald of progress,but the garment tself posessed strongmonarchical ssociationswith the past,recalling hvertugadin,or farthingale,mostpoular in 16th-century England anSpainand the pannierof 18th-centry France. Descended from thessovereignrealms, the crinoline wagainin the 19th centuryassociatwith the royalandimperialcourts oEurope.Wide skirts were fashionablwhen Eugenie assumedher imperposition in France; however, shpopularized the crinoline and wasometimeserroneously reditedwiinventing it. She chose CharleFrederick Worth as her primardesigner,and he became the first othe male fashion dictators,dressinnot onlythe empressbut other heaof state around Europe. Wortdesigned the crinoline for thleisured upper classes: swift movment was impossibleand a dignifigaitessentialto keep the voluminoskirt in control.3 Fashion journachronicled Eugenie's every taste icolor and contour, and her prefeences supposedlyoverruled hose o

ter, Them s the couturiers. From the beginninaier, The Empress EugenieP".MetropolitanMuseumof of her reign, Eugenie was held up asron Bulow Gift, 1978. trendsetter. The London journal0

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Punch swiftly initiated a satirical ^campaign lampooning theEmpress's hairstyle,4and used fash- 'ion to demonstrate the cooperationbetween France and England in theCrimean War.5 In "La BelleAlliance" (1855; Fig. 2), QueenVictoria's well-known features are 23strongly delineated while Eugenie, M.in partial profile, seems defined by . .N,her elaborately detailed dress, jew- .5 :elry, and coiffure.Founded in 1841, Punch aimedits strongest satire at the French andthe papacy.6 It served as a gauge ofBritish attitudes on political and. -social issues, with particular con- ,tempt for Louis-Napoleon, the pope, . -.Benjamin Disraeli, and others who ' ^ ' .:assumed power not as a birthright.The death of Prince Albert in 1861 ,caused the editors to cease attacks ' .on Victoria, but a strong antifeminist \ ' N -bias combined with long-standing ..r-7 f"disdain for the French moved 'i , '- 4Eugenie to the center as a target for :> v9-their satire. Ptunchpublished hun- Fig.2. "La BelleAlliance," Sepdreds of articles and visual send-upsof the crinoline during the 1850s and1860s, with frequent reference to Eugenie's influence in spreadingthe fashion. She was called Queen of Fashion, Comtesse de laCrinoline, Goddess of the Bustles, and Imperatrice de la Mode.

During the firstyears of her reignthe satirewas gentle and, on occasion,flattering. But the tone becameincreasingly barbed around 1859,when Louis-Napoleon appointed her ^ 7regent in his absence during the - "Italian \War. Punch reported thatnow she should be credited with .-'being a great stateswoman aswell as afashion plate and praised for assisting 'at a council not of milliners and bon-net makers but of ministers of state.Although seemingly signaling supportfor the empress, that was not in reali-tv P2unch'sntent. Given tle constantreferences in the press to the frivolityof fashion,thisjuxtapositionof politicsand petticoats served to weaken thepublic perception of her as a strongand capable authority. Eug6nie'sregency, the first of three during herreign, caused the emperor's cousin,Prince Napoleon, who coveted theposition himself, to sneer derisivelythat the government had beenentrusted to a fashion plate.' Theemperor saw an opportunity in theregency to educate Eugenie to a taskshe might someday have to assume ifhe predeceased er andthe imperial Fig. 3. Honor6 Daumier, Le Beprince was not of age. She proved an of BrynMawi

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Historical evidence testifiesto the fact that Eugenieassumed her regency with con- .;.. ~ ~scientious resolve and political ' ' v --Iastuteness.'2 Even after the i'emperor's return from Italy inJulyof 1859, Eugenie continuedto sit on the Council of 'Ministers and engage in com- iplex political negotiations with

'' . ithe Austrians and Italians. TheI K !,death of her sister in September '1860, combined with the

emperor's support of revolutionin Italy to which she was firmly '1tKopposed, not to mention his fla- /grant infidelities, brought herclose to physical and emotionalcollapse. A month's rest inScotland and a brief visit toQueen Victoriaprovided a shortrespite. Not subject to censor-ship laws, Punch could, ofcourse, indulge fully in lam-pooning the empress with herenormous skirts and presumedappetite for power. Theseattacks were a way to denigratethe French and voice publicopinion regarding their political Fig. 4. "A rt...dy Visit,"Decenpolicies. Again, the perceptionof her visit was seen through theoptic of fashion. In "AFriendlyVisit" (1860; Fig. 4) Eugenie ,and Victoria share a cup of tea. -As in "La Belle Alliance," it is ^Eugenie who dominatesVictoria, with most attention ^ 7 1:1given to her mammoth skirt.Instead of farewell shouts of~ '."Vive l'Imperatrice!" Punch t', /^reported that Eug6nie's depar- -ture from England took place ?.. . .amid cries of "Ouree! Vive la - iFrance! Vive la Crinoline!"'3 -

Eugenie's return to health 'marked a renewal of political -.involvement that increased dra- Xmatically during the next sever- :~sal years. Punch noted her influ- _ / b'ence in political affairs with an ^ . /"- -"Earticle entitled "There Is a iRevolution Always of Some ^I-Kind in Paris" and commented: -~"Paris is still essentially the cityof barricades. There is only one--small difference: formerly the Fig. 5. "TheModernGovernbarricades were erected by men engiwith the help of stones; nowa-days they are erected by women in the shape of crinolines."'4 InMarch of 1861 Sardinia annexed the Kingdom of the Two Siciliesand all of the pope's territorywith the exception of the PatrimonyofSt. Peter.'" Camille Cavour, a great statesman and the architect of

essrav

j --e !. iS Italian unity, sought recognition"''' j1 5; !tfrom France for the newly pro. ., / claimed Kingdom of Italy.1 't /| /Eugenie, ardentlypapist and a. , ' /j : ' legitimist who believed in the3 'm right of the Bourbon Dynasty torule, worked feverishly to change

t Napoleonon'secision to sanctionN ' t !the union.'" In a telling 1861illustration, "The ModernGoverness" (1861; Fig. 5), subtitied "A YoungLady's Idea of theUse of Crinoline," the skirt habeen transformed into a map oEurope, while the governess,.- -----SU who bears an obvious ikeness o

Hf^ pEugenie, points to her mother-country Spain in an evident allusion to her grand design toredraw the face of Europe.References to "petticoat government" and "despotism of dress"increased asEugenie becamemore publicly involved in gov-ernmental affairs.

The major issue of Frenchdiplomacy in 1862 centeredaround the garrison of French

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wotroopsn Rome. Evacuation ofer 15, 1860, Punch, engraving, these troops would allow Viicto__ng. -.weaken.Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, to>G,,'~>.acquire Rome and dishonor theFrenchflag. Continuedoccupawith>-:-. -tion, on the other hand, lookedlike an open endorsement of thereactionary government of the

papacyand risked he isolationFrance from Italianand Britispowers. Eugenie'scloseinvolvement in this issue receivedunfavorable notice from England'EarlCowleyand Austria'sBaroHubner. Committed o keepinFrenchtroopsin Rometo safeguard the pope's lands againsseizure,Eug6nie oundhercausstrengthened y the Italianpatr,Kx.h Aot GeneralGuiseppe Garibaldmarchon Romein August1862Victor Emmanuel, fearful of thefragile Italian unity, needed

?'. :,\ Napoleon's support and feltx5 ^Wthwarted by Eugenie'sinterference. His comment leaves nodoubt about his perception ofwomen in generaland Eugeniei," February2, 1861, Punch, in particular:"Theemperorising. weakening visibly and theempress s our enemyand wvorwith the priests. If I had her in myhandsI would teach her welwhat women are good for and with what they should meddle."England perceived Eugenie's proclamation of "Rome or Death,"adopted from Garibaldi, as tantamount to treason after Felice

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tCk7"-~~ 404~rr" 74J-i~-e~~s-M-ONKB4l?Fig. 6. "Hercules and Omphale," November 1, 1862, Punch,engraving.

Orsini's 1858 assassinationattempt on the imperial couple." Punch,echoing the sentiments of the British government, felt that the bestdefense was to disparageEug6nie as an innocuous fashion plate.France's foreign minister, Edouard Thouvenel, found himself inconstant confrontation with the empress over the occupation ofRome. His plan for the gradualwithdrawal of troops in return for apledge from Italy to honor papal territorial rights earned her wrath,and he was replaced by Drouyn de Lhuys. Public opinion may haveplayed a role in Napoleon's decision to change ministers, butThouvenel, though he tried to dismiss Eugenie as a lightweight,knew that she proved to be his most formidable opponent. The dis-missal earned the emperor a stinging rebuke from Jean Fialin, Dukeof Persigny, who scolded: "You allow yourself to be ruled by yourwife just as I do. But I only compromise my future,.. .whereas yousacrifice your own interests, and those of your son and the countryat large.""'The firestorm in France over Eugenie's influence quicklyfound its way to England when Punch, in an unillustrated riddle,openly credited her with causing his removal:

Parlez-vous Franfais?If so, you will appreciate the following: "What has liftedM. DROUYN DE LHUYS into the Ministerial chair vacated by M.THOUVENEL?"asked DE MORNYof PERSIGNY."La orce du genie? Eh, non,-la forced'EUGENIE.'"

In the next several months Punch waged an unyielding cam-paign against the empress, all under the rubric of dress. A furtherunillustrated article, "Fashionable Intelligence," contemptuouslychided Eugenie for her loyalty to Rome,2' while a doggerel versein another article, "Mother Pope's Petticoat Paean," denigrates thepapacy's reliance on female influence.22 The mock epic "Hercules

Fig. 7. November 8, 1862, Punch, engraving.

and Omphale" (1862; Fig. 6) portrays Napoleon as a once-power-ful monarch now cowering beneath his wife's yoke. Eugenie asOmphale, the queen of Lydia who bought Hercules as a slave,wavers between her attraction to politics and her love of fashionThe accompanaing doggerel read:

Poised was her majesty's heart betweenEcclesiastes and Crinoline;Mumbler or milliner, folks confessed'Twas hard to say what she loved best.Dear to her thefrock of the priest,Dear was the robe of the dear modiste.Now the Church had theforemost place,Now she was allfor ribbons and lace,Now she kneltfor the barbarous Latin,Now o'er the sweetest thing in satin.'Lest a reader miss the many not-so-subtle references to theFrench imperial couple, a full-page illustration bearing their like-nesses and their names in cryptic showed Eug6nie hypnotizing herhusband Louis with a bobbin dangling from a scepter topped by apapal tiara. The tiara itself became an effective crinoline in a lam-poon of Eugenie accompanying an article suggesting that clergy-men wear the female skirt (1862; Fig. 7). A satirical letter toGaribaldi complains about the interference of "a female who shalremain nameless" and wishes that she "were forced to keep herbreath to cool her potage, or inflate her Crinoline."24The accom-panying illustration, "The National Crinoline," shows Eugenie'sbonnet sprouting a Roman helmet while she lifts her skirt toreveal a crinoline emblazoned with tactical ploys for preservingthe French presence in Rome (1863; Fig. 8). The "tyranny"offashion could not be more explicit.

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Eugeniehaddaredto transgresshe codifiedboundaries f thefamilyto assumenegotiationswhen her husbandequivocatedonimportantssues such as the unificationof Italy. The Britishpressresponded o this with denigration imed moreat the impudenceof a womanasserting nfluenceandabettingthe pope than at theineffectivenessof the emperor,which is where the blame trulyrested. Even at the time of the Franco-PrussianWar,the depic-tion of Eugenieis sustainedthroughallusion o fashion. The suf-feringof the empressand other mothersin France is portrayedthroughdress in the poignant llustration"Two Mothers" 1870;Fig.9). A figure representingFranceweeps as Eugenieembracesthe PrinceImperial.Allfacesarecovered, eaving he costumes ocommunicate the message. The upright figure of France in apeasantcoif, plain dress, and wooden sabots contrastsmarkedlywith the figureof Eug6niein a heavilyflouncedgown, kneeling,with her armsgraspedaroundher youngson dressed for militaryservice. After Eugenie's exile in England, Punch reported on"somevaluableWar-News"before detailingevery aspect of herclothing as she walked in her garden.25France's ignominiousdefeat at the handsof the Prussianscould now be tracedin thechangedattitude owarddress n "TheFaint of Fashion":

InParis,Fashion'sHighPriestessNowprostraten a swoon,No longerdictateschangeof dressAteverychangeof moon.Withpeace,however, he'll come o,And henresumeherreign.Perhaps n eramayensueOfvestureneatandplain.Because t dothto reason tand,Her sway she will resume,Her nation's WarBill will demandRetrenchmentf costume.Whoknows, ndeed,FrancehavingbeenIn warseverely chooled,But thathergarbwill matchhermien;By sober taste be ruled?26

ugenienotwithstanding,oliticsandfashionbecameindeliblyallied duringthe Second Empire. The invention of anilinedyesallowed he production f newcolors,which oftenweregivennames suchas Magenta,Solferino,and Pekia o commemorate at-tles and the military. Red blouseswere baptizedGaribaldis, ndone colorpopularn the late 1860s,Bismarck rown,even wassub-divided ntotonalrangescorrespondingo Prussianmoodsof "con-tent,""ill,""enraged," nd "icy."27Eugenie justified her love ofdressby referringo her clothesas her"politicalwardrobe,"eliev-ing thather clothingandthe impression he createdwould reflectwell on Franceand stimulate he economy. Highfashion,especial-lythe crinoline,alsoprovideda means or herto expressheridenti-ficationwith Marie-Antoinette.By manipulatinghe signsof fash-ion, she (mis)construed her own image as a female monarch.Eugenie'sadaptation f astyleMarie-Antoinetten dress and decorreflected her effort to link her imperialreign with the court ofLouisXVI;she wished to connect her personal magewith whatsheperceived o be the politicalastutenessandpersonal ourageofthe beheadedqueen.Fromthe beginningof her marriage,Eugeniesoughtto associ-ate herselfwith 18th-century tyle. She decoratedher apartmentsat the Tuilerieswith furnitureand preciousobjectsbelongingtoMarie-Antoinettend ordered he restoration f the PetitTrianon.Earlyin her reign, in 1854, she was paintedby Winterhaltern

18th-centurydress as the Queen Consort. After the birth of thePrinceImperial,Eugeniesat againforWinterhaltern a composition reminiscent of Vig6e-Lebrun's 1787 portrait of Marie-Antoinetteand her children. In 1866 she appearedat a maskedball in a costumecopiedfrom anotherVigee-Lebrunportrait,andthe following earshe organizedanexpositionat the Trianondedi-cated to the beheadedqueen.Eugenie's mitationof Marie-Antoinettenfluencedthe revivaof the 18th-centuryichus,canezous,and mantillas. BonnetswerenamedTrianon,Watteau,Lamballe, ndMarie-Antoinette,he latter causingPunchto remarkwittily:"Wepresume hisis abonneto be worn when the ladyhas entirely ost her head."28An 1857articleon Eug6nieand her influenceon the crinolinecraze carrieda vignette not of contemporary but of 18th-century dress.Eugenie's adoptionof Marie-Antoinetteas her historical modestemmedfrom a desire to link the imperialreign of the SecondEmpirewith her legitimist deasof continuityand succession. Inlieu of anaristocracyf blood,she sought o establishanaristocracof spirit hrough ashionemulation. Her fictionof identityalignedwell with the costume of past female monarchs. Comtesse deMercy-Argenteau,ecallingherdaysatEug6nie's ourt,observed:Theample,evenridiculously mpleskirt hasalwayscoincidedwiththe greatest power of woman. In the periods of history wherewoman was all powerful you find the crinoline. I dare sayCleopatra adno crinoline....Perhaps his is thereasonshe didnotsucceed ncaptivatingAugustus.2

The height of Eug6nie's politicalinfluence occurred n 1862when sheworkeddiligently o influence he emperor's talianpolicy. She surroundedherself with clerics andlegitimistsupporterof FrancisII, kingof the Two Sicilies,to the pointwhere CounVimercante, militaryattache, complained to Cavour: "Onlyasmall coterieof the empresswill be invited(to Fontainebleau)..On my word of honor, one would thinkhimself at the TrianonFortunately, Napoleon is not Louis XIV."30In an effort todecreaseAustrian nfluencein Venetia,Eugenie negotiatedwithPrinceRichard on Metternich,Austrian mbassadoro France, nlanguageweightedwith French royalistallusions.31Her involvement in Thouvenel'sdismissal anned the flamesof hatred n thecircleof PrincessMathilde, he emperor'snfluentialcousin. Theprincess labeled Eugenie a frivolousfashion-monger nterestedsolely n clothesand dismissedher as "Marie-Antoinettet the BaMabille,"32while the count of Viel-Castel, a reporter fromMathilde's alon,warned: "Marie-Antoinetteecame unpopulaunder the name of 'The Austrian Woman'; let the 'Spanishwoman' akeheed."33CharlesCogniard's1862 playLa Reine Crinoline(probablyapun on "leregne crinoline"), an easilybe readas a thinlyveiledsatire on the emperor'sweakness in subjugatinghimself to hiswife'spoliticalmaneuvering.The playtakesplaceon an imaginarislandwhere all the roles are reversed: the womenwagewarandadminister nd renderjustice,while the men makesoupandtakcare of the chores. Two shipwreckedart students wash up onshore and convince the men to return to their formerways andcease their sillypreoccupationwith dress and millinery. Clearlythe idea of a strongfemale in a crinolinedgownrunning he government caused more than a little consternationin the publicmind. Flugel observed in The Psychologyof Clothes that theextensionof the humanfigure,due primarily o the clothes onewears,is unconsciouslyattributed o the body that wearsthem.3Eugenie in her enormous skirts and possessing strong dynastiassociationswithpastfemalemonarchs, eemed dangerously ow

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erful next to the diminutive pro-1!file of her too-often vacillating i lilhusband. Eugenie'spromotionof p18th-century style in dress, fur-' : ^inishings, and ambience enabled ! iladies of wealth and fashion tollmark themselves off from the 1:lower class as had the court ofMarie-Antoinette.The contentoffashion allowed an exclusivenessbased on who belonged to lemonde,originally dentified withprivilegeandsegregationromthe /Blower classes. If aristocraticdis-tinction once belonged to blood-lines and court privilege, it nowrested on more overt symbolsofwealth. The crinoline fashionserved as a standard nda barrier,marking off a moneyed circleaffluentenough to indulge in itsexcesses and all but preventingthe workingclasses fromenjoyingitsvogue. Itsunwieldywidth thatnecessitated a measuredgait andslow movements was obviously "more suited to leisure thanlabor. Fig. 8. "TheNutic..I CrinoThe largeamountof material on- nnoted the economic security ofthe women whoworeit.The growing economy and ^ i ^Inewly acquired wealth of the' KSecondEmpireseemed to be mir-roredin the expanding ilhouetteof women'sdresses. The ostenta- 1tion of the crinolined dress fur-nisheda femininecode of econom-ic and socialrivalryn anindustrial-izedsocietybased on malecompe- _titionand success. The crinolineserved as a distinct registerof asocial level devoted to paradingeconomicpowerand prestige. IfMarie-Antoinette n her pannier i .could proclaim "Let them eatcake,"he imperial eign hat mod-eled itself on her fashionsand fur-nishingsprovedto be no less out- .wardly self-indulgent. HenriMeilhacand LudovicHalevybur-lesquedSecondEmpire society na libretto to JacquesOffenbach'sLa Belle Helene, satirizing themoresof thetime. Itwas no secretthatEugenieservedas a model forthe beautifulHelene, whose con-cem for fashionoccupiesthe first :several scenes of the second act of Fig. 9. "Two Mothers," AugLtheplay.The effects of the crinolineonFrenchsocietyearned a diatribe n the senatein 1865by 80-year-

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old Andr6Dupin,who railedagainst he financialruinbrought othe poorerclasseswho indulged n mindlessextravaganceso be in

style. He strongly denouncedwS . ! ,,,j^women who aped the baroque.... 1fl' fashion of the demimonde,coni.

:i /' .. demning the confusion as anattack on the moral fabric oFrance.3 Dupin's tiradeprovetoo strong to be printed in LeMoniteur, he officialnewspapeik ^pa pamphletwith a slightly oned

Ii \ downversionsoldbrisklyat 2000g, 1 .. 9, per day. Was this an open attack. "--' ,;'}_~'l on the court, and more specifical-ly on the empress? It is difficu.-?_'/ :>to say. However,the lore of the

empress's new clothes received..; ,? >! frequentattention n the pressa.... b/' home and abroad. Those who./ . ..... sought to imitate these fashionfaced financial ruin. Socialpi., reformers contested that thecrinoline caused a decline in the

marriagerate due to the fear o,.~."i~ the financialburden of clothingafashionable woman. The crinoC .TI.jfl line also purportedly promotedconcealment of pregnancy, and," February 7, 1863, Punch, thus abetted infanticide.n111~ng9. ~Anecdotes aboundedon its evils.More serious was the associa

.... '~,:'.....tion of the courtwith the corruption of the courtesan world.Daumier had fun with the fash

.- .,, i---, -~ ionabledemimondainestryingto..llfe;>~~

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Zolaunderstoodwell the powerof dressto conferstatusandsignifyclasspowerduring he imperial egime.The popularityof the crinolinewaned after 1865 and with it,ironically,Eugenie'spolitical nfluence. AfterNapoleon'sdefeat atSadowan 1866 and the executionof Maximiliann Mexico n 1867,the empirewas clearly n decline. Worthsimplifiedhis dresslinewith the empress'sapproval: hefete imperialwas over. Eugeniebegan to distance herself from foreignaffairs n 1866 and inter-vened little in policy makinguntil the outbreak of the Franco-PrussianWar n 1870,when she assumed he regency orthe thirdand final ime. Never trulypopularn France,Eug6niewas less soin the finalyearsof the empire. Partypamphleteersdelighted nportrayinger as a frivolouswastrelwith an immoderate ove of fineclothes and an insatiableappetitefor luxury. Maximedu Campcombined antifeminismwith anti-Semitism n his recollection:"Idon't believe she ever had a serious dea aboutanything,but sheexcelledwith her dressmaker, nd knew as much aboutpreciousstonesas an oldJewish ourtier."38er deliberate onstructionf anaestheticizedand historicized self ultimatelyconflicted with thepoliticaldealsof anincreasingly epublicanFrance.Fashion,especially he crinoline,provideda symbolicvocabu-larythat offered visual andverbal codes by whichto critiquetheempressfrom a varietyof politicaland socialviewpointsduringaperiodof strictcontrolof the press. The imagehistoryof Eugenieand the crinolineconstituteda forceful statement about gender,class, and power in Second Empire France. Eugenie's identityduring he SecondEmpirewas constructed n genderas well as onelements of socialstyle; he importance f these aristocratic ssoci-ations of dress,with the nationaland historical llusionsand allu-sions they promoted,reachedbeyondconsumerismand led to acritiqueof Eugenie's political deology. The seeminginnocuous-ness of the marginalizedealm of fashiondiscourseactuallyrein-forced the strategyto malignthe empress. Eugenie's constantassociationwiththe frivolous, ontingent,anddecorativeaspectsofdress underminedher status as a competent regent and politicaladviser. By constantlyreducingher to a fashionplate she couldthus be associatedwith the paper-doll igureswith theirvacuousposes and innocuousgestures,never engagedin seriousactivity.The fashionsystemand the political ystemgeneratedsuch differ-ent sets of meanings hat their strongassociationwith one personwere boundto collide.

Eugenie'sroleas an arbiterof fashionmust be seen in the con-text of her roleas a generatorof value andmeaning. The constantattention o heras a dictator f stylewentbeyond he notion of heras a mere trendsetter nduncovered ignificantnformationregard-ing her political and cultural status in Second Empire society.Eugeniemayhave idolizedMarie-Antoinettes the foreign queenwho intervenedheroicallyn Frenchpoliticsand set a hightone offashionthat was the envy of Europe;however, Second Empirerepublicans ememberedher better as MadameDeficit,with herornamented xcesses,and found he comparison dious. The visualand textual constructionof Eugenie and her associationwith thecrinolinedemonstrate campaignwagedagainstentrenchedprivi-lege. It alsospeakspowerfullyo a displacement f maleanger orwoman'spowerat a timewhen animportant mperor ailed o leadhiscountryadequately.NOTESI thankGretchen anSlykeof the University f Vermont ndBarbaraDayofTempleUniversityortheir editorial omments,andDianeSarachmanndDel Ramers fTylerSchoolof Art ortheirassistance ithreproductions.1. Althoughnot of royalbirth, Eugenie (1826-1920)came from anaristocraticlineage. Her father, he countof Teba,was a grandeeof Spain

withkinship o greatducal families. Her mother had served ascamerermayor to Queen Isabella and Eugenie as maid of honor. See NancNichols Barker, Distaff Diplomacy: The Empress Eugenie and theForeignPolicyofthe SecondEmpire Austin:University f Texas,1976).2. PrincessCarolineMurat,MyMemoires London: EveleighNash1910),167.3. See Diane De Marly,Worth:Fatherof Haute Couture NewYorkHolmes & Meier,1990).4. See "Apesof the Boudoir," unch(June1854),198.5. See "FrenchShawls or 1855. Tricolora la Victoria. UnionJackla Eugenie,"Punch(August25, 1855),77.6. R. G. G. Price,A Historyof Punch(London: Collins,1957),47.7. "Politics ndPetticoats," unch(January8, 1860),33.8. AlfredDarimon,Notespourservira l'Histoirede la guerrede 187(Paris:P. Ollendorff, 880),236.9. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy, 8.10. See EdwinBechtel,FreedomofthePress-L'AssociationMensuelle-Philippon s.Louis-PhilippeNewYork:GrolierClub,1952),39-40.11. Albertde la Fiziere,Histoirede la crinolineau tempspasse (PariA.Aubry,1859),94.12. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy, 2.13. "Adieu o the Empress," unch(December22, 1860),247.14. Punch(November9, 1861),191.15. The SecondEmpirecan be divided nto anauthoritarianphase asting from 1852to 1859,and a liberalphasefrom 1859 to 1870. The transtion occurred with Louis-Napoleon's foreign policy decision to assisPiedmontese minister Camille Cavourin forcing the Austrians out onorthern taly n 1859,thusaiding he drive o unite Italyandthreateninthe pope's temporal ontrolof Rome.16. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy,77.17. Ibid.,96.18. Felice Orsini,an Italianrevolutionary,ttempted o assassinate heemperoron his wayto the operaon January 4, 1858,because of opposition to his Italianpolicy. The imperialcouplewasspared,but 200 spectators died orwere wounded n the attempt.19. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy,105.20. "Parlez-vousrancais?"unch(October25, 1862),168.21. "FashionableIntelligence," unch October25, 1862),167.22. "MotherPope'sPetticoatPaean,"Punch(October25, 1862),175.23. "Hercules ndOmphale," unch(November1, 1862),180-81.24. "TheWayof the ImperialWind,"Punch(February , 1863),59.25. "Sketching nEmpress," unch(November5, 1870),195.26. "TheFaintof Fashion," unch(November12, 1870),198.27. Michael and ArianeBatterbury,Fashion: The Mirrorof Histor(NewYork:GreenwichHouse, 1977),233.28. Punch(January 7, 1857),22.29. Comtesse Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, The Last Love of anEmperor NewYork:Doubleday,Page,1926),37.30. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy,77.31. Ibid.,83.32. JoannaRichardson,Princess Mathilde (New York: Scribner's1969),79.33. Barker,DistaffDiplomacy,105.34. J.C.Flugel,ThePsychology f Clothes London:Hogarth, 956),36.35. HenrietteVanier,La mode et ses metiers. Frivoliteset luttes desclasses1830-1870 Paris:ArmandColindate,1960),203-04.36. EmileZola,Nana(NewYork: ModemLibrary, .d.),464.37. Ibid.38. Quoted in G. P. Gooch, The Second Empire (Westport,Conn.Greenwood,1960),42-43.Therese Dolan is Associate Professor of Art History at TempleUniversity, Philadelphia.

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